Exotic Animal Care _ Management

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A ¡mal Care

Management

-----I--~e Vicki Judah, AS, CVT

Kathy Nuttall, BS, CVT

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DEUVlAR L EARNING

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THOMSON

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DELMAR L EARNING

fACUltAD DE ESTUDIOI NEIIIORESetUAU11RM ¡ Exotic Animal (are and Management WiP04 Vicki Judah AS, CVT and Kathy Nuttall SS, CVT Vice President, Career Education Strategic Business Unit: Dawn Gerrain Director of Learning Solutions: John Fedor Acquisitions Editor: David Rosenbaum Managing Editor: Robert L. 5erenka, Jr.

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Judah, Vicki. Exotic animal care and management / Vicki Judah, Kathy Nuttall. p.; cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN-13: 978-1-4180-4198-4

1. Exotic animals--Diseases . 2. Wildlife diseases. 3. Pet medicine. l. Nutta 11, Kathy. 11. Title. [DNLM: 1. Animal Diseases--therapy. 2. Animals, Domestic. 3. Animal Husbandry--methods. 4. Animal Technicians-­ education. 5. Animals, Wild. SF 981 J92e 2008] SF997.5.E95J83 2008

636.089--dc22

2007044864

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Unit 1 Ch aple!' l : Introduction to Exotic AnimaLs ... ... . ... ... .

Chap ter 2: Zoonotic Disease

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Cbaptcr12: Short-Tailed Opossums . .. . .. .. .. ... .. ... 108

ChapLcr 13: Sugar Gliders . ..... ..... .. . ... ..

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Unit JI Chapterl4: Avian . ... .. .. . . . . ... .. . .. .. .. . . ... .. 133

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vi

CONTENTS

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corpions .. . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . ... .. . . 207

ChapL.er 18:

Tarantulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

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Chapter 21 : Glo

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ary .. ..... .... ... .... ... . . .. . . .. ... . ... . 250

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Uf human

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need for companion animal s is ingrained

and is probably the reason that the first orphaned

wolf rub ar injured yOW1g bird was taken in and

cared for by our ancestors. Tt is a need far different from capturing, kj lling, and consuming. Over ti me, our attitudes have changed greatly. Animals are no langer just pets, but have become companions and family members. The dogs, cats, and endless hamster ]jtters of childhood have been joined by animals that are lTIOre unusuat strange, and exotic. Never before have there been sud1 a variety of spedes and so Hule accurate information generally available. Availability and affordability of many species have out-paced the knowledge needed to care for them. This, in turn, has produced countless experts whose personal experience is delivered as fact and clouds what real information is avail­ able. Pet store shelves are filled with glossy books, and racks of care sheets, yet sugar gliders are still hawked in the shopping malls as cute little pocket pets, and non-native species are being released when they become too large, too aggressive, or too non-cuddly. The problem is accelerating and there are serious ethical ques­ tions regarding many species currently being sold, bred, and traded with little thought given to their very specific needs and welfare. ¡\'lany sta tes have banned the sale of certain species. USDA permits are required for possession of many others. Laws have been enacted to address irresponsible ownership, the reality of non-native species introducing disease, and the rising number of incidences of rarely seen zoonotic d.iseases. Exotic animal s are presented to veterinary staff usually when a major health issue becomes apparent or the home remedy or pet store treatment has failed. Then, an owner expects an immediate cure, whether for an iguana in renal fail­ ure ("but he loves cat food"), an aggressive chinchilla that is actually a wood rat (delivered to the exotic vet from another small animal clinic), or the Ball Python presented with an esophageal laceration due to an inept attempt to force feed a tofu sausage concoction ("beca use eating rats is mean"). Veterinary staff and a11 animal caregivers playa crucial role in education for a variety of species, many perhaps not seen in the clinics and hospitals b efo re, yet there are no defined educational requirements for credentialed technicians. Many schools offer a course on exotics as an elective, but not as a core require­ ment. Recommended and essential skills in an accredited program for veterinary technology require on ly that studen ts be able to perform restra in t and nail trims vii

viii

PREFACE

for birds and (unspecified) exotics. There is required curriculum for laboratory species. It ineludes biological data and basic husb andry practices, but the approach to the beloved companion rat is appreciably different from meeting the needs and performing the procedures for rat colonies in a laboratory setting. In this ever-growing, ever-changing field of exotic animal husbandry, there has been no one textbook that addresses the needs of advanced secondary stu­ dents in animal science. This text was designed to provide that information and also to develop the technical skills needed fo r those students who wish to further their education, pursuing careers as veterinary assistants, veterinary technicians, or veterinary technologists. The majority of reliable information is directed toward the elinicianfveterinar­ ian or the very advanced, credentialed technician. This book was written to meet the needs of students. Combined, the authors have more than 42 years of clinical and teaching experience. With this experience has come a simple reality; students learn best when engaged, not when overwhelmed with the pedantic. Appropriate use of terminology is important and has been incorporated. We have made a deliberate choice to avoid the ostentatious, the journal-speah of academia, while still introducing students to the terminology required to communicate effectively and professionally, providing a more learner friendly text o Each unit and chapter ineludes information on species, behavior, habitats, and diet. Without this appreciat ion, it just isn't possible to care for these species, whatever the educationallevel attained. We have ineluded handling and restraint techniques, veterinary concerns and diseases, parasites, blood sampling, and injection sites. Anesthesia may have a slightly different approach in exotics and special considerations are addressed . We have included a Fast Facts list for each species and review questions that reflect the material in the text.

THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION (AVMA) provides accreditation for schools offering programs in veterinary technology. The AVMA, in their Model Veterinary Practice Act (AVMA, November 2003) also defines veterinary technicians and veterinary technologists as those students who have attended a two or three year accredited program (technicians) and those who have attended a four year accredited program (technolo­ gists). The use of either term implies that a certain level of education has been successfully achie ve d and that the person has passed the credentialing examination. The Veterinary Technician National Exam (VTNE) is administered at a state organization level. Each state may determine the score required to pass the exam and also to determine the title of successful candidates as Certified, Licensed, or Registered. Each state has autonomy in determining the level of care and procedures performed by a credentialed technician or technologist and whether or not they may be performed under the direct or indirect supervislon of a veterinarian. Ind ividual states may also have additional requirements for the performance of certain procedures. However, under no circumstance s are credentialed staff allowed to diagnose, prescribe , or incise. A few states have no requirements. Other personnel may act as veterinary assistants but may not perform the tasks of a credentialed technician or technolog·ist, nor should they be referred to as technicians or vet techs.

PREFACE

A course in Exotic Animal Medicine is rarely offered as first term/first year curriculum. It is assumed that students in veterinary technology programs will have attained a level of proficiency with anatomy, radiology, anesthesia, and many other clinical procedures. lt is not our intent to introduce or re-teach the basics of anesthesia or radiographic positioning. However, we have included many adap­ tations, devices, tips, sometimes tricks, that contribute to a successful outcome when dealing with different species. These facts can best be categorized as 1 wish I'd known thal. The information presented here is intended to build on a solid foundation rather than offer, for example, detailed instruction for the operation of a re-breathing system in anesthesia delivery. We have not given specifics of drug therapies or formularies for exotics. Much of the pharmacokinetics of commonly used therapeutics in traditional small animals are unknown in exotics and many therapeutic choices are based on extra-label usage and clinical experience; what works, what doesn't and what may be a possibility. These decisions should only be made by a licensed veterinarian. There are excellent Exotic Formularies, updated regularly as new information becomes available, that belong on every bookshelf. Details of these may be found in Appendix 1, along with contact information for exotic specialty diagnostic laboralOries and resource organizations. A full glossary and a detailed index contribute to the ease of use for students and instructors. In addition to Review Questions at the conclusion of each chapter, this text is accompanied by a Teacher's Manual and a Student Workbook. The student work­ book includes study questions and case studies to ful1her develop the material presented in the text o References are made lO journal articles and papers presented during confer­ ence sessions, sources not readily available to students. Annual conferences offer great insight, understanding, and knowledge of the issues confronting all of us who have an interest in exotic species. Contributors to exotic animal sessions cannot be appreciated enough. Without them sharing their dedication and experi­ ences, our knowledge would be limited. The authors maintain direct and, in most instances, daily care for most of the species presented in this texl, either clinically or through school and private coJlections. For those few exceptions, we have been fortunate in having generous access to people and facilities who willingly shared valuable experiences, difficul­ ties, and successes. Learning is alife-long commitment. We also lea m by teaching and hands-on experiences, with the questions students ask and the answers we don't know.

ix

PREFACE

Foreword

AS A VETERINARY TEC HNICIAN EDUCATOR who has worked in an exotic animal practice and as an owner of exotic animals, 1 was excited to learn of this book. Much of my own knowledge of exotics had to be learned on the jobo There was little emphasis on exotics in school and a lack of even the most rudimentary exotic animal textbooks. Experience has shown me ho"v complicated exotic ani­ mal medicine and care can be. There is still a great deal of misconception and misinformation. Veterinary staff are often the first to provide crucial information to the owner of an exotic pet. We not only educa te, but in many instances have to persuade owners that what they were told is often far from accurate. Most of my students have had little exposure to exotic species. An introduc­ tion to this field needs to provide a background of the species, the animal's natural habit, and its situation now as a pet. An understanding of the species is essential to an understanding of the animal's health. Information is included in this book to ensure that proper housing and diets can be provided and behaviors better understood. Medical problems and diseases, the issues of restraint, and techniques in anesthesia are delivered with clear language, yet the text also develops professional terminology. This book provides a beginner-friendly approach to learning. lt is straight forward , ensuring an accurate understanding so the student has a concrete foundation to build a future working with exotic animals in many capacities Additionally, the text sets the stage for responsibility, offering both legal and ethical considerations in owning exotic animals and the profound impact that collection of wild specimens for the pet industry has had on many popular spe­ cies. Zoonotic implications are also addressed in a manner that enables the stu­ dent to appreciate the seriousness of animal transmitted disease My personal acquaintance with the authors began while 1 was an undergradu­ ate, vvorking part time in an exclusive exotic animal practice. With their guidance, 1 was fonunate to learn the ropes of not only being a veterinary technician , but one working in a very specialized field. 1 attribute much of my practical knowledge to them , as opposed to the material taught in the c1assroom. They are able to turn book knowledge into real Jife application, teach to a high standard of personal responsibility, and encourage sensitivity and understanding. As a result of their tireless efforts, they have become top educators in the field of animal care and veterinary technology. Their teaching experience and practical knowledge has now become available to al! students, presented at an appropriate level so more students are ableto learn. [n writing this book, the authors have provided a much needed text that fills a gap between advanced level textbooks and simple, often inaccurate, pet owner handbooks.

Laura Devries,

cvr

xi

PREFACE

Acknowledgments

THIS BOOK COULD NOT HAVE BEEN WlUITEN without the willing and more than generous assistance of many people. We are very fortunate to have so many doors opened to us and to our students, for people at the end of a phone, for those of you who have spent hours reviewing the manuscript, generously giving of your time, contributing photographs, wisdom, and vast amounts of experi­ ence. Thank you for your insight, perspective, and dedication. Thank you for your contributions to learning. Without each and every one of you, our lives would be less enriched. Daniel S. Schapiro, M.D., Cathy A Johnson-Delany, DVM, Martín G. Orr, DVM, Eric. Klaphake, DVM, Laura Devries, cvr, Susan KeJleher, DVM, ¡\liare Kramer, DVM, Linda R. Harrison and The Zoological Education Network. Janet and Clark Ottemess & Alta Mist Alpacas, Faith Ching, Ching Sanctuary, Sonja Craythorn, CC Rabbitry, Ronaleigh Wheelright, Ronie's For The Love of Birds, Pet Kingdom USA (Las Vegas, NV) , Beverly and Dan Ring, Chloe Long, Degutopia, Seatt Olsen, Director of Jordan Applied Technology Centers. The students at JKfC Companion Animal Sciences, Veterinary Technology and Veterinary Assistant programs : without you, the questions may have never been asked . Carol VandenAkker: without Caro!, this book would still be a "bunch of stuff in a box". Thanks for helping put it al! together. Thank you to the Delmar production team and to Pre-PressPMG, India. Christina Gifford, our Developmental Editor, who has kept us on track, relatively sane, and has been more than "there". To the following reviewers, we would Jike to express our gratitude fo r their observations and feedback: Terry D. Canerdy, DVM. Munay State University, Murray, Kentucky

Stuart L. Porter, DVM. Blue Ridge Community College Weyers Cave, Virginia

Leland S. Shapiro, DVM. LA Pierce College Woodland Hills, California

Dr. Bil! Plummer Cal Poly San Luis Obispo San Luis Obispo, California

Susan Kopp, DVM. La Guardia Community College Long Island City, NY

Gary Wilson Moorpark College Moorpark, Cal iforni a

Angela Lathrop, DVM.

Lodi, Wisconsin

xiii

Introduction

After completing this chapte7; the student sl10uld • be familiar with CITES. • know what species are covered under CITES. • be familiar with the laws that protect exotic pets.

InlroducLion lo E 01 if \nimals

2

The trade in exotic animals has grown enormously in the last decade. There are e.xclusive exotic pet sto res and specialized products ranging from cages to canned diets. There are exotic animal veterinarians, organizations, magazines, and Internet fOll.lms. A dictionary definition might define exotic as foreign or uf/usual and differ­ ent and this, in part, is the appeal of keeping an exotic animal. With dogs and cats, there are specific laws that require licensing and rabies vaccinations. When dealing with exotics, laws become far more complicated. The issues are complicated even further by location; an animal that may be legal in one sta te is illegal in another and may be subject to confiscation, euthanasia, fines, or imprisonment for the owner. Federal laws and enactments ban cenain species while protecting others. Before acquiring any exotic, regardless of the source, it is the responsibility of the owner to comply with the law and to obtain the permits andjor licenses required. Many species that are privately held have come through black-market suppli­ ers or have been purchased through [nternet sources. It is 1ikely tha t they ,,,ere wild caught and possible that they bring with them exotic parasites and the poten­ tial of zoonotic disease. So me species may be listed as Threatened or Endangered by CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). In 1963, members of the World Conservation Union proposed an interna­ tiona!, voluntalY agreement between governments of panicipating countries. The purpose was to ensure that international trade in wild (exotic) animals and plants did not threaten their survival in the wild. In 1975, what is now known as The Convention on Intemational Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) ofWild Fauna and Flora came into effect. There was worldwide concern that the illegal trade in many exotics was fueling such a demand that many species were being exploited to the point of extinction. The traffic in exotic animals amounted to billions of dollars, and was second only lo illegal narcotics traffic (Conservatíon Treaty Suppon Fund, no date).

Introdudion

Species covered by CITES are listed in appendices according to the degree of protection they need. CITES Appendix I lists species that are threatened with extinction. CITES Appendix II lists species which are not directly threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled to avoid utilizatíon which is not compatible with their survival (CITES, accessed 6/13/02). CITES Appendix III lists species that are protected in at least one country. The country concerned has asked for ass istance from other member countries in controlling trade in specified species. CITES is one of the world's largest conservation agreements. There are now over 150 member countries (Parties to the Agreement). Not one species protected by CITES has become extinct, and for many species, the agreement prohibits cap­ ture in the wild.

UnderslandinA the Conc("J'n There is a growing problem in the release of unwanted exotic species. Animals are turned loose to survive on their own. Many do not survive, but those that do can quickly become established, invading habitats and consuming native species, many of which are already endangered . The Everglades National Park in Florida has a large and growing population of Burmese pythons, released by owners who no longer had an interest in them or an ability to care for them. As of October 2005, over 150 of these giant pet snakes have been captured. Another Florida island has been invaded by spiny-tailed iguanas. The island is overrun with an estimated population of 13,000 offspring from three pets released in 1970. There are frequent news reports of large snakes and other reptiles being found or causing injury to unsuspecting people and more traditional pets. Many people think that zoos will readily take their unwanted exotic animals. This is rarely the case because of the potential for introducing disease or parasites. There are legitimate rescue organizations and they are usually struggling to capac­ ity to care for abandoned exotics. Responsible people know exactly what is involved in caring for an ~'(otic species, and more importantly, are committed to the welfare of the animal for its lifetime in captivity. People who are interested and involved with exotic animals are valued members of veterinary practices, rescue organizations, and conservation efforts. Experience in this growing and specialized fíeld of care often begins with volu ntee r work. Opportunities to volunteer may be found through veterinarians, zoos, local clubs, and state organizations. Working as a volunteer reflects commitment and a desire to learn new skills. These qualities often lead to gainful employment. Many jobs in the field of caring for exotics are offered to volun tee rs who have demonstrated their commitment by working long and sometimes difficult hours, accepting any task and performing it to the best of their ability. Attending a two or four year college that offers programs in veterinary technology, wildlife management, animal science, or zoology greatly in creases career opportunities and choices. An associates or bachelors degree can pro­ vide for more career opportunities in the educational field, rese arch, and private industry.

