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LIVING IN SOCIETY: NON-CONFORMITY AND PREJUDICE
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CHAPTER 1: CULTURE AND CONFORMITY What is Culture? Can culture shape identity? Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition goes a step further, defining culture as shared patterns of behaviours and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding that are learned by socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group. "Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we behave with loved ones, and a million other things," Cristina De Rossi, an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London, told Live Science. Does culture change? No matter what culture a people are a part of, one thing is for certain, it will change. "Culture appears to have become key in our interconnected world, which is made up of so many ethnically diverse societies, but also riddled by conflicts associated with religion, ethnicity, ethical beliefs, and, essentially, the elements which make up culture," De Rossi said. "But culture is no longer fixed if it ever was. It is essentially fluid and constantly in motion." This makes it so that it is difficult to define any culture in only one way. While change is inevitable, the past should also be respected and preserved. Is Culture reflective or automatic? Culture is reflective because an individual’s background has a significant effect on the propensity to reflect with others; some marginalised groups have difficulty in developing trust and a sense of security so reflective learning can be threatening unless the environment ‘intellectually and emotionally supports individuals in their learning and development’ by allowing them to challenge ideas and practices without the threat of reprisal. Culture is automatic because the cultural difference in automatic processes are particularly important because automatic processes are “deep” — difficult to change, and hence relatively enduring and more diagnostic of membership and participation in the culture. They represent knowledge acquired slowly through socialization and/or acculturation. Does culture oppose nature? Culture is a human institution, and as such it reflects the exercise of will, or at least, a set of intended meanings: culture is a world where rules and values operate. These, however, relate to human action, and are, so to speak, victims of its inconstancy: culture is also the domain of diversity of beliefs, of the inconsistency of passions, even of contradiction in human decisions. Nature, on the other hand, presents itself as a reality characterised by permanence, stability, regularity. The recurrence of seasons and blooming, the constancy of living forms, but also of the material world, cause nature to be a kind of guarantee of the substantiality of being: the fact that things have a nature gives them a sort of solidity on which humanity can rely in its actions and its enterprises.
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The Urge to Conform by Vincent Ryan Ruggiero Conformity: behaving the way others around us do. Good aspects: When conformity makes living safer, such as a kid looking both ways before crossing the street or a driver obeying traffic signs. Conformity makes life less confusing for ourselves and others. Without conformity simple things (holding a pen) and more complex ones (flying a plane) would be impossible to acquire. Bad aspects: Sometimes going along with others does not increase our safety or serve our convenience since it increases our dependency on others. In some situations, to conform with views/actions of others out of conviction, after thinking and deciding, is responsible. To conform instead of thinking and deciding is irresponsible. We learn the importance of getting along with others when we are children, we are social creatures so being separated from our group is really painful. We have the desire to belong. As we grow up we yearn for the acceptance, recognition and approval of others. In order to fit in, there is the external pressure of groups we belong to, the pressure to endorse their idea, attitudes and to imitate their actions. This kind of pressure can be generated by any group, regardless of how liberal or conservative, it may be. Even groups pledged to fight conformity can generate strong pressure to conform, the “hippies” for example, they were intolerant to dissenting ideas, values, styles and living as the society they rebelled against. Groupthink: people who made a decision exhibited a strong desire to concur in the group decision. Conformity can lead the group to focus on a few options instead of surveying the whole range of options. When they realize their decision has some drawback, they fail to reconsider the other ones. Although conformity may desirable sometimes, it is foolish to follow the urge to conform blindly. The wise person is selective in this conformity. Vocabulary Expressions to obey: follow/act according to sth to conform to the rules of etiquette: comply with out of conviction: willingly and decidedly to yearn for approval: seek to the urge to fit : the need/necessity prefabricated image: stereotype external pressure to yield to pressure: give in to refrain from (intr): to restrain (tr) to generate pressure to launch a teasing campaign against sb to pledge to fight conformity: to commit to to clash with sth: go against sth to cripple thought: to limit your ideas to concur in a group decision: to take part in/fit in groupthink defects in thinking cost untold human suffering to be selective in one’s conformity 2
gregarious: living in flocks or loosely organized communities. Sb who likes to be with ppl Idioms ● to work to our advantage Essay on the effects of rules in our lives There are so many rules in society, regardless of the culture, each society has its own unwritten and undefined rules which people living in those societies must follow in order to belong to it. We think about these rules we all obey only when sb violates them. Some of these rules are: not screaming or raising your voice in restaurants, stopping at a red light (even though you are alone), staying in your seat during a match (regardless of your emotion you respect the invisible barrier), paying a in shops or restaurants, no robbing tips from bars, etc. The Anthropology of Manners The Goops is a rhyme that expresses bad habits according to American culture. It is an enculturating device, a means of conditioning the young life in society. Having been taught the lesson of the Goops, Americans are shocked when they go abroad and find out whole groups of people behaving like Goops (eating with their fingers or making noise while eating). When this happens they may 1. remark the barbarousness of the natives or 2. try to discover the difference in nature and meaning in behaviour. In any society, the code of manners tends to sum up the culture. There is not a single thing we say, do, choose, use or think that does not follow good manners. Unfortunately, many of the most important standards of acceptable behaviour in different cultures are unwritten and undefined. Enculturation: is the process by which people learn the dynamics of their surrounding culture and acquire values and norms appropriate or necessary in that culture and worldviews Enculturating device: a method through which children get enculturated, usually used by grownups Culture shock: the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, a move between social environments, or simply transition to another type of life Vocabulary work ●
To rebel - To discriminate
AGAINST
To conform - To subscribe - To adhere - To stick - To consent - To assent
TO
To concur - To comply - To chime (in) - To fall in - To fall out
WITH
To break away - To dissent - To deviate
FROM
To assent: to agree with or officially give permission for something. To chime (in): to join a conversation by saying something. To dissent: to express strong disagreement, especially with what people in authority think or with what most people think. ● To deviate: to start doing something different from what is expected or agreed. Expressions ● ● ●
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to fit the pattern: to happen or occur in the same regular and repeated way in which something else happens or occurs. To do as others do: do what someone else is doing. To go with the crowd/flow - To follow the herd: to do or think the same as the majority of ppl. To get in(to) line/fall in(to) line: To conform, adhere to, or agree with that which is established or general accepted, such as rules, beliefs, modes of behaviour. To be brought in(to) line: to force sb/sth to be similar or of the same standard as sb/sth else. To defy: to refuse to obey someone or something. To transgress: to do something that is not allowed by law, custom, or religion. To go your own way: act independently or as one wishes, especially against contrary advice. To go it alone: act by oneself without assistance. To segregate: to separate groups of ppl or things, especially because of race, sex, or religion. To give sb the cold shoulder: to be treated in an unfriendly way by someone you know. To stay/retire/crawl in(to) your shell: a shy person stays in a quiet or withdrawn state. To keep yourself to yourself: to not talk to other people very much. To stand alone: single, complete by itself. To stand aloof: distant or uninvolved
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contravene: to do something that is not allowed by a rule, law, or agreement.
exclude: to deliberately prevent someone or something from being involved in an activity or from entering a place.
Misfit: someone who does not seem to belong to a group or is not accepted by a group, because of being different in some way
oppose: to disagree with or not approve of a plan or policy.
Outcast: someone who other people will not accept as a member of society or of a particular group or community
infringe: to break a law, rule, or agreement.
Castaway: someone whose ship has sunk and who is left on an island or beach where there are no other people
Lonely: unhappy because you are alone or Solitary: tending to spend a lot of time because you have no friends. alone. Bizarre: strange and difficult Odd: unusual or unexpected Weird: strange and unusual, to explain. in a way that attracts your sometimes in a way that interest or attention. upsets you- To rebel against (intr): to try to remove a To revolt (intr): to say that you will not government or leader using force. (against) accept someone’s authority or leadership. (against) ●
Lone wolf: someone who likes to be or work alone. 4
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Freak: sth with very unusual features that make it very different from other things of its type. Pariah: a person, organization, or country that others dislike and avoid. Crank: BrE someone with ideas or behaviour that you think are very strange. Reactionary: strongly opposed to any social or political change. Square peg in a round hole: sb whose character makes them unsuitable for the job or other position they are in. Outsider: someone who does not belong to a particular group or organization. Queer fish: OLD-FASHIONED a person whose behaviour seems strange or unusual.
Positive - neutral connotation
Negative connotation
adherent (of): a supporter of a set of ideas/organization/person. rebellious (against): fighting to remove a government or leader by force. unconventional: different from what most ppl consider to be usual or normal. dissident: sb who disagrees publicly with a government, especially in a country where this is not allowed. seditious: encouraging ppl to oppose the government or not obey the law. eccentric: sb who behaves in slightly strange or unusual ways. individualistic: believing that what individual ppl want is more important than what society or the government wants. transgressive: involving a violation of moral or social boundaries. meek: quiet, gentle, and easily persuaded by other ppl to do what they want. compliant (with): too willing to do what other ppl want or too willing to accept their opinions. independent-minded: self-reliant and seeking autonomy.
conformist (of): behaving in a way that most ppl think is correct or suitable. anarchistic: sb who believes that there should be no government or laws. yielding (to): willing to do what other ppl want you to do. maladjusted: unable to deal with ordinary social situations or relationships. submissive (to sb): willing to do what other ppl tell you to do without arguing. manageable: able to be dealt with or controlled easily. deviant: deviant behaviour is not considered normal or morally correct by most ppl. reactionary. docile: well-behaved, quiet, and easy to control.