3

4

UNIT I • CHAPTER I

Furlher Reading EPA-MAlA, lntroduced Species. http://www.epa.gov/ (accessed August 2007). Non-native Species Sink Their Claws Into Florida lsland . Burmese Pythons in

Everglades. FOXNews.com. Wednesday October 5, 2005 (AP). The Dangers of Keeping Exoti( l'ets. Animal Protection lnstitute. http: //www .ap i4animals .org (accessed G/ G/OS). Liebman, M. G. (2004) . Overview of Exotic Pet Laws. Animal Legal & Historical Center, Michigan State University, College of Law. http ://www.animallaw.info. Conventional International Trade in Enda ngered Sp cies. http://www.cites.org/ (accessed August 2007). Captive Exotics and Wild Animals as Pets. The Humane Society of the United States. http://vvww.hsus.org (accessed G/ G/ OS).

Zoonotic

Diseases

08JECTI\ E ~.' zoonotie

After completing t.he chapter, the student should be able to • defin e zoonosis. • be familiar wi th how zoonotic diseases are contracted and spread . • know how to inco rporate safery procedures in handling and housing exotics. • be familiar with exotics pets that have a higher risk of transmitting zoonotic diseases.

Illll'oducl ion Zoollolic diseases are diseases that are transmitted directly from animals to

humans. The causative agent may be h c.lcria, vinls, fungus, protozoan , or para it . Common routes of transmission inelude inha lati on, direct contact, ex.pos u re to urine and fecal materia!, contaminated bedding and food / water bowls, handling dead or diseased animals and their body fluids and tissues. Methods of transmission can be as variable as each disease-causing organ ismo Diseases may be mi ld to severe and, in some instances, life-threatening or fatal. As more people come inlO close contact with E'.,xotic species, exposure to disease and zoon olic po tential increases. Anyone who works with animals is at risk. Those who have close and frequent contact with exotic species have an increa ed risk. Chi ldren and the elderly have higher risk factors because their immu ne systems are less ab le lO ward o ff disease. Anyone who is already immuno­ compromised has an even greater risk. Many species commonly available, those sold in pet sto res, reptile and bird expos, and from private breeders have the potential to transmit disease . So me Z00I10M~ (p lural), su eh as salmonellosis, are well recognized, while others, such as Tularemia, are known to have occurred. One of the biggest concerns is new and emerging un known diseases. The disease may not be new, the ¡lclmogens (disease-causing agents) may be known, but th e zoonotic implications are sometimes discovered only after the fact, when the first occurrence is diagnosed in a human. Path ogens, like other life forms, are continually adapting and respond ing to environmental changes. Many are opportunistic, invading convenient hosts not considered to be the normal reservoir. Viruses mutate regularly with different strains emerging annually. Bacteria are becoming drug resistant, producing 'iuper infl'ctions with deadly consequences.

bKterI_ virus

fungus protozoan pal'llsite zoonoses pathogens super infections monkeypox bubonic plague Yersinia pestis septicemic pneumonic orthopox variola Center for Disease Control ( CDC) Food and Drug Administration ( FDA) lym phocytic Cho riomeningitis ( lC M) pande mic

6

UNIT l' CHAPTER 2

There are few vaccines to protect against zoonotic diseases. The human rabies vaccine is one exception, readily available, yet few people choose to be inoculated. People with a high risk of exposure to rabies include veterinari­ ans, veterinary technicians and assistants, wildlife personneL and diagnostic laboratory workers. When different species are housed col!ectively, the opportunity for pathogens to invade other organisms increases. There may be a direct leap to a new host or links and bridges formed from one host to the next until multiple species are infected and ultimately transmitted to a human host. The monJ-ey pux outbreak demonstrates how easily this can occur. Monkey Pox is caused by an ortl/Opo.\" virus and is closely related to the human smal!pox virus, lldr;oIII . In Tune of 2003, monkey pox was diagnosed in several people in the United States. Prior to this, the disease had been limited to people and animals native to the rainforest regions of Central and West Africa. The source of the outbreak was determined to be an exotic pet store in a suburb of Chicago, Illinois. Al! of the victims had one thing in common; they had close contact with wild caught Prairie Dogs that were offered for sale. The infected Prairie Dogs (native to the western states of America) had been previously exposed through a Texas distri­ butor's facility In the Texas facility, they were hou sed in close proximity to Gambian Giant rats and other smal! mammals imported from Africa and destined for the pet market. In Illinois, the exposed Prairie Dogs were so Id as pets. The premises also housed several other exotic mammals. No one knows how many other species of mammals are susceptible. The Ccntcr tur Diseasc Conlrol (CDC) strongly sug­ gests caution because the potential is unknown, and al! mammals should be considered susceptible lO the orthopox virus. The CDC and FUA (rood amI Drug AdministraLion) have issued a legal order that prohibits the importation of al! African rodents, and also stops move­ ment, sale, or release of Prairie Dogs (CDC, 2003). Also included are six genera of African rodents known to be already in the United States. A more familiar species, hamsters, are known to be carriers of the virus that causes Lymphocytic Choriomeningilis (LC\l) , which is transmissible to humans. Although long recognized in pet hamsters, there was litrle public aware­ ness until May of 2005 when three of four recipients of organ transplants died from LCM (Nolan, 200G). The organ donor carried the virus but was asymplOm­ atic at the time of his death. He was infected by pet ha msters. The CDC was able to confirm that the original supplier of the hamsters was a breeding facility in Arkansas. Unknowingly, infected animals were shipped to retailers in several states. The hamster was purchased at a store in Rhode Island. Further investiga­ tion revealed that not only was the hamster the direct source, but other animals in the store also tested positive for LCM. These included two other hamsters and a guinea pig. The common house mouse, Mus musculus, is the reservoir carrier ofLCM. It is likely that the breeding facility was contaminated by mouse droppings and urine. The virus is al so shed in contaminated bedding and saliva as well as being trans­ mitted from infected animals lO their offspring in utero. Once infected, animals shed the virus ú1foughout their lives. It is not fatal in mice and there may be no signs that they are infected.

Zoonotic Diseases

7

The CDC has issued an awareness and warning fact sheet, especially for pregnant women. Exposure to LCM during early pregnancy can cause abortion, or the child "may suffer permanent deveIopmentaI skilIs. " Fad sheets are avai lable from the CDC website (cdc.gov). Companion animals, however exotic, are brought into homes and are given family member status. People develo p strong attachments and spend much time caring for and interacting with them. It is human nature to want to hold, hug, kiss, and share. There is rarely a thought given to potent ial disease. Fluffy the iguana probably drags salmonella bacteria across the kitchen counter, Buddy the bird always gives and receives kisses and takes food from the owner's mouth and couId be carrying psittacosis, coccidia, or giardia. It is not only reptiles and birds that can transmit disease. Owners need to be aware (as noted aboye) that potentia/Iy any animal could be a source of human disease. There are more than 200 known zoonoses. Source animals have been identi­ fied, methods of transmission known, and the specific symptoms are recognized and treated in humans. The majority of zoonoses are confined to people with direct contact with a specific host and are not usually transmitted from person to persono Hovvever, throughout human history, there have been panucmk disea es which have killed millions. Pandemic outbreaks of a disease involve multipl e countries and continents. Black Death, bubonic plague, swept through Europe from 1347 to 1350, kill­ ing approximately 1/3 of the population. The source was a bacteria, Yersinia p estis, that is found in the gut of fl eas and thrives in the blood of rats. Infected rats spread the disease to people. Infected people spread the plague to family members and entire villages. People who fled in an attempt to escape the disease spread it even furthe r, carrying it across much of Europe. People became infected from direct contact with infected people, fleas, and rats, causing two of the three forms of the plague; septicemic and bubonic. The other form, pneumonic, was transmitted by airborne droplets, sprayed by the coughing and sneezing of infected people. While it is easy to think that this distant disease was limited to the Dark Ages, Natural Bridges National Park (San Juan County, Utah) was temporarily closed to the public in April 2006 beca use the wild rodent population was infected with the plague. In June 2006, a cat in Arizona was positively diagnosed with bubonic plague due to probable close contact with wild rodents. Today, with air traveL human migration and expansion, encroachment into relatively isolated areas, and destruction of habitats, zoonotic diseases can quickly become global concerns. Humans are coming into contact with pathogens for

THE CHILDREN'S RHYME, Ring Around A Rosie is constantly being argued over, interpreted, reinterpreted, and dis­

sected. Is th is little verse an oral history of the Black Death;>

Ring around a rosie - The plague was characterized by pustules rin ged with a rosie color.

Pocket full oJ posies - Strongly scented flowers and herbs (pos ies) were carried in an attempt to ward off the disease and

cover up the stench of decaying corpses.

Ashes, ashes - Bodies were piled together and burned .

AII JaH down - Countless, seemingly endless bodies and all were expecting to die.

L -_ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

8

UNIT l' CHAPTER 2

which they have no immunity, contact with more exotic species, and disease potential that is unknown. Most zoonotic diseases are acquired through casualness, carelessness, and lack of education regarding zoonotic diseases. Zoo noses from exotic animals kept as companions are real an d the potential is known. Responsible ownership inc\udes knowledge of what disease potential there may be and how to prevent possible infections. It is everyone's responsibility to inform and educate. Pet sto res, animal handlers, veterinarians, and veterinary staff are all in the forefront of public education and awareness.

Table 2-1: Safe Practices SAFE PRACTICES • Exotics should not be allowed to roam freely. This especially applies to reptiles. • Reptiles should be provided with dedicated tubs for soaking, not placed in the bathtub or sin k. No animal should be in or near food preparation areas. Animals should only be fed from dishes reserved exclusively for them; never from hands or allowed to take food from a human mouth, to lick dinner plates and other uten sils . • All anima l food and water dishes shou ld be disinfected and washed separately, not placed in a dishwasher. Animal food and water bowls should not be exchang'ed between species (e.g., the snake bowl should not be used to provide water for the family dog). All soi led bedding and fecal material should be ha ndled with latex gloves and disposed of in tied plastic bags. It should not be used as garden mulch l Hands should ALWAYS be thoroughly was hed with soap and water after ha nd ling any animal, animal equi pment, and enclosure contact, even if wearing disposable latex gloves. Latex gloves should be pulled off so they are inSide-out , tied at the wrist, and disposed of in a plastic bago Hands should be washed between handling other animals. In cleaning cages that are very dirty, a disposable face mask should be worn. When handling a diseased animal, protective eye wear should also be worn.

Table 2-2 Short list of Common Zoonotic Infectious Agents and Source Groups

~' m~t!º~]l i !:.I~T, .Q.F, CO:~~o~; zo6~OT,CTt'lrEqIOUS ~GENTS AND -1= _. __ _ '_ .l... ... ~OURCE;~ROUPS~¿~ _ '_ _

'l

Source

Bacte ri a

Sa lmonella

All animals

Aeromonas

Reptiles

Mycobacterium

Mammals, reptiles

C. psittaci

Birds

Listeria

Amphibians

Tularemia

Mammals (especially rabbits)

Leptospiros is

Mammals

Campylobacter

Reptiles

Enterobacte r

Reptiles

Streptobac illus

Mammals continLled

Zoonotic Diseases

Table 2·2 Continued

• Mammals, birds

Pasterurella Colibacilla

Birds

Yersinia pestis

Mammals (rode nts and fleas)

Tuberculosis

Mam mals, birds

Staphylococcus

Mammals, birds

Viral LCM (lymphocytic cho riomeningitis)

Mammals

Ra bies

Mammals (ra re ly repo rted in birds of prey)

Monkey Pox

Potentially any mammal Yeast

Candida

Repti les

Funga l Dermatophytes (ringwonm )

Mammals

Cryptococcus

Birds

Protozoan Giardia

All species pote ntial

Coccidia

All species potential

Define zoonotic.

What are sorne common routes oftransmission for zoonotic diseases?

list eight safety practices that will reduce the potential for contracting

a zoonotic disease.

Harnsters are known carriers of a disease called LCM. Wh at is it

and how is contracted?

Which government agency tracks and provides information on

zoonotic diseases?

Discuss the reasons that close contact with exotic anirn als could

potenti ally cause disease in hurnans.

Which population groups have a greater risk of developing severe

complications from a zoonotic disease?

Explain why mixed species of animals should not be housed together.

Give one example of what could happen.

List five different groups of pathogens that have zoonotic potential.

I

With regard to the information presented in this chapte r, discuss the possible implications ofthe bird flu virus, H5NI.

9

10

UNIT I • CHAPTER 2

FUllher ReadinA Hoff, B. & Smith,

c.,

JI!. (2000). Mapping Epidemics: A Historical Atlas of Disease.

Franklin Watts. "Monkey Pox Backgrounder" (2003). In American Veterinary Medical Association. June 23,2003.

Fact Sheet: Monkeypox in Animals: The Basics for People Who Have Contact with Animals (2003) ovember 5, 2003. http://wwvv.cdc.gov/ /wv.,'W.cdc.gov (accessed 3/ 24/ 05). "Foreign Animal Disease AJert: Investigation Uncovers First Outbreak of Monkeypox Infection in Westem Hemisphere." (2003). In American Veterinary

Medical Association. June 23,2003. http://www.avma.org (accessed 3/28/06). Fact Sheet: Embargoed Alrican Rodents and Monke)'pox Virus, january 26, 2006 http:// www.cdc.gov (accessed 2/14/ 06).

Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. Supplement to Compendium, Vol 24, 'J o 1 (A) ofVeterinary Learning Systems, Murie!, January 2002 . Nolen, S. CDC on the Offensi ve to Stamp Out Rodents Virus. http:// www.avma .org (accessed 3/ 28/ 06) .

•

Introd e o t mall Ma

s

vertebrates endoskeleton endotherm eutherian placenta precocial .ltrici.l metatheria monotremes deciduous mandible malleus incus sta pes herbivore carnivore omnivore insectivo re

After compleLing this chapter, the Sl1ldenl sh ol/ld be tibie W • • • • • •

explain what a eutherian is. explain what a metatherian is. explain what a monotreme is. describe what a herbivore eats. describe what a carnivore eats. describe what an omnivore eats.

Inll'odllclion Mamma ls are a very diverse group within the animal kingdom. They represent a great variety of species, ranging from the very smallest of the known mammals, Kitli's Hog-nosed Bat, which we ighs considerably less than aunce, to the greatest of all living creatures, the Blue Whale, with an estimated weight uf 150 tons. Although the range of mamma lian species is vast, they all share distinguishing dlaracteristics. All mammals are H' I le , possessing a spinal column that is part of the elldos lelor , a framework of bones which provides structure and suppon to the body. Mammals have a h ighly developed central nervous sys tem and brain. They are all 'O( lhCJ ni (warm-blooded), h ave h air, and produce milk to feed their young. Mam rnals are separated into three distinaive groups based primarily on the man­ ner in which their young develop prior to birth. Most familiar are the 1!lIlllL'ril/ll \ those mammals with a pI. (el!' that nourishes the developing young, conneaing them to the uterus until the time of birth. The young of sorne species are prccO(. al. They are fully developed at birth, with their eyes open and a fu ll coat of hair and they are able to funaion with a degree of independence. A few of these species indude the degu, chinchilla, and guinea pig. More commonly the young are delivered alLridal. They are born wi th their eyes and ears dosed and have no visible hair growth. They are entirely depend ent on maternal care for survival. Examples of these species are miel' and rats, rabbits, and ferrets .