CHAPTER 2: APPEARANCES AND STEREOTYPES Can People be Judge by Their Appearance? by Eric Berne At a very early stage, the human embryo forms a three-layered tube, the inside layer of which grows into the stomach and lungs, the middle layer into bone, muscle, joints, and blood vessels, and the outside layer into the skin and nervous system. Usually, these three grow about equally, so that the average human being is a fair mixture of brains, muscles, and inward organs. In some eggs, however, one layer grows more than the others. Some people are mainly "digestion-minded," some "muscle-minded," and some "brain-minded," correspondingly digestion-bodied (ppl look thick) “endomorph”,
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muscle-bodied (ppl look wide) “mesomorph”, or brain-bodied (ppl look long) “ectomorph”. This means that if a man, even a short man, looks long rather than wide or thick, he will often be more concerned about what goes on in his mind than about what he does or what he eats; but the key factor is slenderness and not height. On the other hand, a man who gives the impression of being thick rather than long or wide will usually be more interested in a good steak than in a good idea or a good long walk. Translating this into Greek, we have the viscerotonic endomorph, the somatotonic mesomorph, and the cerebrotonic ectomorph. Words are beautiful things to a cerebrotonic, but a viscerotonic knows you cannot eat a menu no matter what language it is printed in, and a somatotonic knows you cannot increase your chest expansion be reading a dictionary. So it is advisable to leave these words and see what kinds of people they actually apply to, remembering again that most individuals are fairly equal mixtures and that what we have to say concerns only the extremes. Up to the present, these types have been thoroughly studied only in the male sex. ● Viscerotonic Endomorph. If a man is definitely a thick type rather than a broad or long type, he is likely to be round and soft, with a big chest but a bigger belly. He would rather eat than breath comfortably. He is likely to have a wide face, short, thick neck, big thighs and upper arms, and small hands and feet. He has overdeveloped breasts and looks as though he were blown up a little like a balloon. His skin is soft and smooth, and when he gets bald, as he does usually quite early, he loses the hair in the middle of his head first. ● Somatotonic Mesomorph. If a man is definitely a broad type rather than a thick or long type, he is likely to be rugged and has lots of muscle. He is apt to have big forearms and legs, and his chest and belly are well-formed and firm, with the chest bigger than the belly. He would rather breathe than eat. He has a bony head, big shoulders, and a square jaw. His skin is thick, coarse, and elastic, and tans easily, If he gets bald, it usually starts on the front of the head. ● Cerebrotonic Ectomorph: The man who is definitely a long type is likely to have thin bones and muscles. His shoulders are apt to sag and he has a flat belly with a dropped stomach, and long, weak legs. His neck and fingers are long, and his face is shaped like a long egg. His skin is thin, dry, and pale, and he rarely gets bald. He looks like an absent-minded professor and often is one. In the special cases where people definitely belong to one type or another, then one can tell a good deal about their personalities from their appearance. When the human mind is engaged in one of its struggles with itself or with the world outside, the individual's way of handling the struggle will be partly determined by his type. If he is a viscerotonic he will often want to go to a party where he can eat and drink and be in good company at a time when he might be better off attending to business; the somatotonic will want to go out and do something about it, master the situation, even if what the does is foolish and not properly figured out, while the cerebrotonic will go off by himself and think it over, when perhaps he would be better off doing something about it or seeking good company to try to forget it.
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The Biology of Beauty Is our corner of the animal world different? That looks count in human affairs is beyond dispute. Studies have shown that people considered attractive fare better with parents and teachers, make more friends and more money, and have better sex with more (and more beautiful) partners. Every year, 400,000 Americans, including 48,000 men, flock to cosmetic surgeons. In other lands, people bedeck themselves with scars, lip plugs or bright feathers. "Every culture is a "beauty culture'," says Nancy Etcoff, a neuroscientist who is studying human attraction at the MIT Media Lab and writing a book on the subject. "Judging beauty involves looking at another person," says University of Texas psychologist Devendra Singh, "and figuring out whether you want your children to carry that person's genes." Studies have established that people everywhere -- regardless of race, class or age -- share a sense of what's attractive. And though no one knows just how our minds translate the sight of a face or a body into a rapture, new studies suggest that we judge each other by rules we're not even aware of. Our beauty lust is often better suited to the Stone Age than to the Information Age; the qualities we find alluring may be powerful emblems of health, fertility and resistance to disease, but they say nothing about people's moral worth. What, then, is beauty made of? What are the innate rules we follow in sizing each other up? We're obviously wired to find robust health a prettier sight than infirmity. As far as anyone knows, there isn't a village on earth where skin lesions, head lice and rotting teeth count as beauty aids. But the rules get subtler than that. The people we find extremely beautiful share certain exceptional qualities. Biologists have long used bilateral symmetry -- the extent to which a creature's right and left sides match -- to gauge what's known as developmental stability. But pollution, disease and other hazards can disrupt development. As a result, the least resilient individuals tend to be the most lopsided. Working with psychologist Steven Gangestad, Thornhill set about measuring the body symmetry of hundreds of college-age men and women. By adding up right-left disparities in seven measurements -- the breadth of the feet, ankles, hands, wrists and elbows, as well as the breadth and length of the ears -- the researchers scored each subject's overall body asymmetry. Then they had the person fill out a confidential questionnaire covering everything from temperament to sexual behaviour, and set about looking for connections. They weren't disappointed. For both men and women, greater symmetry predicted a larger number of past sex partners. Thornhill and Gangestad predicted that women would be more sexually responsive to symmetrical men and that men would exploit that advantage.