12

Introduction to Small Mammals

The second group is /l/erorl"'ri,, , or marsupiaIs. The young of all marsupials are born in an embryonic state. They must make their way to either a pouch or teat attachment to complete their development. Two examples of marsupials commonly kept as pets are sugar gliders and Brazilian short-tailed opossums. The third group, monotremcs, are mammals which lay eggs. There are only two living species of monotremes, the duck-billed platypus and the echidna, a type of spiny ant-eater. While they have many features characteristic to other mammals, adult monotremes do not possess teeth. The echidna has a specialized snout for probing into anthills and a very long tongue, while the platypus has a bill, not dissimilar to that of some ducks, which is used to probe underwater in search of food items. With the exception of the monotremes, a1l mammals have two sets of teeth. The dcciduous or baby teeth are shed and replaced by permanent, adult teeth. If adult teeth are Iost they are not replaced. Other features unique to mammals inelude the structure of the lower javv, or mandible . The mandible consists of one bone in mammals, and many smaller bones in nonmammals. Fossil evidence in the evolution of mammals has determined that these smaller bones of the lower jaw were once present but have evolved to form the bones of the middle ear in mammals. They have beco me the malllUs (the hammer) , the incus (the anvil) , and the tap ~ (the stirru p). Additionally. mammals possess a diaphragm, a strong muscle which assists in respiration . It is absent in birds and reptiles. Mammals aIso possess a soft and a hard palate which separate the esophagus and the trachea. Mammals consume a variety of diets. They may be generally classifled as herbivores, animals which eat only plant material, carnivore , those which eat only meat, and omnivores, those mammals which eat both plants and other animals. Some mammals may be referred to as mscctivores and these feed primarily on insects.

Re\ ¡el QuesUons

o

What is one reason mammals are divided into groups?

f) Give definitions for the following groups of animals:

a. eutherians b. metatherians c. monotremes

e

What is the fundion of the placenta?

O

How does the structure of the mammalian mandible differ from

other classes of animals?

e What are the names of the bones of the middle ear? o What are the deciduous teeth? A diaphragm is uniqu e to mammals. What is the function?

13

14

UN IT 11 • CHAPTER 3

o

Define the following terms: a. herbivore b. carnivore c. omnivore d. insectivore

o

lhe young of mammals are described as bei ng either precocial or altricial. What is the difference between these two?

Fur he)' Rtaadin o www.animaldiversity.org.

Earth-LifeWeb produaions, www.earthlife.net. April 06 (accessed December 4,2006).

WWW.u pm.berkleyedu (accessed December 4, 2006).

Ferrets

OBJECTIVES After completing the chapter, the student should be able to • • • • • •

properly house a ferret. provide appropriate client education to new ferret owners. know what vaccines to give and the vaccination schedule. be able to provide basic nursing care to a ferret. assist io the anesthesia of a ferret. demonstrate appropriate restraint techniq ues.

Inlrodufl ion lo Latin, Mustela putorius furo means "smel!y mouse-eaLng thief." Ferret owoers could agree that ferrets are smelty thieves, but oot al! are mouse-eaters. \Alhat they will all agree on is how fuony, playful, mischievous, and delightful ferrets are as companions. The ferret has a firmly established place as an animal companion, rivaling the popularity of dogs, cats, and birds. The ferret has been domesticated for centuries. In 450 Be, Aristophaoes, a Creek playwright, meotioned ferrets in "The Achaeans," referring to certain peop le and ferrets together as thieves (wikipedia, 2006). The presence of ferrets in aneien t writing and art, coupled with the uncertainty of tbeir an cestors, has led many to think that the domestic ferret may never have been a wil d species. Domestic ferrets are closely related to the European polecat (M. putorius), a wild ferret tbat ranges across mucb of the forests oC [ urope aod Great Britain. A polecat is also known as a Otm . Domestic ferrets and polecats can interbreed and their pbysical appearance is barely distinguishable. Closely related is the endan­ gered Black-footed ferret, which was originally found in the pra iries of orth America. Captive breeding programs have successfully released and reintroduced several groups in the hope that the Black-footed ferret will be able to reestablish wild breeding populations. Ferrets were kept as hunting animals and for pest control. They are efficient hunters with the predatory instinct of a carnivore. They were introduced into Australia and New Zealand in the 1800s to rid the countries of the overpopulation of rabbits (also an introduced species ), which were digging up tbe countryside and ruining crops. In Creat Britain and many other European countries, ferrets are still kept for sport hunting (see Chapter 5- Rabbits).

fitch congenitaUy hob

jiU kit scruff Iscruffing anaphylaxis ca rri ers heartworm vector fixed formula free choice hypoglycemia gastric duodenal

NSAID melena epizootic pruritis erythematosis epiglottis

15

16

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 4

The family Mustelidae ineludes ferrets as well as skunks, weasels, mink, badgers, and otters. What they all have in common are very strong smelling scent glands. Ferrets sold in pet stores are de-scented and spayed or neutered. Anal scent glands, located just inside the rectu m, are surgically removed. Ferrets that have been de-scented still have a musky odor. They have smal!, scent producing sebaceous glands that cannot be removed from their abdominal surface. Ferrets may be given a bath with a shampoo specifically formulated for ferrets or one made for kittens. Dog and human shampoos should not be used because they reduce the natural oils of the coat and cause dry, flaky skin. Ferrets should not be bathed more frequently than once every three months. Frequent bathing actually increases sebaceous gland secretion in compensation for oils lost. Diet can also contribute to the odor, especially ferret foods which contain blood and blood by-products. The easiest way to reduce odor is by keeping the ferret's cage elean and by changing the bedding often. The American Ferret Association recognizes 30 color variations, ineluding sable, the most common and natural coat color; silver and a si/ver mitt (silver with white feet); chocolate; albino; black-eyed whites; and cinnamon. Some of the newer color variations have distinctive white markings on the head and body. Coat color is often genetically linked to other less desirable traits. Because of the inbreeding required to establish new coat colors and variations, many ferrets with white marking on their heads are congcnilallv deaf, that is, they are born without the ability to hear. Hob~ ( males) can be twice the size of j iIIs (females). This is especially evident if the hobs were not neutered at an early age. Hobs weigh an average 2 to 4.5 pounds (1 to 2 kg). Jills often weigh as little as 1 to 2 .5 pounds (0.6 to 0.9 kg). Twice ayear, ferrets shed their coats and their color may change from dark to lighe depending on the season. If hair is shaved for any reason, it takes several weeks for it to grow back and it may have a slightly different color or texture when it does. Ferret ski n is thick and tough, especially around the neck. In the United States, ferrets are kept as companion animals. Regulations regarding felTets vary from state to state. They are illegal in California, while in many other states, counties, and towns there are strict regulations that require fer­ rets to be spayed, neutered, and licens ed. [n addition, a speci al permit may be required for possession of a ferret. Before obtaining a ferret, always check locallaws first. lf it is illegal to keep a ferret, ordinances have provisions for confiscation and the ferret vvil! be euthanized. Persons illegally housing ferrets may also be subject to animal violation citations and fines. Many of the laws regarding ferrets were enacted before there was an understanding of their behaviors. The concerns were often based on hearsay: that ferrets would attack and kilJ human infants; that they would decimate other animal populations; and that they were carrier... of rabies. These concems have now been largely discounted through public education and many areas have repealed laws which prohibited keeping ferrets as pets. However, no one should attempt to smuggle a ferret into an area where they are illegal.

Beha\ior Ferrets spend a great deal of time sleeping. It is not unusual for a healthy ferret to sleep as much as 18 to 20 hours out of 24. The sleep is very deep, especially in kits (immature ferrets). Many new owners have become alarmed, thinking their pet might be dead. W hen awake, ferrets are nonstop bundles of curious energy.

Ferrets

Tbe spine of a ferret is long and very flexible, allowing it to maneuver through small spaces and still turn around. Ferrets will investigate any space and are capable of flattening their bodies to squeeze into and under small areas. For this reason, homes must be "ferret-proofed" as ferrets may disappear into small spaces that the owner may not bave noticed. It is especially important to check under cabinets for small, recessed openings between the floor and cabinet bottom. Al! doors, latches, and window screens need to be checked carefully. Ferrets have no trouble elimbing up screen, making a small opening, and popping through. They can squeeze u nder a elosed door that is not flush with the floor or go ioto heating vents or areas that have been cut out for water pipes. rerrets are active diggers and can throw out all the soil in a potted plant in a mat­ ter of minutes. They will dig at carpets and in the comers of rooms. 50ft fumishings are a favorite play area; a ferret will go in, over, under, pulling itself along on its back by its nails, potentially doing as much damage as a cat elawing at the fumiture.

RRETS

H0ULD IOT BE DECI AWED Declawing of cats is controversial,

but declawing a ferret is crippling and the ferret will suffer permanent disability. The claws of ferrets are not retractable and the an atomy of the digit is completely differ­ ent. Declawing includes removal of the claw as well as amputation of the last ¡oint of each toe , making it very difficult for the ferret to walk properly.

Owners must be very careful when the ferret is out of its cage and disappears. Ma ny pieces of furniture are perfect hiding places for ferrets and can become death traps . This is particularly true of reelining chairs and sofa beds. Many ferrets have been critically injured or killed by people who didn't realize the ferret was so und asleep inside the chair, pulled the reeliner lever, and crushed the ferret, or sat on the sofa with a ferret under the cushions. Trauma can inelude dislocation of a joint or fractures (Figure 4-1). f.'"

4 I The ovvner of th is male fe rret

was unaware that he was sleeping in the back ofthe couc h. When she sat down, the result to t he ferret was a lu xabon o f the left femo ral head. (Court e~ o{ lardan Applied

Techn ology Center.)

17

18

UNIT 11' C HAPTER 4

Bedding and laundey baskets are other places ferrets like to curl up and sleep. More than one distraught owner has found his missing ferret when pulli ng laundry from the wash ing machine. AlI drawers must be opened carefully, as ferrets elimb up the backside of chests or cabinets, be they in the bath room, bedroom, or kitchen. Ferrets are very pIayful and enjoy games with their owners. An excited, pIayful ferret performs an array of movements by jumping, hunch-backed, pouncing up and down, running backwards or around in tight cireles, shaking its head, and making soft chuckling and hissing sounds. Ferrets will "attack" bare toes and ankles. They also have a strong attraction to white socks and sIippers. Fenet own­ ers quickly learn to wear shoes when their ferre ts are out for playtime. Play between ferre ts is veey rough, especially with kits. Like cats that learn to stalk, pounce, and bite, kits have no hesitation in being just as rough with peop le. Ferrets grab and bite each oth er's scruff (the thick skin aro und the area of the neck) or drag one another around by the ears or any other appendage. They should be taught at a young age that biting and pulling are not so enjoyable for humans. Ferrets are intelligent and responsive to the human voice, quite cap abl e of understanding the meaning of "NO." Scruffing a kit by grasping the area of ski n at the nape of the neck, an d saying" o " in a firm voice is effective. Ferrets should never be given physical punishment. One of the worst recom­ mendations is to "flick the ferret on the end of the nose." This is not only very painful for the ferret and completely unjustified, but it teaches the ferret th at hands cause pain and the lesson for the ferret is one of avoidan ce or aggression. A simple, painless scruff is a1l that is ever required, a "tim e-o ut. " Wl1en ferrets are scruffed with a ll four feet off the ground, they relax completely and will usually yawn widely and appear to be asleep. Toys must b e chosen carefully. Ferrets that have swallowed toys often require surgery to remove foreign body obstructions. Soft, woo l covered toys, fur mice, plastic cat balls, feath er wands, an d squ eaky toys are all favorites. Toys need to be checked regulady to make sure the ferret is not chewing on them and swallowing small pieces. The biggest danger is not from toys, however, but from other items around the house. Common causes of in testinal blockage are foam rubber from headphones and furniture cushions, pencil erasers, rubber bands, and cotton balls. Oth er items removed with surgery are small pieces of plastic, wads of thread , and velero, which is ano ther favorite "chew toy" for ferrets. Shoes with velero fas­ tenings need to be examined for missing pieces, especially the rubber soleo Th iefZ Ferrets will take anything that appeals to them and stash th e item away. Missing items are found all at the same time and in the same place. ror ferret own­ ers, this is tbe answer to the age oId mystery, "where does the other sock go?" In addition to socks, peop le have found car keys, wrapped sweets, prescription bottles, cash and wallets, ornaments they hadn 't eve n realized were missing, toothbrushes, and countless other items. Clearly, these are not food items for a ferret. It is not food hoarding, as seen in other species, and the reason for this beh avior is not clear. Wise owners know the location of tbe stash and have learned to look there first for any missing items. Cood pI aces to begin a "treasure hunt " are tbe inside of a box spring mattress and in the back of the family sofa or upholstered chair. Ferrets wiJl use a litter box, providing it is in the right place at the right time. During play, they will not actively seek out the litter box but run backwards to the nearest comer. Plastic sheets or loose floor tiles in the comers of rooms where the ferret is allowed to play make c\eanup considerably easier. Ferrets elevate their rear

Ferrets

ends to unnate and defecate so the protected comers should also cover a small area of the wal!. Litter boxes specifically designed for ferrets are triangular, designed to fit into comers. The uiangular back of the litter box is higher to accommodate the ferret's elimination behavior. Many ferrets will not use a litter box, no matter how many or well placed they are. lnstead, they prefer to go behind the litter box, often shoving it away to get to the comer. Basic unscented cat litter is the best choice. Clumping litters could have the potential for creating an intestinal blockage if ingested. Routine care ineludes nail trims and ear-eleaning. Each foot has five elaws which can grow very long and become entangled in carpet and bedding. These are easily trimmed with small human nail elippers, being careful not to cut into the quick. Depending on the ferret, it may require one person to "scruff and dangle" while another performs the trim. What often works well is to place a small amount of cat hair-ball remedy on a tongue depressor and allow the ferret to lick it while the nails are being trimmed. They are very fond of the malt flavor and will be distracted enough not to object to the nail trim. A method often used is to place the sticky substance on the ferret's abdomen. This is not recommended because when it is licked off, the ferret is also likely to ingest hair. Ferrets produce grainy, reddish-brown exudates from their ears. Ear-eleaning solutions are available from pet sto res and veterinarians. A few drops of the solution should be placed in each ear and massaged in. The ear can be wiped out with cotton tipped applicators, being careful not to enter into the ear canal. If the debris is dark and has an odor, the ferrel may have ear mites which can be confirmed and treated by a veterinarian.

Hotlsing One of the things ferrets do best is sleep. Elaborate cages are not required. With the dramatic increase in the popularity of ferrets has come a variety of cages and related products, in particular the ferret condo. The condo is an uprighe multilevel wire cage with a sol id floor. Ferrets are ground-dwelling and the various levels designed within these cages can contribute to injury. Ferrets are very near-sighted and negotiating ladders and ramps can lead to falls. Most condo setups suggest using sleeping sacks or hammocks suspended from the top of the cage. Ferrets do not naturally elimb up to sleeping dens, but go down and under to a smal! space. Many sleeping ferrets have fallen from the unguarded edges of platforms resulting in fractures. Condos should be equipped with padded ramps, rather than open rung wire ladders. Sleeping sacs are safer and more easily accessed by the ferret when they are placed on the cage floor. Many ferrets are housed in la rge, sturdy pet carriers. One of adequate size would be a medium to Iarge dog pet transporter. Ferrets do not play in their sleeping den. All they need is a water bottle, a full food cup, soft bedding, and a litter box at the o pposite end of the carrier. When the ferret is let out for exercise and play time, the door is left open, making access to food and water uncomplicated. Cage substrates, ineluding any type of wood shavings, recyeled paper prod­ ucts, and com cob should not be used for ferrets. The cage floor can be lined with plain newspaper. Apile of soft towels, old elothes, or pieces of blanket are al! a ferret needs for comfort and security. Items should be used that can be easily and frequently laundered without the addition of fabric softeners or drying sheets.

19

20

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 4

Frequent laundering of bedding items contribules greatly to reducing lhe musky odor associated with ~ rrets.

Diel

FIXED FORMULA DIETS ARE CONSTAr'u, the

l'\

ingredients and percent­ ages do not change with market availabllity and price. There is a standard, or "fixed recipe," for each batch of food produced by the manufacturero

Ferrets are carnivores. They need a diet based on animal-derived protein. Many fenets are fed, and wilI eat, a variety of fruits and dairy products, bU l bo th can contribute to digestive and urinary tract problems. Fruit produces urinary crystals thal coul d eventualIy lead to the form at ion of kidney or bladder stones. Dairy, especi ally ice ream, m ilk, and cottage ch ees e, can cause diarrhea. A good, high quali ty, fixed (ormula dry kitten chow is recommended. The pro tei n requirem llL for kittens is higher than that for adult ca ts. Although form ulated to meet the growth requirements of kittens, the percentage of protein in kitten chow also meets th e d ietary requirements of fenets. Th re are also di ets available that have been specillcally formulated for fenets. Many of these inelude blood (itching), and crythunato·j · (red and inflamed skin), also occur within the areas of hair loss (Figure 4-3) .

FIgure 4-3 When adrenal gland disease progresses and left untreated, there can be a complete loss of hai r with erythematosis. (Courtery of frie Klaphake, DVM.)

24

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 4

Figure 4-4 A typical patte rn of hair loss (alopec ia ) and edema which occurs in both jills and hobs with adre nal gla nd disease. (Courtesy of frie /(laphake , DVM.)

In the jill, the vulva becomes swollen and it may ap pear as if she is in heat. Hobs with adrenal gl and disease have tro uble urinating, wh ich may indicate an enlarged pros tate and cys titis. Both se.xes may exhibit edema (Figure 4-4). Adrenal gland disease is usu ally diagnosed by clinical signs and a complete history. Basic blood work, chemistry panels, and radiographs do not provid e eno ugh informatio n to confirm a diagnosis. If the ferret is o theI\-vise young and healthy, surgical r moval of the affea ed adre­ nal gland is the most successful treatment. There are medical options, but the expense of the drugs used (mitotane or lupron), combined with [.be complications of timing th e injections, monitoring their effectiveness, and multiple office visits needs to be considered carefully Drug administration requires painfu l intramuscular (1M) injec­ tions. The inj ections may co ntrol the clinical signs but they are not curative. Ferret are often diagnosed with insulino mas. Pancreatic tumors can be dif­ ficult to ap proach surgically and medica l management is usually attemp ted first. Diet and dru g th erapy can help co ntrol the hypoglycemia that is a consequence of pa ncreatic insulinoma. Mast cel! tumors are ofien diagnosed in th e ferret. Mast cells m ediate a vari ety of reacti ons in lhe body and are often associated with allergies. ~i hey first appear as smal!, hairless areas o n the surface of the skin w hi ch may be mistake n for a slight scratch or insect bi te (Figure 4-5). In later stages they may be swoll en, black, and crusty. In the early stages, mast cel! tumors can be re moved with ]jttle conseq uence and are usually benigno In later stages they are likely to beco m e malignant and require more e.xtensive surgery (Figure 4-G).

Clinical PrO('edll1'eS FiguI 4· 5 An early stage mas t cell tumor in lhe axilla of a rerret. (Cou rtery oi frie I anterior vena cava (Figure 4-7) . If atte mp ting an anterior vena cava collecrion, general anesthesia is recommend ed

Figure 4-7 Res t ra int o Fa fe rret and approach fo r blood collection fr o m the vena cava. The vena cava is located mo re caudally in fe rrets t han in most mammals.

26

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 4

Figure 4-8 Restraint and setup for the administration of SQ fluids. The extension set allows the ferret some movement without dislodg­ ing the needle or havi ng it acciden­ tally penetrate deeper, causing more pain.

When administering any amount of SQ fluids, it is simpler to attach a fluid extension set to the syringe, rather than attempt direct delivery (Figure 4-8). This allows the ferret some movement without pulling the needle out of the skin and elimina tes the possibility of pain caused by the needle penetrating deeper than SQ when the ferret moves. The use of gas anesthesia in a ferret is similar to dogs and cats Ferrets are initially masked down prior to intubation. Intubating the ferret is easier than with many other exotics as the epiglottis is easily visualized (Figure 4-9 ). Use of a 2.5, uncuffed ET tube is recommended. Many of the diseases seen in ferrets are common to other species, but often their management is qui te different. Ferrets should have regular, yearly veterinary wellness exams that inelude a CBC, blood chemistries, and radiographs. Early detection of medical issues can often prevent serious consequences.

t>al'ilsiles Heartworm disease is endemic in many areas. It is vecLOr transmitted by the same mosquitoes that infect dogs and cats. AlI ferret owners should discuss heartworm pre­ ventatives with a veteri'Oarian. A heartworm positive ferret has a guarded prognosis. Figure 4-9 When a suitable plane of anes­ thesia is achieved, the ferret may be easily intubated. A length of gauze placed iust behind the cani,nes aids in opening the mouth and helps avoid a "clamp bite" should the fer­ ret respond to the stimulus o f tube place­ mento lf the gauze has been wetted , the threads are less likely to snag on the teeth.

Fe rret s

What is the result when fe rrets are bathed too frequentLy?

O Normal play for ferrets can be rough. Acce ptable be havior with humans needs to be ta ught at an early age . Explain th e co rred way to discipline a ferret . ., W hat are the recommended vaccinations for ferrets? Describe the clinical signs exhibited by a ferret with adre nal gla nd disease. Intestinal blockages are frequentLy see n in ferrets. What items are commonly found in the GI tract?

O Iffood is restricted, what is the medicaL consequence? Even though a ferret has been de-scented, it still has an odor because __________________

What is meant by "ferret -p roofing" the home?

What is a disadvantage of fe eding some commerciaLLy prod uced

ferret foods?

I

Discuss the reasons why ferrets are iLlegal in some areas.

Ferrets

VJfl('IIT

DENTAL

Hobs: 1to 2 kg· (2.2 to 4 .2 lbs)

• To tal of 20 t e et h

plls: 0 .6 t o 1 kg ( 1. 3 to 2.2 lbs)

• De nta l fo rmula 2 (13/3,

V CCI . T

LlFE SPA

c;,

• C anine diste mper: Vacci ne schedu le: 6 to 8 weeks;

8 to 11 years

Q.EP ODUCT

o

e 1/ 1, PM 3/ 3, M Y2 )

9 to 12 weeks , 14 to 16 weeks; ye arly there after.

e

Sexual maturity: 6 to 12 mon th s • Gestation : 41 to 4 3 days • Litter size: 1to 18 (8 ave rage) Weaning age: 6 to 8 wee ks L TATI 1

e

Temperature: 37.7 t o 39.7 ° C ( 100 to 103.5 ° F) Heart rate: 180 to 250/ min ute • Respiratory rate: 33 to 361 minute

• Rabies: Vacc in e sc he dule: 4 to 6 months; ye arly the rea ft er.

27

28

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 4

Bel l, J. . (2004). Peripartu ri e nt and Neo nata l D isease. In K E. Quesenberry & J W Carpenter ( Ed s.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents. Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2nd Edition (pp . 50- 57) . lm p rint o f EIsevier Sci ence. Brown, S. A. (2004) . Basic An to my, Phys iology, and Husbandry In K. E. Qu esenberry &. J. W . Carpe nler (Eds. ), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surger)', 2 nd Edition (pp. 2- 11). Imprint of Elsevi r Science Burges , M. & Gamer, M. (2002). Clinical in Ferrets. Exotic DVM , 4 (2) ,29 - 34.

spects o f [n fl a mmatory Bowel Disease

Hess, L (2006). Clinical Techniques in rerrets. Co nfere nce Am li ca Veterinary Con ference, Ja n 7-11,2006 O rlan do, FL. Hess, L (20 05). Ferrel Lym p hom a: The

Id a nd the

otes, The North

ew. Seminars in Avian and

Exotic Pet Medicine, 14( ), 199-204. Il oerer, 1J. L (2006) . Cardiac Disease in Fenets. Co nference No tes, Th e North America Veterínary Co nferen c , Jan 7- 11, 2006, O rla nd o. F1. 1[ocrer, H. L & l3elL }. A (20 04) . Caslrointestinal Disease . In K E. Q uesenberry & J W Carpenter (Ed s.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surger)',

2 nd Edition (pp. 25-4 0). [m príl1l of L1sevie r Sc ien ce. Kramer, M. & Kcll eher, S. per o nal corres pondence vía Zoo logícal Ed ucatíon etwark EXOlí c DVM, Linda R. [ larosan, DVM., summ er 2005 . Mayer, J D. (200 G). Update 0 11 Adren al Glal1d Dísease !n Ferrets. Co n feren ce No tes, Th Nonh America Vete rí nary Con ference, Jan 7-11 / 2006 O rlando, f 1. Mayer, J. D. (2006) . Update on Ferret L)'mphoma. Conference _ o tes, The

orth

Alllerica Veterinary Confcrence, Jan 7- JI , 200G. O rl a nd o, FL Petrie, J.-P. &. Morri sey, J. K. (20 04) . Cardiovascula r a nd

ther D iseases. In K. E.

J. w. Carpen ter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents. Clinical Medicine nd and Su rger)', 2 Edítion (pp . 58-71). Irn p rint of Elsevier Sci ence. Que enberry

Quesenberry, K. E. O rc ult, C. (2004) . 13 sic Approa ch to Vdcrinary Care. In K. E. Quesenbeny & J. '. ~ a rp ente r (Ed s.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Roden ts :

Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp . 13-23). Impr int of Else\ ier Science. Q uesen beny, K. E. & Rosen tha l, K. 1. (2004). Enclocrine D iseases. [n K. E. Q uesen berry & ] . W. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Su rgel}', 2 nd Edition (pp. 79-90) . Imp ri nt of Elsevíer Scíence. Rosentha l, K L. (2004) . Resp iratory Diseases. In K. E. Quesenberry & J w. .arpenter (Ed .), Ferret , Rabbíts and Rodents: Clíllical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (p p . 72-78). Imprint of EIsevie r cien ce. Schoem ke r, .. ]. (2002). Fe rre ts. BSAVA Manual of b otic Pets, 4, 93-1Ol.

Ferrets

Williams, B. H. & Weiss, C. A. (2004). eoplasia. In K E. Quesenberry & J W Carpenter (Eds.), Fe1Tets, Rabbits and Rodents. Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 91-106). Imprint of EIsevier Science. 2006 Wik ip edia CD Selection flxedrefe rence.orgj2006-wiki pedia-cd -selectionj wpjfj FerreLhtm , accessed August 2007.

29

Rabbits

lagomorph kit warren bolt hole ferreting

jiU ferret out free range feral hutch doe buck ingu inal c repuscular g ut m oti lit y uro li t h tim ot hy alfalfa ration coprophagi c cecotrophs dewclaw cyanosis pododermatitis i nduced ovulat or pa rt urition d ewlap kindle altri cia l asp irat ion c ann ulati on rhinitis snuffles dyspne a torticoUis cecum spirochet e e nterotoxemia trichobezoar urolithi asis slobbe rs cute re bra fly stri ke apnea glottis

After completing this chaptel; the student should be able to • • • • • •

properly house a rabbit. provide appropriate client education to new rabbit O\vners. provide basic n ursing ca re for a rabbit. assist in the anesthesia of a rabbit. provi de appropriate restraint techniques. correct[y identify the sex of a rabbit.

Il1lroduftion The domestication of the rabbit can be traced back to the Phoenicians over 1,000 years ago. The Iberian Peninsula is, literaJly, the land af the rabbit. Rabbits were > kep t by the Romans in walled areas called leparia. (Iberia, once Hispania, is nov/ the country of Spain.) Although previously included with rodents, rabbits were reelass ifi ed nearly a century ago and belong to the order lagomorph, which also inel udes cottonta ils and hares. Domestic rabbits are the same species as the Eu ro pean wild rabb it, Oryctolagus cuniculus. Ra bbits are grou ped by breed and type, depending upon their purpose. They a re bred for m eal, fur, and wool 0[, in the case of the smaller dwarfs, as companion animals. The American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA) recognizes 45 distinct breeds. The ARBA determines the standard for each breed. Standards inelude body typ a nJ acceptable coat colors, patterns, texture, and eye color. There are also m any ind ividual specialty clubs for rabbits. 4-H and FFA both offer opportunities for you lh. Tbe 1 o use Ra bbit Society is an organization which promotes education and ow ner responsibility for rabbits housed indoors. Many rabbits are of mixed breed but are just as appealing as rabbits with a known pedigree. It is useful to knowwhich breed to choose as there are generalizations regarding temp rament and breed disposition . There are dwarf breeds and giant breeds, lops vvith low, cl roo ping ears, and rabbits with ears erect, woolies, angoras, and the new Lionhead, (Figure 5-1 ) each with their own personaJity type and physical characteristics. Rabbits vary in size and weight from two to eight pouncls, a consicleration when buyi ng a rab bit 'n. Becoming familiar with different breeds and their traits is beneficia l not o nly in choosing a pet rabbit, but also in providing information to v terin ary and rescue personnel.

Rabbits

31

B~I)(I\ ior Wild rabbits live in underground warrens . A single warren may be home to as many as 40 or 50 rabbits. The size of the warren increases with the population, and an old warren may extend to nearly one-quarter of an acre. In appearance, a warren is a mound of earth with many entrances and exits called boll hales.

ON THE ENGLlSH DOWNS, MANY SEPARATE WARRENS ARE FOUND IN CLOSE PROXIMITY. Ferretmg is a popular sport which involves the use of a ferret. With the exception of one or tvvo, the bolt holes are covered with purse nets. A jiU is sent down into the open holes to ferre ou the rabbits. In their panic to escape, the rabbits run from their bolt holes straight into the purse nets, where they are captured and dispatched. Hunting with a ferret is illegal in the United States.

Domestic rabbits allowed freE.' range of a large enclosure also dig warrens and could potentially escape, quickly establishing a f~ral population Domestic rab­ bits exhibit digging behavior in cage bedding, on the floor of lhe W[C 1, or, in the case of a house rabbi t, by digging at the carpet and flooring. Rabbits are prey species and can be easily frightened or injured in an attempt to escape capture or restraint. The eyes of a rabbit are positioned laterally, giving a nearly 360 degree field of visiono They are constantly on the 100kout for preda ­ torso At the first hint of danger, rabbits thump loudly with a h ind foot to alert other rabbits, even those underground. Caged rabbits also thump in alarm wh en startled by the presence of other species or unknown scents. in general, rabbits are quiet animals and vocalize only when provoked, when in pain, or when extremely frightened . Growling is unmistakable, aggre sive, and not just an empty threat. Rabbits will charge, growling and clawing with the front feet. The scream of a rabbit in pain is loud and piercing, a sound unforgettable to those who have heard it. A frightened , restrained rabbit may scream and kick wildly with powerful hind legs, raking with the rear claws. Many rabbits have been severely injured during attempts lO escape. Although they can be affectionate and playful with early sociali zation , rabbits are also very territorial and will not hesitate to confront an intruder, wheth er it is a child or another household pet. Territorial aggression is common in rabbits of both sexes, especially those which have not been castrated or spayed. lyp ically, do s that have not been spayed are more aggressive than unneutered hucks. Rabbits use scent glands to mark territory. They have submandibular, or chin glands, and both males and females have folds of ski n on either side of the genitals. These n uinal glands normally produce an unpleasant smelling, thicl . , '1hey exhibil l1 fear f other hou ehold pel ,ru ning ro the fronl ofthe cndo. Llre 10 iove tigate a ca L d g, or ferre l (1 igure 9-4) . Degus, boú1 male and rem ate. are sexualIy matur between 12 and 1 G weeks Id. In captivi ty, breeJing .111 o(cur yea[-round . Degus are il! I J l ' {I lIl, Ir . Copu lation is brief, bul fn'l{ucnt. ,estalion is sligh lly va riable, lhe average belllg approximalel y 90 days. The rc may he as ll1any as len pu ps in a lilter, bUI Ove or !>ix are more LI ual Pups are boro precocica l and are active from b inh , allhough oeon(11 s ll1ay nOI open lhe ir yes [or Llp lo 48 ho ur after b ing bo rn (figure 9-5) .

11011. 'in o

FI ure 9 ·5 Degu pups are born precocial. This pup !s approximately 10 days old Degus have él uretheral cone, similar lo lhe hinchllla (see Figure 7·3) (ColineS) o/ Pe! Klngdom USA, Las Vegas.)

DEGU LA

Ll

H W

le o fte n swa llow­

ing sha rp pieces. Th is can cause lacerations to t he oral caviLy, intestinal block­ age, tears in the Intestinal

tract, prolapse, and, potentlally, death.