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Oddly enough, one of the qualities shared by attractive people is their averageness. From an evolutionary perspective, a preference for extreme normality makes sense. As Langlois has written, "Individuals with average population characteristics should be less likely to carry harmful genetic mutations." While we may find the average faces attractive, the faces we find most beautiful are not average. By collecting people's ideal faces and comparing them to average faces, Johnston can measure the distance between fantasy and reality. As a rule, he finds that an ideal female has a higher forehead than an average one, as well as fuller lips, a shorter jaw and a smaller chin and nose. Indeed, the ideal 25-year-old woman, as configured by participants in a 1993 study, had a 14-year-old's abundant lips and an 11-year-old's delicate jaw. Because her lower face was so small, she also had relatively prominent eyes and cheekbones. None of this surprises evolutionary psychologists. They note that the facial features we obsess over are precisely the ones that diverge in males and females during puberty, as floods of sex hormones wash us into adulthood. The tiny jaw that men favour in women is essentially a monument to estrogen -- and, obliquely, to fertility. No one claims that jaws reveal a woman's odds of getting pregnant. But like breasts, they imply that she could. Likewise, the heavy lower face that women favour in men is a visible record of the surge in androgens (testosterone and other male sex hormones) that turns small boys into 200-pound spear-throwers. An oversized jaw is biologically expensive, for the androgens required to produce it tend to compromise the immune system. Studies from around the world have found that while both sexes value appearance, men place more stock in it than women. And if there are social reasons for that imbalance, there are also biological ones. While both sexes may eyeball potential partners, says Donald Symons, an anthropologist at the University of California in Santa Barbara, "a larger proportion of a woman's mate value can be detected from visual cues." Mounting evidence suggests there is no better cue than the relative contours of her waist and hips. Before puberty and after menopause, females have essentially the same waistlines as males. But during puberty, while boys are amassing the bone and muscle of palaeolithic hunters, a typical girl gains nearly 35 pounds of so-called reproductive fat around the hips and thighs. Those pounds contain roughly the 80,000 calories needed to sustain a pregnancy, and the curves they create provide a gauge of reproductive potential. Almost anything that interferes with fertility -- obesity, malnutrition, pregnancy, menopause -- changes a woman's shape. If our ideals of size change from one time and place to the next, our taste in shapes is amazingly stable. A low waist-hip ratio is one of the few features that a long, lean Barbie doll shares with a plump, primitive fertility icon. The same pattern holds when Singh generates line drawings of different female figures and asks male volunteers to rank them for attractiveness, sexiness, health and fertility. In truth, says Northwestern University anthropologist Micaela di Leonardo, the attraction is a complicated social phenomenon, not just a hard-wired response. If attraction were governed by the dictates of baby-making, she says, the men of ancient Greece wouldn't have found young boys so alluring, and gay couples wouldn't crowd modern sidewalks. "People make decisions about sexual and marital partners inside complex networks of friends and relatives," she says. "Human human beings are mindless automatons, blindly striving to replicate our genes. We pursue countless passions that have no direct bearing on survival. If we're
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sometimes attracted to people who can't help us reproduce, that doesn't mean human preferences lack any coherent design. The new beauty research does have troubling implications. First, it suggests that we're designed to care about looks, even though looks aren't earned and reveal nothing about the character. A second implication is that sexual stereotypes are not strictly artificial. At some level, it seems, women are designed to favour dominant males over meek ones, and men are designed to value women for youthful qualities that time quickly steals. But do we have to indulge every appetite that natural selection has preserved in us? Of course not. "I don't know any scientist who seriously thinks you can look to nature for moral guidance," says Thornhill. Vocabulary Expressions ● Choosy: quisquilloso ● To be wired to do sth ● To gauge developmental stability: to measure something accurately using a special instrument Phrasals ● Beauty radars pick up signals Structures 1. WHEN IT COMES TO STH/DOING STH + SUBJECT + PRESENT SIMPLE 2. THAT AS SUBJECT + IS BEYOND DISPUTE. (impossible to disagree with) 3. PPL CONSIDER STH FARE BETTER WITH 4. TO FAVOUR STH OVER STH 5. TO BE AS PRIZED AS STH ELSE 6. TO PLACE MORE STOCK IN IT THAN OTHER ONES 7. IF + WERE + WOULD HAVE + PP 8. IF + BE TO WORD
MEANING
PART OF OTHER SPEECH FUNCTION
PATTERN AND COLLOCATION
TO FLOCK
to gather together in a verb large group
noun
sth/sb (tr) to do sth
TO BEDECK
to decorate finely
--
commonly use in passive with/in
HARVEST
the result of sth that was noun done in the past
verb(tr)
of sth
TO CONFOUND
to make sb feel verb surprised or confused to prove sth wrong
--
sb/sth by (tr) to be confounded by
verb
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TO SIZE UP
to carefully look at sb or verb think about a situation, so that you can decide how to act
--
sth (tr) size each other up
LOPSIDED
not equal
adjective
--
--
SURGE
a sudden increase
noun
verb
in/of
TO AMASS
to collect a lot of sth
verb
--
sth (tr)
GAUGE
a piece of equipment noun that measures the amount of sth
verb(tr)
of sth
--
behaviour/respons e
HARDWIRED sth caused by your adjective genes and the way that your brain is made
Columbus Day in the United States 1. Columbus day is marked by a celebration for most people, except for those whose ancestors were displaced and marginalized by the European journey to this continent this is a day of reflection, even mourning. 2. Wilma Mankiller is an appropriate guest in the program because she is the first woman to become chief of the Cherokee Nation and a long-time activist and advocate for Native American rights and human rights. 3. Wilma Mankiller's first objection to the way in which the discovery of America is taught in elementary school is that there is no discussion about the fact that the new world discovered by Columbus was not new for the millions of natives who already lived in the continent. 4. The activism of the 1960s was instrumental in her realizing that what she learned in school was not so true since she heard that Iroquois Confederacy was founded before Columbus arrived. She started thinking about what existed in America before his arrival. 5. The reason why Wilma Mankiller wishes that the basic American narrative had evolved more is because in virtually every sector of society, native people, whether they're in tribal government or whether they're in the private sector or an artist, they encounter people every day who have such enormously stupid, ridiculous, stereotypes about native people, and have so little accurate information about either the history of native people or their contemporary lives. 6. Wilma Mankiller bases her optimism that thing will change in the future on the fact that all of them who are active in their communities and active in the country, and engage with a lot of people every time they get together, their native people, they talk about stupid questions they have been asked and what can they do to break down stereotypes. 7. Wilma Mankiller responded to an English reporter’s stereotypical ideas about Native Americans by making fun of him and giving details of things that were not true.
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8. Wilma Mankiller draws an important distinction between the human desire to explore other worlds and the desire to conquer other lands. She said that the later one is not the best human attribute and that always comes with the killing of indigenous people and the exploit of natural resources.
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Stereotypes They can be defined in a number of ways: 1. a simplified, mixed image of all members of a culture/group (race, age, religion, etc.) 2. generalizations about people based on limited, sometimes inaccurate, info (from resources like television, cartoons, second-hand info) 3. initial prediction about strangers based on incomplete info about race, religion, etc. 4. a single statement/attitude about a group of ppl that do not recognize the complex, multidimensional nature of human beings 5. broad categories about ppl that fail to differentiate among individuals, ppl and society Stereotypes can be + or -, but they are all unfair and misleading. They reduce ppl to a rigid, inflexible image, they do not account the unique attributes of each human being. Stereotypes tend to dehumanize people, placing all members of a group into one, simple category. Generalizations represent a natural part of the learning process; however, they can be dangerous when they are directed to human beings. When we stereotype sb, we prejudge them and assume all ppl in a group share the same traits. This blind categorization can lead to false assumptions, abusive behaviours, discrimination, etc. Generalizations have their roots in experiences we have had, read about sth in books, seen in television, or have had related to us by friends. Sometimes these generalizations are accurate, but almost in every case, we prejudge sb by ascribing characteristics without knowledge of the total facts. Civil societies can only thrive when damaging stereotypes are broken down. Learning to identify stereotypes is one of the first steps we must take to build a civil society. It takes courage to raise an objection and stand up against injustice, discrimination, scapegoating which have been the precursors to violence, persecution and genocide. After identifying stereotypes, we can eliminate them from society. After eliminating them, it will be easier to acknowledge and appreciate differences. Vocabulary Expressions To resort to prejudice To raise objections to discriminatory jokes Pejorative names To fight/foster bigotry: the state of feeling/the act of expressing strong, unreasonable beliefs or opinions Phrasals Stand up against injustice WORD
COLLOCATE 1 COLLOCATE 2
COLLOCATE 3
COLLOCATE 4
misleading
stereotype
impression
appearance
advertisement
blind
categorization
conformity
faith
obedience
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false
assumptions
evidence
impression
identity
ascribing
characteristics
traits
responsibility
rights
break down
stereotypes
differences
opposition
barriers
WORD
SYNONYM 1
SYNONYM 2
SYNONYM 3
attributes
aspect
quality
characteristic
hostility
bitterness
severity
coldness
thrive
prosper
succeed
achieve
put down
repress
control
hamper
scapegoat
blame
reprimand
denigrate