Appropriate housing is more difficuh than Wilh ol her sma ll mammals. The enelo­ sure should be large enough to (lccommodate v ral degus, provide areas for d igging. climbing, ollecting and slorage of fo )d, and ::In area fo r lhe communal nesting sitc. C.apli e colonies exhibít nonn al dominance b havior ,o t only s nl marking lerrilory, hUI also a h olher. Providing ao area su itable for th¡ ri tual i nece sary ror lhe so ial slructUr ano menta l hea llh of the grOLlp . Too orlen, many exotics kept as pets are exp ctcel lO ad rn 10 lhei r caged taluS wilhout lhoLlghl or ca re given to what the animal actually requir s. If requir ­ ment cannot be mel, serious consideralion needs lo be given to the elhica l aspccls f keeping any exolic pis. This is panicularly importJ nt nO l just with degus, bUI Wilh sugar glid r as well ( ee Chapl r 14). n looking lo ely at ready­ made age offered for a variety of species and the pO lential fO f adapt ing Úlem LO aee mmodale degus, úlere is very Ihue presemly av il ab le. ondo-type cages. lho e u igned for ferrel or h inchilla, have been sugge ted and ma)' al fi r l appear suitable. J hey proviele leelges and ladders for lirnb ing. places fo r water bottle and food di hes, and usually an area for a ne t box, JI v r, lhe height is greal r lhan lhe Ooor space and ledges are plaeed far h igher lhan a degu ould limb.. There is lhe danger of a fall 01' entrapmenl in lhe ladders, Even the largesl ofthese is far to smelll for a uegu e lony, ,lI1d 1110 t, ir nOl all, have large amo unts of plaslic whi ch should m'ver be used for degus . 'I!te gauge of lhe wire u ed in small mammal ag s would be easiJy chewed lhrough by degus. A heavier gau e, nongalvanized wire woulcl b' required l keep then colllained safely. O ' gu n d grollTld mO/ll. Th open \Vire of th~ e ag~ \\fo uld not be able to cOlllain a subslrale for digging, nor ís il able lO confine pups. Rabbit hutches have al o been used, but wilh lilue succesS. Allhough they ar longef lhan lh y are high, lh rrame i u ually made orwo d. O nsidering Lhei r abi li ty LO shr o \Voou, lhe hUlch is soon destroyed and lhe anima l!> lost. $uilable cagin mUSl be pro­ vided Wilh the species welfal'e foremosl and for lhe c (Figure 9- 7). Confi ni ng degus LO ju tan Jt.¡lIarÍum, n maller hO\\l large, i' neil her suitable no r hum and wood m aterial. Sna kes ancl lizard~ often ingest inani mat bjects. It is n ot un usual fo r iguanas to ing t n ecklaces, earri ngs, and children's toys (Figure ] 5-21).

r gur I -21 This iguana was presented with vague signs, lack of appetite , and leth ­ argy. The rad iographs revealed it had swal­ lowed the owner's necklace, complete with the chain . ( Courte~ o/ Ma l"'lLn G. Orr, DVM , Bird and Exotlc Pet Hospital.)

Gas trointestin a l neo plasia is a co ncern in repti le m edí ine. Tumors h ave b e n rep o rt d in att sp eci es of rep til s wit h no appa rent age p re ft"renc e. Ph ys ical si gns of tum rs va ry, d e pe nJing on lh e rype of ne o p lasia and loca­ ri on of th e ru mo r. ,ene ral sig n may inclu d e poo r grow th , an o rexia, o ns ti pa­ tion, m le na, and p lp ab ie m asse ·. [n mos t cases, rh e patient do es nor su rviv th is dise ase.

Metabo lic b n d isease (MBD ) is common in rep til es that have not been f, d an éld equate d iet. It is al so s J1 in rep tiles rll at do nor have ful! spectru rn UVB light­ ing, which is esse nt ial fo r lhe abso rp ti o n of calcíum. Cl ín ical signs of MBD in lude musde !re mo rs, d fo rmed bOIl strl.lC tu re, stunted growth, spontaneous frac tures, ami p ara lysis . Often, th e diet has a calcium conte nt tha! is loo I wan d a p hospho rous ontent thar is too high .

177

178

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

Tr€atm ~ nt

of MBD invoJves improving the diet, add ing cal cium suppleme nts or giving calcium inj ections, and p roviding corren lighting. The condilion may be stabil ¡zed, but it cannot be cured or the deformiti es co rre ted . is caused by an ín adequate dietary intake of vítamín A. Hypovitaminosís Signs ind ud respiralo ry in rections, neurological an d ocular problems, and di ffi­ culty shedding. Suppl ement l vitami n A is o ften given by injection . Oversuppl mentatíon of vítam ins and m ínera ls can be just as dangewus as a d ft ciency. Re ptile owners need to be aware o f lh e sp cific dietary needs of a species and provide a su itable and appropriate diet. Many owners are not aware that this may mean twice weekly isíts to the grocery store to obt in fresh greew; and a IOl of ti me spent in food preparatío n. Supplements are not a substirute for a correct diet. nme nt ..1ended and restrained.

rm

Tl1e vei n is held off al lhe base o f the neck an I a tub r ul in syringe with a 22 LO 25

h

ür

5 b

The approach

lhe coccygeat vein for blooc :::: ­ lection in a reptile. (Cauro.

lordan Applied Techno!C& Wm lordan, Utd ,

e

182

UNIT IV' CHAPTER 15

gaug need le is used lO e llect lhe ~a m ple. Pressure o n the vein . ho uld be ap plied fo r severa I minll t s after blood coIlection to avo id a h('m lIom.l . The do rsal coccygeal vein is su perfici al and approached m id line fr m the ventral swface of the ta il. A 25 gauge n 'JI is angled at 45 lO 90 c\egrees and slowly advanced into the skin untU blood enters the needle hubo The subcarapacial vein is fo u nd midline, dir clly lJnd r the carapace. Tile head should be retracted in t sh 11 The app ro dl should be with a 60 degree angle, jus t caudal to skin attachment to the carapace. In so ft shell tunles, (.1 dioll III í~ an be perfo rm d for blood co ll ection (Figure 15-29).

Figur 15-29 To o btain a blood sa mple from the subcarapacial vein, the head sho uld be retracted _ (Cou nery 01 lordan Applied Technology Center, West lordan, Uta h.)

The tw m ost comm n ly used blood collection sites in the s nak are th e entra l coccygeal vein and ca rdiac p unClu re. Th e ven tra l co eygea l ci n is loe ted caud al lO the ent along lhe m idJ ine o f rhe ta il. The sn dke shoul d be rest raincd erticaU . The app ropria t sized needJ e is inserted midline at a .90 degree angle u nd l coming int e ntact w ith the vertebrae_ rhe needle is thcn slow l , baeked OU l un li! blood nters lhe hubo A (ardiac punclure req uires patiencE'. The snake is reslxained dorsally or held aloft by two peop le. The heart be t can be fell or se at the distal end o f lhe fi rst third o f the 1 nglh )f lhe snake's hotly. The heartbeal of a snake ¡sub lan tially slower ¡ha n tha t of ma mm als ancl it may lake several seconds to locate lhe !lean. Onc a heartbeat is visualized, lh site can be marked wi¡h a nO Oloxic fe lt-tipped peno Llsing a 25 gauge needle and tuberculi n syringe. Oler slraigh t into lh hean, avo iding a 10 1 of needle movemenl lO p revent f1.ll1her dam age or laceratio n of the heal1. ¡\leJ i alions fo r chelon ians can be given oraIly or by inj edio n. Intram uscular and subcula neo lls routes are preferred. In uamuscu la r in jeclio ns a re givcn in th e frolll legs due to ¡11 funcLi o n 01' Lhe re nal po rta l system. Su bcu taneous in jections are giv n belween lhe from leg and the neck. "[ his site is me easi Sl l dccess. Be aware thal eve n lhe . mallesl lu rt] e or tol1oise cou ld allem p t lO b ile. Adm in islering oral med ication to a rep tile can be dirtlcult ir th e reptil e does not open it moutJl easily. To o pen a rep lilian mouth wi lhout da maging it req u ires head restra inl. Once Lhe head is restra ined, él rub b r patula, a pl astic card (credil card ), r longue depressor ca n be lIsed la gcntly ply o pen lhe mouth. If meta l forc ps are used, ti u aro u nd tbe 11l0u lh and in lh e ora l < vi ty co uld be injured . Nutritional SUppO l1 in chelonian. c n b gi en by p lacing a meta l avian fced­ ing !libe illlo lhe esophagus w ilh an attached syringe. To bes t ava id ¡he trach ea, Lh e lube is adva n ed toward ¡h e right side o f the ora l cavity. When admini.l ring flll ids or medi cations, intramuscular in je tions should be considered as a last option . Th is is d ue to the spo radi c u pta ke o f m di cations

il

me

Reptiles

when th ' patient is del ydrated or hypoLhermic. Several m eJ ic lions can be ini tati ng lO lhe reptile anu omp lica ted f1Jrth er by limited ffi uscle mass. M t intram uscu lar in jecLions are given in lh Cro nt li mbs or liza rds and h lon ia ns. Fluid rep lace m e nt in rep t il es is co m mo nl y ad m ini stered by in u av nous o r intraosseous ro u les. C he lonians can soak in an d absorb wale r th roug h lhe cloaca

if lhey are not sev rely dehydrated, Ir[he rep tile is sligh tly dehyJrated , ' u bcutane­ o us ( ' Q) fl uids can be adminislered. Sn akes a nd liza rd:. rece ive su bcuLaneous tlu ids between Lh e laLera l sca les, Chelo n ic ns receive s ub cutan eous fluids in the ingui nal Co ld Of tJle ventral neck flap , ¡Ce aJ m inistrat io n ca n a lso b used to give sm 11 amo u nts o f flui ds l o rep­ Lil es, In s nakes, Oll ids are give n towards the last fou rth of Lhe c-oeIomic cílvily, injecting be tween the scaI es, In lhe lizard and chel onians, the fl uids are given in fronl of the hind l g, The fl uids ar di reCled towards the o pposi te shouId er. l o r rna intenanc , fl uids a re ca1culaled at 5 to 10 ml/kg daily.

AN ANOREXIC BOX TURTLE CAN BE SOAKEO IN DILUTED (1 :1> TOMATO OR VEGETABLE IUICE ANO WATER FOP 15 Te '20 MIN"TES OAILV. The t urtle is able to soak up fluids and vi tami ns, Thi s should be do ne in co njunction with assisted feedings and recommended veterinary treatment, which may also include ant ibiotic therapy,

Blood vol ume fo r mosl species is appro im al Iy 5 to 8 per en t o f total bod y weighl Approxlm ately 10 pe rcent of this can b col/caed at o ne time, Blood ho u ld be collected in a lith ium hepa rin (green lOp) 1Ube, Rep ti le eryth rocytes are n ucle­ al d and ell ip tica L Red blood cells are larger in size th an mamm als and simi lar

lO

birds, Packed cel! vo lu m e (PCV) in m OSl rep ti les is between 20 pe rcenl nd 40 percenl. A packed ell vaJume of le than 20 percent may llgge 1 an em ia , R ptiles do no t us u !Iy regurgi lale unde r an st he ia w iLh the exc Plion of a recently fed snake, The r pt il e p al ient daes no l 11 ed lo be fasled prior to , nes the­ si a. Because rep til s are erlo Lherms, they can be slowe r lO induce an d more diffi­ cult to ma intain under aneslh esia, Recove ry m ay be p ro longed , lnj eaab le anesthet ics lower cardiac outpul, causing slower blood distributio n an d resu lting in a slower ab~o rpti on rat , When llsing injecL, b le an e lh tics in repti l s, an increased lime fo r drug effectiveness i exp eled , Admi nistering a sec­ ond volume w ill not horten induclio n

um

a nd a fIen leads to a nesth lic over­

dose al d dea lh . Some inj ectable an esthel ic agen ts can be ery irri tating if given ICe and Lh re is a risk o f lae rating imema! orga ns, Mo l inje ta bIe anesthetics are admin istered inuave no us o r intraoss o us in rep ti les, This improves ind u tio n and recovery lime an d is less irriLaüng LO the repli le, Hecommend d inhalanl for u e in reptiles are isofl urane and sevofl urane, evoflurane has a greate r vafi a nce in re ptil s and, o ccasio n 11 , a su rgical pla ne of a nesth esi a m ay b di[f¡cu lt ro ach ieve. The reptile heart is three chambered, w ith two at ria and a ne ventri cJe, The ven­ lriel has three subcha mbers with shunts ¡hat fo rce th e bloo d to the body and lungs, These valve-lik sb unts can func:tion independently or in un ison (Figur 15-30)

183

184

UNIT IV • CH APT ER 15

o Reptiles have a

Lizard Heart (Dorsal View) Circulatlon

three chambered heart, wlth two atria and one ve ntricle , The dia ­ gram of a lizard heart Illustrat es ca rd iac blood Flow.

Right System lc Artery

Left Pulmonary

Artery Righ t Pulmonary Arte ry

(The red arrows show the oxyge nate d bl ood flow,

A Cavum Venosum

The blue arrows sh ow the

B. Cavum Pulmonale

deoxygenated blood flow.)

e

Cavum Arte rio sum

The ca rd iac m ech anis m has a clüect affect on o xyge n sa lW'atio n ¡evels a nd the el imi nati o l1 u f anestheti c gas during surge ry an d recovery, R p tiles uo r ol have a d iaph ragm to assi t Wilh respiralio n , Abdo m in;¡1 alld in ter­ costa l m uscles move the ai r in a nJ ou t of the lungs (in snakes, only lhe right lung is inflaled) . It is comm o n fo r re pti les lO become apn ic w hen completely anesthetized . Repujes are episoclic brea thers; tJley mal' lake a couple ofbreaths and ¡h en stop breath­ ing for a sho a period of úm > Whe n mon iloling a reptile und r gas nestJlesia, the anesthetist should ventilate m e palie nt m an ually sev ral limes in q u nce. r his infl t s the lungs si m ilarly to norm al respiration an d assists in main ta ining th ane tll es ia leveL ormal respiralion for a n anesthetized reptile is tvvo lO four breaths per minute. It i:; fai rl y easy to intu bate r pti le as t he gl o tLis is easi ly vi 'ualized . Un u ffed end otracheal tubes sh ou ld he u ~ ed . Ir Lhe only al prop riale s ized e ndo trach t'a l lube is cuffed, it ca n be used, bllt nol in fla ted , In fl atí on of the cuff ca n cause tra um a lO the u' hea as re ptiles do n Ol ha e complete tracllea l ri ngs to SUppOrl m e cu fe C helon ian hay shorl, bifurcated trac heas, Th is C3n pose a prob lem v hen intub at­ ing for a n es lhesía , tndO lrachea l tu bes should be pl aced at ¡he tOIJ o f lhe bifur a­ !.'i on to avo id in fl ating o n!y une lung. \Vhe fl chelon ia n b rea th, lhe abd om inal an d n eck muscles assi st with air flow. When a che! on ian retracts its h ad in lO the she lL it slO ps m usde 1110vemenl an d h ;:¡]ts respi ra tion , An an eslhetiz d cllelon ian sho ul d h ave il he d and neck fully extend .::d to preven I res p iratory co mp romise, Du ri ng a neslhe ia inJ ll ction, mllsrl ' relaxation sta rt al the micll ine oC lhe body and m oves cran iaJly, th en cau dally The ta i! is lhe last pan of the b ody to relax, Asses m en t o f card iovascular functio n can b e do n e wilh Lhe use o f a _tetba· scope, esop bageal stetlloscope, or a do pp ler. vVh e n pl acing an esophagea l tube,

Reptiles

ad vance slowly

lO

avo id enlerin g into lhe sto m ach. The do pple r probe ca n be

p laced over th e heart, carotid artery, or co((ygea l art ry. Pulse oximet rs a re not the most re ljable in a essing vita l signs il1 r pliles. Th e primi tive brain st m of reptiles con ti nues ro funct ion, producing recogni ¿ab le sou nds of cardiac ou tpul when, in fa t, lhe pa lien! may be unrecovera ble. Rad iogTaphs can be vcry he lpfu l in di gnosing p rob lems. High detail film \. ¡lh om p at ibl e asse ltes or mammography fi lm cassett s, will p roduce the besl radiogrd phic deLa il. M )Sl ra di graph~ ca n be taken w ith o u t a nesl hesia or eh ' m i­ cal resrrain l, jUSl palience. Norm al Vle'v s fo r lizards a nd sna kes a re dorsal/ventra l and 1 leral. Sna kes sh oul d be unco iled fo r radiographs. Depe nding on the length

of lILe snal e amI ! he area oC i m e reSl, severa 1 may need to be taken in sequen ec, on length oC the body al a ti me. If it is a large snake, restrai nt assistanee is required. Sn kes may also b te m pted to cn ter a length of d ear p la. Lic tube, making il easie r to ob tken, Jea nette (2001). Respira tory Anato my-Form am.I Fu nction in Rep ti les.

rocic DVM, 3 (2) , 17-22.

Amphibians

mebmorphol hallueino,ena

h.rpetoloty mueoid plth neotony tadpoles larval sta,e spawned amplaxus nuptilll pads poikilotherms vivarium bromeliads osmosis fry desiccation gastric overload re d leg

¡\ftel" wmplering (his cllilpte r, Ih e SWde /ll S110 11 Id be i1ble ro

• properI h o use com m an amp hibian species. • provid e appro pri ale c1 ienl edu a li o n to new amp hi bi an o wners . • provi de b asic n u r ing care [() co m m o n amph ibian speci es. • provi de app ropriate re traint tech n iq u es vv ¡lh eaC' h sp e ·es o f a m ph ib ia l1s. • provi de ap p ro pria te di lS for each differe nt amp hibian species. • providt' the ap propriate lempe.ra ture and humidit)' (1"> 12) ideal fo r ead, co mmon am ph ib ian spe ·es. • identify pot mi a l pr bl ems wirh in, pp roprial€ hou sin g, restra int , ami die t.

Inl 'odll '1ion T hroughout Lime, amphibia ns have b ee n assodated w ith myths a n d fo lldo re. [n ancien ( FgYPl, th e frog godd ess He.ke t represemed fe.ni li(y a nd m s b elie ed

lO h ~lVe

been responsib le fo r rege nera tin g the li m bs o C s ir is. $al a m al1 ders an d l1 ewl 11 ve traditionally bee l1 con nected to fi re an d the myslerio us heali n g b rew$ 01 wirc h­ craft. Not m udl was u n dersto o d ab o ut a rn pbi b ial1 s cel1luIÍ es ago ; frogs [ained from lh e sky, touchi ng to ad

aused wa rts, a n d sa la m a nder d ra n k lh e m ilk oC

cows. With p resen t k nowl d ge o ne ca n easily u nderstand how so rne of tb s ries ca m e

to

be. Amph ib ian s h ave (he abili ty

to

(u­

regen era l li m bs, frogs are D rti le,

sorne pro ducing as many as 3 ,000 eggs al o ne time (BlIIo nLilrinus),

L

nd a la­

man ders live in m oist woo d la nds a nd craw l out o f fíre wood wh en it is burned. Irnm ature am p hib ians h ave no resem bl a nce to adu lts . Al! must go thro ugh developrnenta l stages o f

111

."1101')

h

.,i~,

from je lly-Ii ke gg to aq uatic larva \Vith

gills. As they become adults, Lhey wi ll craw l o nto land, breathe aie and live o n land as if ap pearing by m agic. The word amphibian is derived fro rn Greek a nd ref1 ects a grealer awareness of what must h ave eern ed, th en, a w ly slra nge gro u p o f C-l 'ea tures. Amphi m eans borh, and bio.\ m ean li fe, life both in lh waler and Jife on land.

Tod ay, lhe re are m o re Lhan 4000 di ffe re nt speci es o f a mph ibians, ra ngi ng fro m the tra p ie to th e u barcLic regions of th e w o rld . Their num ber (l re decreas­ ing at an alarming rateo Ma ny h ave beco m e extinct just in lhe last few d ecad es, others h ave suffered m assive die-offs, and still o the rs are exh ib iti ng defo rmi ties th at can not be expIai n ed .

192

Amphibia ns

TO INS PRODUCED BY

MPHIBI N PPODU'"

Bufo species contain toxins potent enough to ki li a 5mal l dog, shou ld it be unfortu­ nate enough to pick it up in its mouth . Other effects of amphibian toxins indude neu ro toxins and the vasoconstrict ive effects of the pOlson darts. Many amphibians produce potenl toxins , some of which are powerful halluclnogens .

IN 199.... , during a classroorn pro¡ect, large numbers of deformed frogs we re discov­ ered in Hellderson, MlIlnesota. Many frogs had missi ng or ext ra limbs, legs sprouting f rom t hei r backs, and, in some cases, both legs growing from the same side of t he body. One frog had only one developed eye . The other eye wa s later found to have developed in it s throat . Since then, 40 ot her states have reported finding frogs with sim ilar deformit ies ( Lut z, 2002).

Th e in crease in hum an pa pu Ja tia n a n d urba n dev Jopment and lhe de Lructi an o f wet la n ds and o ld grow lh fo res ts h ave undoub ted ly p layed a m, jo r role in lh decli n e o f amphi bi ans, rem a v ing fo ad so urce w ilh insec­ lici des a nd o ntaminalion o f h ab it al . Ma ny scie nti ts ar co n ce rn ed lh at air a nd wa ter q u lit y h ave b ome so po ll u ted th at, coup led wilh glo ba l wa rm­ ing, lhe d mis e of am p hibi a ns is a prob ab le in d ica wr of ou r v ry sick p lan t. T h e n um b ers of decli ni n g amp h ib ian s p cies worlcl w id e i ' accele rat ing. Th e World Conservat io n Union li ts 918 amp hib iall sp cies for which th e n ll m­ ber are d c1 inillg 0 [, pe rha p s wo rse, thei r stat us is un kn own ( Red Da la Boo k, 20 0 6 ) . 1l(>[PCh IOg) , ¡he stu dy of rep li le antl amp hib ians, h as long b een a reco g­ nized cie n ce. Thi s scie nce is co nst ant ly changing as new repti les a nd am ph ib­ ia ns are d i,sco ve red amI lU d ie d. ll owever, a m ateu r o ll ec lors an d hob b)' is/s have rea l el a new deman d an d a new lh rea t. Many s pecies h ave been ex ­ p loiled beyo n d recove ry to sup ply lhe m arket. Man ' pec ies d o nOl breed in ca p tivity. ' u p pl ing the peL market ¡Lh "v ild -ca ught s p cim ens o f aIready rare amphib ians h as p laceo m a ny sp e ie on CITCS e n d a ngered list. Fo r ex, m p l , the l iny (under ¡ inch ) go ld e n m ant !la frog was freq ue n tly fo u n d in pe t sto res as recenlly a:. 00 2. Il is n o \ th o ugh t lo b extincl in íts n al ive h a bitat of Mad aga car. \ mphibians can be aq ua tic terrestrial, or arbor al. Generally lhey are grouped as A/ ll/rrI, lhose wi lh o ul lai ls (frogs ancl loéds), ((lllrla ta , lhose wi th ta ils (salamanders, newls, and sirens), ilnd gynz nophio na, Lhe caecilians, or (he li m ble s amphi b ian:,. The family ,\ n ura has lhe grealeSl d iversity \ ilh app r xim ate!y 3500 s pecies. M o~ t frogs a re semiaqualic, wi lh [he -Jí. ep tio n o the Surinam toad an d the Afri ca n d awed frog, which are ent ire ly aqllJ ti c. There is no b iologi al d ifferen ce betwee n fro gs ,md toads, but lh e le rms are lIsed t separate lerr toxins a re derived from feed ­ ing o n a n ts lhat eal 10 ' ie plams in lhe wi I j ( Figur¡> 16-2). Th e Wh ite's tree frog is another popul ar pet fro g and o n e o f lhe largest of it subfa mily, Li taria . These frog. are big and s turdy and beco m

r lativel tame in

captivi . The frog's p pea[ance of being ouerweig/lL, cOll pled w ith its folds of skin, is app a ling lo a large number of a mph ibi an quen tl y called dllmpy 1¡-pe jrogs (figure 16-3 ).

ner . W hile's tree frog, are fr ­

Amp hibia ns

195

Figure 16-2 BlHYiblebee po ison dart frog . (Co u ne~ of Kar l;y Nllttilll.)

Figure 16 3 Whi te ' s t ree frog, often called dumpy cree frog.

(Co urtery of Katlry Nuttall.)

Red- yed !Iee frogs have stri ki ng co lo rs wilh cri mson-r d eyes. They are d li­ cale a rboreal frogs thal requ ire a more xp rienceo herpelOlogist (Figu re 16-4) . Th liger alamanuer is one of lhe wo rl d 's largesl land -d welling sa l, ma nder species. Th is noaurna l sale l11i1nder ad jusLS \ 11 LO capti vity anu te nds Lo b urrow under logs (Figure 16-5 ). Correct iden lilkaLion of many species is el ud ed I n d co nfused. Su ppliers m ay not kno w ¡he genus and recie~. hipmems arrive in lhe retail m arket with a variety of common names Ihat vary from lo alion la loca tio n and w ho Jesaler to whole­ alero Pe! stores also a slgn in a rrea nOl11endature lO species, based 011 Ilolh ing

196

UNIT V • CHAPTER 16

Figure J6 4 Red-eyed tree frog. (Co urtesy of Kathy Nuttall. )

figure 16-5 Tlge r salamander. (Courtesy of !(Jt);y Nutta//. )

If'I Ol'l E SUCH It S"T"ANC . what was purchased as a Frog tadpole was dropped off in a cla ssroom in LJtah . It was left in a 30 gallon aquarium wi t h about 4 inches of foul smelling wate r, rotti ng vegetabo n and dead, bloated ealthworm s. Th is tadpole beca me a full y grown, air breath ing terrestrial sa lamande r th at measured 9 inches long. Wh en identified , it turne d out to be arare spe ci es, nati ve only t o the Kentucky River Palis ades . It was not dete rmined how the larva came to be sold in a pet store in Salt Lake City.

Amphibian s

more lh a n ap peara nce. Many 1.1lIpolt.· or u nde r bushes, rock Jedges, and logs. They are mOS l aCl iv in m e Iale aftemoo n ro ea rl)' eve ning. Th ey are crepuscu lar predalors, killing (h e majorilY of rhei r prey al dusk

215

Figure 18-2 The molted exoskel· eton o f a healthy tarantu la . (Cau rte~ 01 lordan Applied Technalogy Ce nt er, West lardan , Utah.)

216

UNIT VI· CHAPTER 18

NO ONE SHOULD FVER PLACE A TARANTULA 01'1 ANOTH ER PERSO N AS A PRANK Many people have a deep -seated fear of spiders. Tarantulas have been killed when the victim ins ti nctively jumps away and the t arantula c rashes to the floor. Un less startled or thr-eatene d, tarantulas rarely bite. When t hey do, it can be very pa inful and there is a lways th e risk of asevere alle rgic reaction to the venom.

lIous'"A Ta rant ulas are u ual ly kep t in glass aq uari a wi th secured screen li ds. Wh eth e r gro u nd d we lliog or arbo rea l, th ey a re ad p t cl imbers. AlI eoclosu res sh ould be loo ge r th a nlh y are tall to p reve n t a fa ll tha t co uld ea u.e autoo o my o r abdo minal ruptll re. r ven tree-d wel ling speci es need

0 01

an assort ment o f b ra n hes

00

lhe

fl oor to use as an chor s ites fo r webs. Th e s u bstrate ean b e a mi xture o f b a rk, peal m os , and po ttiog soi l. Acl d io g ve rmieu lite h Ip, to retai n moi t ure. AIl tJLlnt u las s h ou ld b e provi d ed w ith a de n a rea, a place to retrea t. 1!a lf-ro und co rk logs, sma ll flowe r pO I , or o o e oC th e l11Jny su ita ble hUi" avail a b le in p et slo res wi.ll be used by ta ran lul as . [-[ u mi dity a n d te mpe ratu re requ ir men ts va ry wilh difrerent spe ¡es. Incr ased hu m idity w ill assist wi th lh e m o lt, but hu midity th at is too h igh will e ncourage mol d and fungal grawth. r or m os! speei es, P TZ is between 72 a nd 82 o F. Ta rantu las shou ld be ho used s ingl y or can n ibali sm \·'/i 11 occu r. A sha llow wate r dish sh ou lJ be provided . This can b e as simp le as a jar lid lu rn ed upsi de d own. Th ere ar wra ntula sponges (s m a ll p ie es o f n a tural s a sponge) tha t a re soaked in d echl o ri nal ed water a n d pla ed in lh wal r J ish. Th e use of [hese is co11lraversi al a n d m a ny feel lha t lhe sp nges enco u rage bacterial growth . Sponges are usecl l increase hUrTud iry, but a1so so th e ovm er will no t have 10 change lh e wale r as often . AlI 'Nater d ish es, wilh or w ithout s po nge ', should be clean ed and r plen­ ished dai l . ~Xlra lighting is nol req uired, as ta rant u las are crepusru lJ.r/ nocturnal. [n direct exposure to n atural su n light is su ffi cient. N igh t Lim e aCLi\'i ties e using a b lack 01' red ligh 1.

11

be observed by

AIl tara ntu las a re earnivores a nd shou ld b e offe red li ve prevo Mos t ca p tive sp ecimens a re ~ d a sla p le dit:: t of crick e ts . Mea l worl11 S, wax \. o rm s, an d grass­ h o pp e.rs a re a l o rea dily ta k n O pe ndin g on th e size o( úle ta r ntuL, p in kie mi ee sh o ul d al so be fed occas io nall y. Ad u llS sh o ul d be o ffere d food every o the r d ay. Spi d erlings are re d da ily. Taralllu la' a r liq uid f ede rs. uch like the sco rp ions, la ra n LU I s rip p re y into shreds and inj .el it wi th dig stive e n z,ymes . The ¡¡q uid is rh e n suc ked into th e abdo minal cavit . Uve insects sh o u ld n ot

-

Tarantulas be terl in l he h a b ilat, as they will chew on lhe legs and abdomen of a resl in g Laranlu la.

Ilandrng As a gen era l rul (>, la rantuIJs are not receptive LO being handled a nd are b st o bse rved in th e habila r. When it is necess ry to move a ta ra nlula, a large, soft aq uari um net (on e IMge eno ugh to enco mpass fu lly extended legs) can be used. Protecti l'e eyewear is slrong }y recomm ended 10 preven ( urticaria ) hairs from pen­ c trati n g Lhe e, es if lhey are flicked from th e back of an agitated tara ntul a . Th e larantul a sho u ld be all owed to craw l out of the net and not be shaken away from ir. Alte rn alivdy, it can be herded inlo an other, small er container w hile

5till in lhe enclo su re. Many expe ri enced kee pers allo w the ir tara ntuJas to crawl inLO

el

scoop

J h a nd . They sh ou lcl not be pokeJ or proelded Wi lh a ny hard obj ect.

'1'0 m ove a ta ra nt u la from a n area wilh in th e hab it, a long-h anclled , soft-bri stled paint b rush ge ntly Slr ked down th back w ill encourage it to move away. Wh atever m eLhod is us el, the safe ry of the tara n tula s hould be u p perm o st. Ta rantu las a re easil l frighte nt::d an d a re very quick LO read. The abdo men can s plit and rupture if lhe ta ra ntu la falls even a short clistance. BeCduse of the open circul atory system, a ta ran tula m ay q u ickly bleed to death.

Sick a nd clyi ng tara ntu las sit rlLl nd1eJ u priSht with lh eir legs tucked un derneath the m. They are re luctant LO move and beco me an oredic. Ivlany losses a re due to inco rrec t housing, lack of sufficient fo od ancl wate r, or excess ive attempts

lO

hand le.

ondi

t("SI h ("

lisordt·.,s

The mos Lcon lmo n problems faced by tarant u l< s relate los (a u lono my) of a leg in elu d es th e entire limb.

to

trau m a . Normal, willful

Ir a tarantula

beco m es caugh t

in a ha bitat a no lo se onlya part o f lhe les, the rem aind er sbou lcl be removed . If Lhe pa rti a l leg is lefr, the tara nlul a could ble el o ut from lhe re maining stump. The st u m p sh oul d be grasped firmly w ith a pair of forceps and pu ll ed up in one qui ck movemen t.

urgical gl ue or a ny comm on s uperglue sho u ld be applied

to

the

stum p o f a for ibly removed les. Abdom inal splits, if addresseJ before lh ere is too J11 uch he m o lyrn ph lo ss, may also be sea led in this m a nner.

Ta ran tu las couId be infested with m iles, n em atodes, and rounclwonns, al! of whi ch m ay be like ly in wild-c ugh t specimens. Particul a r/y ins idious is the fl y larva o f aGroceridlle species. Tbey a re co m m only called small-headed flíes. Fe male Oies lay Lhe ir eggs nea r restins spiders. Wh en lh

la rva h alches they crawI up the

sp ider's legs and emer the booklu ngs. Th larval' m ay stay clo rmant for many years bef re begin ni n g lO feed on tbe ta ra ntu la'¡, in terna l organ s.

217

218

UNIT VI' CHAPTER 18

o

What two types of venom do tarantulas possess?

8

What is an open circulatory system?

e

Tarantulas do not have blood, they have _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

o

What are the purposes ofweb production?

e

What are the urticating hairs?

O

What is a dry bite?

8

What parasites commonLy infest tarantuLas?

(¡) Why is it important to know the sexual differences?

o

What happens to the spermathacae if a female does not produce eggs?

4l!) What is meant by liquid feeder?

Tarantulas VITAL STATISTICS

LlFE SPAN

Molting tarant ulas lay on their backs, legs up ; sick

• Females, 15 to 30 years, depending' on species Males, 1to 2 years or less , depending upon species

tarantulas remain upright, legs folded unde rneath . Adults molt yearly, juveniles may molt 4 times ayear

REPRODUCTION

WEIGHT

• Sexual Maturity:

Females: average 5 years

• Average: 15 to 16 g

Males: one year

J", rl h~r Reading Ars

liuantu la Care Sheet. American Taraolula Sociely. hltp://www.al hq.org (accessed 4/0 6/06 , 7/ 11/0 6).