Don't Let Stereotypes Warp Your Judgements Stereotypes are a kind of gossip about the world, a gossip that makes us prejudge people before we ever lay eyes on them. Hence it is not surprising that stereotypes have something to do with the dark world of prejudice. Explore most prejudices and you will find a cruel stereotype at the core of each one. For it is the extraordinary fact that once we have typecast the world, we tend to see people in terms of our standardized pictures. Why is it that we stereotype the world in such an irrational and harmful fashion? In part, we begin to typecast people in our childhood years. Early in life, as every parent whose child has watched a TV Western knows, we learn to spot the Good Guys from the Bad Guys. We not only grow up with standardized pictures forming inside of us but as grownups, we are constantly having them thrust upon us. Some of them, like the half-joking, half-serious stereotypes of mothers-in-law, are dinned into us by the stock jokes we hear and repeat. Still, other stereotypes are perpetuated by the advertisements we read, the movies we see, the books we read. And finally, we tend to stereotype because it helps us make sense out of a highly confusing world, a world which William James once described as “one great, blooming, buzzing confusion.” Stereotypes are one way in which we “define” the world in order to see it. They classify the infinite variety of human beings into a convenient handful of “types” towards whom we learn to act in a stereotyped fashion. Life would be a wearing process if we had to start from scratch with each and every human contact. Stereotypes economize on our mental effort by covering up the blooming, buzzing confusion with big recognizable cutouts. They save us the “trouble” of finding out what the world is like--they give it its accustomed look. Thus the trouble is that stereotypes make us mentally lazy. “The danger of stereotypes lies not in their existence, but in the fact that they become for all people some of the time, and for some people all the time, substitutes for observation.”
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Hence, quite aside from the injustice which stereotypes do to others, they impoverish ourselves. The person who lumps them into simple categories, who type-casts all labour leaders as “racketeers, all businessmen as “reactionaries,” all Harvard men as “snobs,” and all Frenchmen as “sexy,” is in danger of becoming a stereotype himself. He loses his capacity to be himself, which is to say, to see the world in his own absolutely unique, inimitable and independent fashion. The true process of change is a slow one that adds bits and pieces of reality to the pictures in our heads until gradually they take on some of the blurriness of life itself. Can we speed the process along? Of course, we can. 1. We can become aware of the standardized pictures in our heads, in other people’s heads, in the world around us. 2. We can become suspicious of all judgments that we allow exceptions to “prove.” 3. We can learn to be chary of generalizations about people. Vocabulary Expressions To have stereotypes thrust to us: a punta de pista To lump/label the world into simple categories: to put different things in the same group To typecast sb: to stereotype Chastening thought: to make sb feel sorry for sth they have done To topple a whole edifice of ideas: to become unsteady and fall down; to make something do this Stereotypes economize our mental effort Stereotypes=big recognizable cut outs (+)=subtitles for observation (-) Stereotypes make us mentally lazy To form rigid perceptions of sb Stereotypes impoverish ourselves Inimitable fashion To fake the standard picture of sth Straitjacket: a thing that stops something from growing or developing Chary: hesitant and vigilant about dangers and risks Phrasals Stereotypes are dinned into us: to ingrain sth in sb through repetition Brush sb/sth aside: to ignore somebody/something; to treat somebody/something as unimportant Idioms To make sense (out) of the world To start from scratch To get in the way of our judgement The Science of Stereotyping: An Interview with Elizabeth and Stuart Ewen Heller: Why when we discuss stereotyping is it used as a pejorative? Isn't there anything positive about defining and generalizing the distinctions of humankind? Ewen: The variety of humankind is something to celebrate. Each group is defined by diversity within the group. In stereotyping, however, distinctions are used in ways that divide people against one another. Stereotypes reduce people to simplistic “types” and invite us to make
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invidious comparisons between “us” and “them,” “civilization” and “savagery,” “good” and “evil,” “superior” and “inferior,” and so on. Stereotypical images themselves have no consequence unless they play a role in the ways people see the world and live their lives. Heller: But are all stereotypes negative? Ewen: Actually, not all stereotypes are negative. We know this from the media, where both heroes and villains are most often stereotyped to make them easily identifiable. In politics, they are often employed to communicate honesty, nobility or heroism, even where none may exist. The habits of typecasting offer us little wisdom. Heller: Typecasting ethnic, racial, and social images are as common as the air we breathe. Media has made, as you note in your subtitle, art and science out of stereotyping. But you also note that this has its roots in printing—indeed the term stereotype is derived from letterpress mats. Was there any kind of stereotyping before the advent of the printing press? Ewen: Defining people according to simplified categories dates back to antiquity, and is probably an intrinsic part of human cultures. Traditional myths, rituals and dramas routinely employed identifiable types, but they usually symbolized different aspects of humanity overall. In this context, simplified categories were increasingly applied to conquered people as an explanation for why they were born to serve or be annihilated. In cities, stereotypes became useful for characterizing strangers and were most