Breene, Robert ale, 111 . Spider Digestion and Food Slof!lge. !\meri an Tarantula

So iety. http://www.atshq.org (accessed 12/ 21 /05 ).

http :// wwvv.centralpets.co m (accessed 07/10/06 ).

h up://wvvw.encha ntedlearning.coml (a cessed 7/1/06) .

Flank, Lenny Jr. ( 1()9fl) Tlle Ttlri.lll wla ¡ lowell B ok Hou

Walls, len)' G. (1 995 ). Red Knees, Legs and Rumps: An Int roduction to Bra hypdma

Tarantu[as. RepUle Hobbyist, 1 (4 ), 48 - 55 .

hup://en.w ikip d i .o rg (acee s d 7/ Ll/06).

Hermit Crabs

Alter comp1elins lhis d lilpt el; che 51wiell { s/¡o llld be alJle to • • • • •

p ropeTly house a hermi t aa b. pr vi de appro pria te cliem dueatio n 10 new hemlit crab ovmers. ide ntify a nal mical fea LU res. demonslrate appropriate handling te hn iques when working with a hermi ¡ r b. provi de an appropri a te di t fo r a herm it crab.

--pod c:heUped asymmetrial strIdulation

Inl rodu('lion Hermit erabs h e been kepl for m any years a nd tire not new to lhe pe t markel, bu t now there is much m ore knowl edge abo ut tb em and ¡hei r eare in captivi ty. Herm it crabs are lcc cha nces o f reg u rgitalio ll during surg ry and alsa makes it m ore d iCri u ll to ad eq uate ly in fl ale lhe lungs . Ma st amelid do Ilat req uire premedica ti n un [ es~ lhey are fractiClL!. when adm inis­ t rin g t he anesthelics o r wh n p [acing a jugular meter.

u

-

Alpacas and Llamas

Jame lids have vcry li ule spac in me oropha rynx nd long m an d ib le that prevents easy visuali zaLion of the e piglo tti s. En do tracl al tube placemenl is the sa m blind technique used in ho rses . The anesLhetiz d alpaca is placed la terally wi Lh its head iln d neck fll lly extend ed . A m Ulh specu lu m is required. If in tuba­ lion is diffícult, a na o tracheal tube ca n be pIe C J in lead. I o fl u ran e is used su ccess ful ly in bOÚl alpacas and lla mas. Patients are moni­ to red with ¡he use of a d oppler an d E G for hea rt ra le and blood pressu re. A p ul se may be felt ov r lh auri cu lar, femo ra L or dor 1peda l artery. A pulse oximeter can a1 so be used to manil r lhe patient's oxygen and heart raleo Normal hea rt rate is 60 to 90 b p m in lhe acl ull camelid. In gene ral, m ost rum inanls usuaIly m aíntain good blood pressure, (75 mm Hg or aboYe ), un der a nesth esi . ' j he a erage respi­ ra tary fa t und r aneslhes ia is 10 to O b reaths per minute and manu al ventila­ tions sho uld be performed when necessary. IlypoLhermia can be a complication during general ane thesia. Cme body tem­ perarur should be mon itored carefu ll . ¡fthe palient becomes hypothermic, admin­ iSlering wa rmed IV fluids o r placi ng the patient o n a heating pad is recommended. Ca mel id ar cons id red sensible anima ls durin g recovery. They rarely att mpt to stand unti l tJley art' (apa ble o[ stand ing without [alling over. Du ríng recovery, they sh oulcl be p laced in sternal recum bency and n t extuba ted until t hey are acüvely trying to pi l ou t the endotrach ea l tLIbe. As with m a ny s peci es, a smoo th ind u lion often produces a smooth recovery.

Parasites can becom e a p roblem in alp acas and ll a m as becaus they afre 1 no t o nly th health o f the an imaL b Ul the fiber of the co at. Th y sh ou ld be d wormeu twice yea rly, rolating anrhelmin tic prod ucts. Co mmo n in lernal parasi t s indude protozo ans.1'h se para siLes can cause poor growth and produ ctivity. The most deva, taling parasites for alpacas are nema to des. Crías d o nOL have a d v I ped enough imm une sys tem lO cope with a nema tode invasion . Th ey rap id ly faíl to lhrive, lose wei ghl, and an d velop bon deformi Lies. A parasite of growing concem, especi al ly o n the eastem ( Oasl o f th e Un ited States, is the men ingea l wo rm. The natural host is the while-[ailed de r. The parasite can be tra n m illed 10 a lpacas and llamas wh n de r invade grazing Jand and pastures. Meningeal womlS are hair-lik rou nd wmms tl1at in ad e tJle spac b twee!1 lhe brain and surround ing tissue (the m e! inges ). The men ingeal wonn ís com monly alled lhe brain !(Ion /!. Jñe ad ult stage o f th worm causes pa ral sís in the alpaca and lla ma. To date, there is no lrealment and affect d animals are humanely eUlhanjzed.

Rt \ h'" Qlu'sl ¡OIlS

o e

Explain how alpacas and llamas are placed in kush. Why are body temperatures so variable in alpacas and llamas? How is digestion different from monogastric species?

O

What could cause limb deformities in crías?

e

List the interstate documentatíon required to transport alpacas and Llamas.

237

238

UNIT VII' CHAPTER 20

What are the recommended vaccinations for alpacas and LLamas?

List the visual differences between alpacas and Llamas.

What are some of the reasons alpacas and Llamas have become so

popular?

What differences are see n in camelid blood cells?

e

How and why do camelids spit ?

Alpacas and Llamas

ADULTWEIGHT

• Birth síze : Llama cria 8-20 kg (18-45 lb), Alpaca cria

• Llama: 113.6 to 215.9 kg (250 to 475 lbs) • Alpaca: 55 to 90.9 kg (121 to 200 lbs) L

n

3.6-10.4 kg (8- 23 lb)

• Wean: 6 month s VITAL STATISTICS

SPAN

Temperature: 36.6 to 40 Oc (97.5 ° F to 104 ° F)

20 years

• Heart rate: 60 to 90 bpm

REPRODUCTION

• Respiratory rate: 10 to 30 breath s per minute

• Sexual maturity

MaLe: 2 to 3 years

DENTAL

FemaLe: 1year (over 100 lbs body weight)

Dental formula 2(11 / 3, C 1/1 , P/ M 1-2/ 1-2, M 3/ 3)

• Gestation: 11 mo nths (335 to 360 da ys)

Ande rson, David F.. http ;//w\.vw vet. oh io-stat .edu (aecessed Fowl er, Murray E. (1 998). Medicin e and Editiol!. lowa State Pr s.

I

larch 20 06).

lI rger)' of South American Ca melids 2 nd

Hoffman, Erie & Fowler, Murray E. (1 99 7). Tite Alpaca Book: Malwgement, Medicine, Bi%g)', and Fiber. Clay Press, Inc. (Oh io ). Jo h nson , La Rue W. (200 5 ). Tahing a Closer roo/¿ at Alpacils. Co lo rado State Universi ty, CSll It search, l:o rt Coll ins, CO (semi nar pa pers). O ttemess, Clark & Ottemess, Janel. Al ta Mist Al pa01s, 1Ierriman , T'tah 20 03-2006. Conversalion, advice, and practical exp rie nee wit h lhe floc k of Alta Mis\. Schoen ian, Susa no Meningeal Won n, Brain Worm. Weslern Ma ryl . nd R 's a reh an d Educati on Cen te r, Maryland Co opera tivc [ xt nsion. Decem ber 20 05.

w\vw" heepanJgoat.eom (aceessed 2004).

M"n"ature P"g

OH JE( '1'1\

~'

netidla teeth IOWI

tusles bo..INrrows gilb sow. root

pighook Ethologists wallow pig board I'1!!portilble diseilSe

Ajier compleling II1i5 chaple,; Ihe 51udenl shall/d be able /O

• properl y ho use mini alur pigs. • provi de ap p ropriate cl jent ducaüon lO ll( W 111 i n iatur pig o\-vners. • be familiar with th e co mmon accines avail able, whe n LO adminjsler lhem, and how t adl11ini sler Ih m. • proví de appropriate di ts lO m el the neecl oC lh p ig. • provid e basic nursing GHe 10 Ihe minialure pig. • provide appropri at r s([ai nt lech nique for comm on proceclures WilhOL1l caus­ íng too mu -h stres a nd anxie ty in lh pig.

nll'odu( ion In the late 1980s the ullimare /l elO pel was íntroduced lO Un it d ta tes through Canada. O pite a cost ofseve ral Lhousand dollar eh, th ietnamese potbellied pig became America's golta llave one fado Canaclian, Keith ConnelL mayb e n ve r lhoL1ghl (nor was il h is intention) lh t this miru al Lue pig would beco m a hou e pet, sough t after as a co mpanion animal and family me mber. Orig inal l)', lhe pigs were imponed to zoo collect ions as arare and differen t b reed of pigs. Th ey came from Vi Ln amese stock a nd had ve.ry di sti nctive characteristícs. The bigge l appeal was th eir s m all size. People did not unde rstand that smalln ess a l n ' did not ma ke the ani m al any ¡ess of a pig. The were soon confronted wilh lhe realily of lrying to cope with and lIndersta nd exactly what they had broughl into the ir homes ( ri gure 21 -l ). Alth o ugh the pop ul ari ty of the Vietnam ese potbellied pi g has decl ined and they are ce rtainly more affordable, many who bllY lhe (l dorable lilL/e piglet soon discover it eco mes a pig. The re are countless pig rescue organizat io ns an u h Iters overflo ing wilh pigs tha l h ve be n abandoned . Reasons often oled for nOl keep ing them: umnanageable, aggressive-at:Lacks my friends, it bites, ie's 100 big, Ihe landlord said il had lo go .. ., can't find jafford 11 vet, and he won't get 0[( lhe COUcf¡f (Ching,2 05). The o rigi nal imported sto ck was small and averaged between 75 an d 150 pounds. They were ap p roximately 15 lo 18 inches ta l!. Miniatllre was often a selling point. It was 1l0t long b fo re they were out-crossed an d lhe mini-pig m atured mu ch larger th an prom i ed, often al 350 pou nds or more, but com pared to agricu ltural pigs lh at (an weigh up lO 1000 poun ds or more, they were srill minialLlre. Despite

240

Mini atu re Pigs

F gure 21

Ahealthy mlxed

breed rn iniature pig. (Courtesy

Ching Farm SanctuaIY.)

ed ucflti na l organizal io ns anu mullip le reso u[ces ava ila b le, owneL he lel o n to the ir own expecla tions and lhe fun o f having a p ig, Puception s changed dra m ati­ cal ly when confron ted Wilh rea lity. There a re m any p eo p le d edicated LO th eir pet p igs. In me right cirCu t11Sla n Ce~, pigs afe a L o devot d to Lhe ir human companions, are easí! lra ined , a nu beco me n j yab l n d co mpat ible compa nion anim als. Many ow ners u nd r tand exact ly \, b al a pig is, w ha l il can never pos, ib Iy be, and how ro co pe Wilh behavi ora l L

issues nd emOl ional p[ b lerns a nu accep t lhe re po nsibilily o[ pro vitling vel fi ­ na r), ar , hoof tri rns, ar clea n ing. and yearly vaccinal io fl s. Piglets are born precocia L They are born wim leelh . The baby a nin s a re refe rred lo as dI '1 lit and are usua lly dippeJ out w h n th ey are one day ol d. They a re extrem el si arp and used for fi ghling. eed le t elh also lace rale the , )\ ~ udder). Ir ,h e adull canine leelh are not re m oved, th e)' d evelop inlO ery l::¡rge tu 1., in m a les. Tusks, incisor leelh , are op en-ro o leu Jnd grow continually Due to the ir lo e li on in lhe l11 ou lh, lusks are shdrpened by jaw mov m n l a n d soon deveJ op inlo fo rmillab le wt'ap ns. Pigs have fo m toes o n ach [ OO l. Two are walki ng loes a nd

tWO

a re dew d aws.

ll oof lrims hOllld b e d o ne rou ti nely lO preve nt vergrow lh .l nd I l11 e ness. 0 11 o f lhe mOSl com m o n lame.ne . p ro blcm fo u n d in pi g i )V rgrow n h oves. Pi gs need fO Uline h oof LrilllS a lo ng \Vilh yea rI y vace inat ions. Fem le m ini tur I ig reach sexual maturily between lh ree a nd fo ur 1110 m h . M( les a re sexually malure al th r e m o m hs, [ales a re fte n neutered as S0 0l1 .1 lhe testicles d escen d , as early as JO d ays. Fem a les can be spayed between 10 and l G weeks. If left unspayed . fema Ies cycI e ap rox imalely every 20 d ays for a peria d th at lasLs [o r lWO l lhree days. G sta tíon is approxim al >Iy 114 days, also ca lculated as tlnee mO!IL/¡s, {h me 1l'E'ehs, lhrec da)'s. Uner s izes in nü n ia ture p igs \lary frorn fo ur to ei gh t Sows have been known to cann ibalize lhei r young, especia lly weaker, s m aller pigleLs or pi glels lhal have been u na b le la e 'tab lis h J pla e in lh e pechins arder. n adu ll m a le pig is a ~ ).lf. Wl1en n utered, lh ey are ca lled l.lfTO\\'!-t . ¡;emal es are ca ll d Ill~ un lc;ss 1hey prouuce a IiUer, the n th ey a re cal led \( \.,. Th e cyes ight

f pi gs is poor, b ut they h ave an excellent sen e of ~ melL Th y

ca n ¡acate foou underground . with roo Ling "ne! sniffing, a ne! a n also s ent me!

24 1

01

242

UNIT VIII· CHAPTER 21

fo llowa trail in th e airo Pigs are so famou s fo r their keen sense of sm ell that th y are lIsed to locHe truffles, a hard to find and much s ugh t after edibl fun gus that grows und · ground. The sno ut of a pig has d evel o ped to dig o It has a di stinctive cJisc of caI1.il age th at strength ens it and enables th e pig to rUI) . They are ab le to root IIp fe.nces, bushes, and sm aIl tr es an d wark lh ir way th roug h woo de n ba rri rs. Rooting behavior is a natu ral insti nct th at ca n no t be changed. O lltdoo r pigs wil! root up a reas of lawn ancl gardens. They ar o effici e.n t al lh is Lha t rnan 0\ ners d e liber­ ately pen thcm over areas that need to be tilI ed. [Io use hol d pigs root up carpet and floorin g. Pigs roo t to explore, find food, and aeate co ol wallows to li e in. Metal pig ri!!gs that pi rce thl" nd of lhe snout will not detes ( pig from rooting. Th is is a co mmon agricultura l practice, and is also used as mel hod of contro lLing an an im al in conjun dion with a pi r hook - a lon g po le with a hook at the end tl1a l is intend ed to lead the pig arollnd by ¡he nose. 10re often th a n not, there is no co ntrol and the pi g b co m s irate a nd ag!ITessive. Miniature pig are not odorless, as man b reeders have cl aimed. Thei r o d or resembl es iodin e or so met h ing me tallic, !lot rarticu ldrl y u n pleas m, b Ul evident. Papaya frui! is oflen fed to house-pigs to h Ip r m ove the piggy l/ roma. Pigs, r gardless of lh ir s tatus as pets, are agricu ltural ani mals. ¿o n ing ordi­ nances usua lly do not pcrm il th I eep ing of li estod : in towns an d citi es. Iwa!s check Wilh th e zo ning o f/i ce before obtainin g a pet pig.

He-ha io!'

WHEN ELEPHANTS WEEP; the [matianal Uves of Animals by Masso n, leffe,y Moussa ieff and Susan Mc Ca rthy (1996) is groundbreaking in hu man understanding and accep­ ta nce that animals have emotions.