often employed to define different elements among the lower classes. What was once about common human qualities was transformed into a mechanism that denied the idea of common humanity, and served the interests of social injustice. Heller: You indicate that typecasting derives from the need to create social and caste hierarchies. Why was it so important to have these differences among people? Ewen: With the rise of democratic ideas, traditional ideas about the God-given differences that justified social hierarchy fell into disfavour. While traditional hierarchies fought back, new caste systems arose in the shadow of democracy. These used “scientific” tools as an argument for social difference, as a line of defence designed to maintain social and economic inequities. Heller: You write: "Although feudal power was often held and defended by the sword its was justified by the word." What are the keywords (and images)? Ewen: In feudalism, the keywords were ostensibly the words of God. The nobility (Lords) and clergy were portrayed as standing closer to God, as God’s human representatives on earth. In ecclesiastical interpretations of the Bible, and in church iconography, distinctions between wealth and poverty were routinely portrayed as God’s way. Heller: The science of physiognomy was developed to help classify human types. I remember seeing, around the facade of the Library of Congress, about two-dozen images arranged according to places on the globe showing the physical distinctions of races. Has this celebration of different traits contributed to the sense of inequality that is so present in the world today? Ewen: Stereotypes are culturally conditioned reflexes that we carry around in our heads. To a large extent, they shape how we will define other people even before we see them. In the media, and in the theatre of politics and power, stereotypes are routinely employed to stir up public emotions while systematically sidestepping thought. Within each of us, the history of dominant ideas has left indelible marks. Nowhere is this truer than in the stereotypes that form and interfere with our capacity to comprehend the world we live in.
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Heller: In writing about the history of stereotyping, you argue that much of what we know today is based on the development of technology. The printing press is one, but say more about photography? How has this changed the way human beings were perceived? Ewen: In the 19th century, the emerging fields of physical anthropology, criminology, psychology, sociology and a range of other social sciences, routinely relied on supposed photographic evidence to illustrate (with appropriate captions) the look of normalcy and degeneracy. Heller: It seems as though typecasting is a "western" phenomenon. That it wasn't practised in non-Christian countries. Hence, the colour white has been depicted as pure, whereas brown or black have more negative connotations. You note that from white, other colours are possible, but from brown or black, white cannot be broken down. Is this the basis for white superiority? Ewen: No. The idea of white superiority was the outcome of the rise of a modern-world system dominated by European colonial powers. The idea of white superiority, which led to the notion that all others should be subdued, was one of the crimes that led to Europe as a magnet for the world’s wealth. Darkness was seen as a sign of degeneration from the original pristine state of humanity. He believed that the origin of humanity was found in the foothills of the Caucasus (he coined the word Caucasian). Heller: I have long collected ethnic and racial stereotypes in popular and advertising art. I've notice that as in all advertising, simplified human traits are used to identify a demographic. But how do these types, when presented to the public, affect perception? Are even benign stereotypes bad? Ewen: Images in isolation are neither malignant nor benign. The historical source of the images in question, and the “repertory of fixed impressions” (to quote Walter Lippmann) that people bring to them, will help us to decide whether stereotypes impede or enhance our ability to see ourselves in other people. Heller: Not all stereotypes are benign. There is often an agenda to enslave or degrade others though stereotypical depiction. Certainly, you make a lot of eugenics—the highly popular pseudo-science (much touted by the Nazis but also the British, Americans and French) that distinguishes between inferior and superior human beings. Eugenics exponents also proposed sterilization and worse of inferiors. Does this negative notion pervade all uses of stereotyping? Ewen: The inner core of much stereotyping is made up of race hatred mixed with sexual taboo. Denying other people’s humanity is often a way of trying to preserve one’s own sense of identity, particularly if it is shaped by nationality, ethnicity, race or sexual orientation. Racial, ethnic, national and/or sexual belief systems require taboos against all forms of sexuality that might throw that universe into question. Heller: What would you say is the worst use of stereotyping in 20th-century history and what have been its long-term effects? Ewen: There are too many to say. But in all cases, worst uses of the stereotype are those that justify murder and genocide. This was the case before the 20th century as well, where labelling others as “savages” or “degenerates” was often a prologue to slaughter. This worst-case scenario continues in the 21st century as well. The World, Formerly Arrogant, Utterly Argentine Mr. Menem joked that his driver became lost and that he, the President of Argentina, had to walk. The incident was reason enough for the ministers to engage in a favorite Latin pastime -- Argentine bashing.