Pigs of an b reed are noted fo r their in telligence. It h s o nl . b en recently that an)' previousl j insisted discussi on of an imal m otion was considereJ v lid. I .Lholu i Ihat emoliom were only attribu led l O an imal because of h uman eeli ng, and inter­ p reta tio n, lhat il was very sub jective and an lhropo m o rp hic. Researche rs are n ow openl)' disc u ing e m otio nal intelli ge nce in a n im als Pigs (a well as ma ny olh er species ) l ave d em o nSl rat d very d eae appropriate emotional reactio ns. Ow n e.rs and rescuers spea k of piggy temper tantrums, tha t pigs can be em barrassed when augh l causi ng m ischi t{ cry tears when dis lressed or with the los o f a be loved co m pani on, exh ib it joy, and h ave a s nse of hu m or. They can have th e ir feelings easil) h urt with ha rs h wards . Mi n iature pigs have na tu ral beh avi o rs ti at ar no d ifferent from otl,e r b reeds. Pigs are herd an imals :md establ is h a hie f3 rcb from the m omen t they are bo rn. They w ill figh l , nd scram ble f r a l al, push , sho e, and vo calize \ ilh cach o ther un tí l the ard er is e labli hed o As th y m alure, domin nce iss ue:; con tin ue, both with o th r pigs and with lhe new herd of hu m ans. Pigs will fi gl t, ch arge, swing their heads, and bite lO esta bl ish dom ina nce. Th is can be v ry intim id ating lO h u mans, an d it is m eal lt to be. Mos t p o ple co nl"ro n ted w ith a p ig vying for dom ina nce ill back off in a r aso nab Je fear f being injured , a nd lh heh avior becomes rein fo rced . It is no t t he owner w ho i' al lh to p o f th herd, bu t l he pig. Dom ina nt p igs have, and expeCl, cenain p rivi leges: They have the choicest food and lhe best W.111O\ ' . Su bo rd ina le pigs ar p resen ted \ ith the e.xpo sed abd o m n of the do minal1l p ig in the expeclation of a massage. In the kitchen, pet pigs n íp al th eir ()wner' nkl , refuse lO vacale lhe couch , antl p down in front of

n

Miniature Pigs

fam il y mem bers, exposing lhe ir bellies. f-Iumil ns resp ond by say ing: Tsn't thaL culeo Molly lVi/n/ s a tunull)' ric!?le and proc ed to d o it, rein fo r ing the do minance th al the pig has estab lis hed . This is pro bab ly the most COJ1l ll1o n m isinterpretati on of pig behavio r and Ljll ickly leads to th ' [ b I vio ra l issues. 'xposure of a pig's belly is no t to be o nfllsed with lhe subm issive postu re of a dog Pigs should b e lrained Wilh posi live reinfo rceme n t, nO l phy 'ka l punishments. Food U'eats lls\:!d as lra ining a ids us ually onl leach lhe p ig to beg, whi ch q uickly hecomes a nuisanc behavio r. oys make better reward fo r good behaviors .

IInush

~

Pigs are very ele n. They are ea il, housebrok n because it is natural for them to mi nate an d de~ < te away from bedd ing and fo od, II llseho ld p igs use a liuer box j [ they have no access l the o utdo ors. La rge doggie daor" are installed when pigs are a1l wed out. When out ide, pigs use on d signaled ar a of lhe yard lo u rin ate an d el (ecate. !t is no t reco m m ended lO keep pigs ind oors. t\!l p igs need a shel t r Lo pro lect lhem Cro m lhe e tremes o f weather, b lh hOl an d m ld. Pig do not have sweat gland5 ,nd do Ilo l panl I1 ,ddiLion te shade, they sh olll d be gi ve n an area in to wh idl te dig a v J ]jow or be provided wilh a shallow dlil d's pool. The skin of pi gs is very sim il ar lo human skin ami cal be eas ily su n bu rned. They s ho u ld h ve su n­ ree n app lied da il y ror their pra t ction . Pi gs do not have 1ll 11ch hai L They do a l have enough o f coal to provi de a ny wannlh . The, need a deep straw bed lo kee p them o ff lhe cold ground and b d­ ding m terial to over lh em and t rool u nder. Sleeping bags, q u ilts, and bl, nkels provide comfon J nd wa nnlh. In v ry co ld areas, supp lrm en ta l hea tin g h L1 ld be provid d for Lhem . H ' at lamps s holll be uspe nd d over lhe sleep ing area. Pigs are v ry su eplib le lO pn um onía a nd lh biggesl co ntrib utin g ause is an ina bil­ ily lO stay warm . La rge, shall ow ba ins hou ld be pr vided for amp l frt> h drinking water. he supply sho uld b eh ck d reguJarly, as pigs wil! pi d< up anc! carry wat r and food bowls. A good cho ice would be lhe type of heavy rllbb r tubs ol d by agri cultural suppliers. These are Lough, de 'igned [al' heavy-du ly use, anc! they re easy LO scrub out and e1ean .

l)i~1 By far Lhe grealest prob lc m seen in com pan ion p igs is ob

ity, followed e10 ely by constipa lion. Pigs are Ol11 ni vores an d they will ea l anyt hing. Co m mercial p ig di t, are not u it able fo r pet pigs as they are designed for rna;x imum growlh in the sho rtest amount of Lime. rig cho/{! sh o uld be speci fi r LO m in iature p igs where lUlriliona l go 15 are ~ [ average growth and lon gevity. Feed shou ld be m as ured, ration d , and fed ac(ording lo manufaclurer's c!irections. Feed proc!uce rs have deve lop d spccificallv formul ated d i ts for comp:mio n p igs. Treals, wh ich are as varieJ as d og biscuits and strawb rry shortca ke, need to h verely restricteu Compan ion pigs are often fed lrea ts as behavio ra J distrac­ tio os and bribes. Many favorile lrealS an cause constip ¡io n. One easy rem edy

243

244

UNIT VIII' CHAPTER 21

to constipation is to [eed can ned p ump kin. Pet pigs enjoy the taste and it h as laxat iv effects. Fresh gr ens and root vegetabl es can also be . dded lO th e d i t. The € should b e purchased [resh a nd of human q uality. It is il lega l to fe ed raw ga rbage to pigs. Pig slop, the combination of whatever might be Jeft over from hu man co nsump­ tion, is prohi bited by fed eral and state Jaws that we r en acted to control swine diseases. This law also applies tO companion pigs.

R(~strainl

and

I"H1{lIin~

Pigs are not recep tive to being held. Even the small est of piglets \ViII st ruggl e and scream loud ly in an attempt to scape. Pigs can be tra ined to v ear a harness and walk with a lea sh, but the route is us ua lly d ete rm ined by me pig. They are cer­ tain ly intelli gent e nough ro learn o bedience a nd leash behéw ior but they are also strong will ed en ough to ig nore them. The wei gh t o f an adult pig usually p ro hibits tryi ng to lift it fOí restra int or an exam. Pigs are rE.'l uctant to move in bright light and are mo re ea ily persuaded to move in subdu ed lighting. A plg hoard , a large solid b arri er held from beh ind the pig, can be used to maneuv >r a pig in a certain d irection . For almost al! proce­ d ures, chemical restraint is required . e h mical rest raint refers to the use of drugs for sed atio n and an th ia . 'lil e ideal ch m ical restrai nt is one lha t is easily in duced and the 'ffects of wh ich ca n be reversed . These are often referred ro as cod(/t lils lha t c mbi ne more lh a n one agent, such as m edeto m idine for sed ation a nd torbuge ic for pain relief. The freo s of medetomidine are reversed with an anti ee!ent whi ch nables a quick recovery wh ile lhe be n f¡lS of analges ia remain (Orf, 2006).

Uedical

eOIU (~rnS

Locating a ete rina ri a n to care for a companion pig is not a h-vays easy. Before obta in ing < pig, veterinary services need to be lo cated. The veteri na ri an sh o u ld be ex perienced with pet pigs a nd [heir behavioral iss ues, be willing and ki li d in performing hoof ane! teeth trims, and provide ad vire for vaccinations and heal th concerns of co mpanion pigs. Just as importa ntly, the ve terinar ian a nd staFf sh o ul d recogni ze that lhe h uman- animal bond is just as strong wi th a pet p ig as it is wilh a dog or a cal. Exotic animal veterin arians often see ro mpani n pigs, m re so than sma ll an im al (dog and cat) pracl ices. lvI any large a nima l p ractitioners are invül ved in herd ma nagem ent ancl production, with quite diffe rent ap proaches to pig or swine heal th . There are ma ny d iseases of svvine, most of wh ich have a very low in 'd ence or are llot reponed in companion pigs. Thi s is no t ro say t h, t lh ey are im mune, b u t is more likel attrib uted to their being isol and, 73

easeous, 174

Cataracts, on 5ugar glíders, 127

CaudaLly, 50

Caudata, 193, 194

Cavy. See Guinea plgs

CDe. See Center for Disease Control (e De)

Cecotrophs (Night feces), 35

Cecum, 41

Cerlter for Disease Control (C DC), 6 , 7, 147

Cephalothorcox, 21 3

Cere , of male budgerigar, 138

Cerneal ymphadenotis, In guonea pigs, 56

Cham leons, 157, 158F. See auo Reptiles

behavlor of, 165

hous ing- or, 166

water For, 169

Chapman, Mathlas F., 60

rhe Chapman Chinchillas, See

Chelicerae, 211 , 21 3

Chellpeds, 219-220

Chelonlans. See also ReptIles

aneslhesl3 and, 184

beha ior or, 16 ­ gastroIntestInal dlsorders in , 177

housing of, 167

Intramuscular (1M) injeetions fo r, 181 , 181F

introduction to, 157, 158f, 159

medlcations for, 182

nutrotlonal support In , 182

overgrown beaks and nalls in, 180

radlographs for, 185

restrain t and handhng of, 171, l72 f

enipuneture sltes In , 181-182

Chemical restraint, for moniature pig>, 244

Ch,lean rose-halr, 215

Chilea/1 squiJ'rel, 79

ChinchIllas, 12

behavlor of, 61-62, 62f

clinical procedures for, 66

diet of, 63-64

fast facts, 67

gastrointe,tinal d,sorder, in, 65

handling and restrain of, 64, 64f, 65f

housing of, 63 , 63f

inlroducUon to, 60-61, 61f

medical concerns fo r, 6S

nondlgestive dlsorders in, 65-66

para~ite~ in, 66- 67

Chltin , 208

Chlomydophila (ps ittlcosis), In birds, 147

Choona , on birds, 147

Choke,65

Chylrldlomycosis, in amphibians, 202

Clrculcrt:ory syslem, in larantulas, 214

ClInlcal procedures

for alpacas ¡ond llamas , 235-237, 235f, 236f

for amphiblans , 203-204

for aVICln, 149-152, 150f, IS2f

ror degus , 4

for ferrets , 24-26, 25f, 26f

for gerblls, 94

ror guinea pigs , 56-57

fo r hamsters, 94

fo r hedgehogs, 76

for hermit crabs, 224

for miniature pigs , 24 6- 247, 246f, 247f

for rabbi ts , 43- 45, 44f

for rats élnd mice , 104-106, 104f, 105f, 106f

forre ptiles , 181-185 , ISIf,I84f, 185f

for short-lailed opossums , 11 6

for sugar gliders, 127- 129 , 128f

Cloaca, 137

Cloacal papillomas, in birds, 148

Cloacal prola pse , in blrds, 148

Clostridium, in gu inea pig> , 5454

Clostrid,um diseases , 234

Clouridiu m perfringen s, 234

Clostridil4m spirofonne, 39

Coccidia , 129

Coccidia , in piglets, 247

Cognltlon studies , 97

Cognizant, bords as, 140

Color

of chonchillas , 61

of fe rrets coat , 16

Colubrids, 159

Columbiformes, 136

Companion an imals

ferrets as, 16

zoonotlc diseases and , 7

Congenltal deafness, 16

Conjunetl itis

in chInchillas , 6S on rabblts, 40

Conservation Treaty Suppo", Fund, 2

Contour fealhers, 138

Coprophagic

chinchillas as, 62

guinea plgs , 51

rabbits ~s , 35

Coprophagic therapy, 54

Copulation, rabbits and , 37

Cornedllip idoSiS . In amphlbians , 202-203

Corn snakes, 159

Coronary artery disease , in short-tailed

opossums, 115

Crabbltat, ror herm,t cra b, 221

Crepuscular, 31

Crias (young) , 230, 23 4, 237

Crop milk , pigeons and doves productlon of,

136

Crop stasls, 146

Crustaceans, 208

Cud, 232

Curiosity, in degus , 80

Cuterebra, 45

Cuttlebones, 143 , 143f

Cyanosis, 33

D

Decapod erustaceans , 219

Deciduous (baby teeth) , 13

Dedawing, offerrets , 17

Degus

behavior of, 79- 80, 79 f, 80f

clinocal procedures for, 84

d,el of, 83

Ir'-lD EX

ha nd ling and restnunt of, 83

housingof, 80-83, 81 f, 82f, 83

Introduction to , 78-79 , 79f

key facts , 85

medical concems for, 84

Dental problems

In gUinea pigs , 56

In rabbit5, 42

DermatitIs, 115, 186

De rmatophytoSiS, In guinea pigs , 57

Desiccation , 20 1

Detr itus, 123

Dewcla, , 35

Dewlap, 37

Dlel

of alpacas and llamas, 231-232, 232f

of amphibians , 200

ofavian , 142- 143

of chlnchlUos , 63- 64

of degus , 83

offerrets , 20, 23

of ge rbil , 9 1-92

of gu inea plgS , 52-53

ofhamster, 91- 2

ofhedgehogs , 73-74

of herm it crabs , 223

of miniature pigs, 243--244

of rabbits, 34-35

of rats and míee, 101

of reptIles , 168-1 70, 169f, 170f

of seorpions , 211

ofsh ort-talled opossums , 112-113, 113f

of sugar gl ide rs, 123-126, 124t

of tarantu las , 216- 217

Digestl ve system, of avla n, 136- 137, 137f

Disem boweled, 231

Di uretic drug, for goul , 178

Diu rnal rodents , 7878

Do s rab biLs, 31

Domestic ferrets , 15

Doves , 134 , 135, 142

Down feathers , 138

Drago n, 157, 173

Drllli ng, In guinea pigs , 49-50

Dromedaries,228

Dry bite , 215

Dry heaves (nonprodudive vom iting), 65

Dumpy Tree Frogs , 194 , 195f

Duodenal ulcer, 22

Dwarf hamster, 87, 88, 88f

Dysecdys.s, 163, 164f

Dyspnea, 40, 55, 102

Dystocla,54

Dystocia in rabbits , 38

E

Ea r- cleaning, for ferrets , 19

Ea rs, of llamas and alpacas , 230, 23 1

Eastern E'lulOe En cephalitis (EEE), in alpacas

and Llamas, 235

Eastero Hog Nose snake, 164

Ecdysis, 163

ECE. See Epizootlc Catarrhal Enteritis (ECE)

E lectus parrot , 138

Ecosystems , 60

Ectotherms, 165

E ema, 93

EEE See Eastern Equine Encephalitls (EEE)

Eme rald Tree Boa, 168, 172

Emperor scorpion , 208-209 , 209r

Endangered species, 60

End em.c, 92

Endoskeleton, 12

Endot herms (warm-b ooded), 12

En dotoxemia , 54

Enrichment items, for short-tatled opossums,

112

Enteritis, in sugar gtiders, 127

E.nterotoxemia . In r"bblts, 39

Epigastric furrow, in taran lulas, 215

Ep igtotus , 26, 43

Eplsodlcally, breathing, 159

Epizootlc Catarrhal Enteritis (EC E) , 22

Equine herpes virus , in alpacas and llamas , 235

Erysipelas vaccination , for míniature plgS , 24

Erythematosus (red .ond inflamed skín) , ferrets

and , 23

E,tivate, 73

Ethologists , 242

EuLherian mammals , 10 8

Eutherians, 12

Everglades Nat ional Park In FLorida , 3

Exophthalmosis , 9 2

Exoskeleton, 20 8, 219

Exotic , defined , 2

Exotie ani mal,

concerns regarding , 3

Introduct ion to , 2-3

Exudales, 45 , 55

Eyes'ght, of pigs , 242

F Falconry, 134

FDA. See Food lInd Drug Administrabon (FDA)

Federal laws , exotlc anima ls and , 2

Feral pOpuldtlon , 31

Ferreting, 31

Ferret out, rabbits , 31

Ferrets

behavior of, 16- 19 , 17f

cltnical procedures for, 24-26, 25f, 2

diet or, 20

fast fads, 27

gastro intestinal di sorders In, 21- 23

han dling and restrilint or, 20- 21 , 21F

housing of, 19-20

introdudion to , 15-16

medica l concems fo r, 21

nondlgestive diso rders 111, 23 24, 23f,

24f, 25f parosites in, 26

Fervac-D vdccine, for ferrets , 21

Flloplumes fea thers, 138

Finches, 134

Fitch, 15

Fixed Formula dlets , for ferrets , 20

Floatmg tllt , 203

Flock statU5, birds and , 140

Flulds ,