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Whatever the reason, Argentines are without a doubt the most disdained group in Latin America. (Mr Menem also raised eyebrows when he decamped early to visit flooded areas of his country.) Argentines have long taken pride in their arrogance, perhaps as a way of covering over their own insecurities about their real identity. They flaunt their European ancestry and culture to their Latin American peers, who have mixed or indigenous blood. Now recent social and economic reforms suggest that the Argentine reputation for haughtiness may no longer be deserved. Argentina has one of the highest literacy rates and standards of living in the region. It has produced world-class novelists, nuclear scientists, surgeons, architects, universities and cultural centers. And few cities in the world can compare with the nightlife here. Yet as a society, it tends toward the superficial, which has encouraged many of its most talented citizens to emigrate. As a group, Argentines are obsessed with appearance; they are fashionably thin and well dressed, regardless of income. At the same time, the country, which consumes inordinate amounts of beef and cigarettes, has a high incidence of anorexia. Plastic surgery is also popular among both women and men. ''Argentina has been on the verge of greatness many times, only to see it slip away from us,'' said Horacio Ortega, a social historian. By the 1940's, Argentina, rich in farmland and natural resources, was one of the world's 10 most affluent countries, but in 1942 a string of military coups and economic missteps sank it into 40 years of chaos. During the darkest period starting in 1976, in which military governments killed thousands of dissidents and ruined a robust economy, perhaps the one thing that Argentines could be proud of was their Italian, English and Spanish heritage. They told their children to hold their heads high if for no other reason than they were better than other Latin Americans. Losing the Falklands War to Britain in 1983 brought major social and economic change in Argentina, especially as far as how many Argentines viewed themselves. Embarrassed by its defeat, the military junta relinquished power to a democratically elected government. ''For decades, Argentines were the pale faces of Latin America, and we thought we were superior to everyone else,'' said Felipe A. Noguera, a political analyst. ''But after the Falklands War, we were greatly humbled and realized that we were in fact part of Latin America, and most of us stopped pretending to be something else.'' The country has the world's highest concentration of psychologists. Many of them have said that a common theme in their practice is the search for cultural roots and identity. Mr Menem has often tried to convince Argentines that the recent reforms are returning the country to the first rank of developed nations. But that has been a hard sell to many Argentines who have lost the cradle-to-grave employment and other benefits that were part of the protectionist era. ''For the first time in many decades, Argentines are having to compete on a global stage where ancestry doesn't really matter,'' said Raul Buonoume, an economist. ''We realize that we are being judged on our performance, our gross national product, our low inflation, and not on being European.'' Despite its setbacks, the country is one of the most highly developed in Latin America. It also has the highest per capita income. Axioms that are commonly believed by most Argentines: ● Buenos Aires is the only city in the world that has libraries open all night
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Argentina has the best-looking women in the world In Argentina, you just throw some seeds on the ground and they'll grow Argentina has the best beef in the world An Argentine can solve any problem with great genius Vocabulary Expressions To deride: to criticize sb/sth by suggesting that they are stupid, unimportant, or useless. bashing: a violent physical attack on sb, especially because of the group they belong to. disdain: to think that sb/sth is not important and does not deserve any respect. To flaunt sth: to deliberately try to make ppl notice your possessions, beauty, abilities etc, because you want them to admire you. haughtiness: proud and unfriendly. misstep: a mistake, especially one caused by bad judgment. dissident: sb who disagrees publicly with a government, especially in a country where this is not allowed. To relinquish: to give up your power, position, or an advantage. antagonistic relationship: disliking sb/sth very much and behaving in a very unfriendly way towards them. setbacks: a problem that delays or that stops progress or makes a situation worse. ingrained myths: an ingrained attitude, belief, or habit has existed for a long time and cannot
easily be changed. ● Axiom: a rule or principle that most people believe to be true ● ● ● ● ●
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Phrasals Cover over insecurities Idioms to be on the verge of sth: to be very close to experiencing sth. to raise eyebrows: sth causes surprise or disapproval. Arrogance comes into play to hold your head high: to be very confident and proud. CHAPTER 3: FREQUENT FORMS OF EXCLUSION How would you define prejudice? An opinion or feeling for or especially against something, formed unfairly or unreasonably ie without proper knowledge. What is the difference between stereotype, prejudice, discrimination and segregation? Stereotypes: oversimplified generalizations about groups of people/generalizations that don’t take individual differences into account. Prejudice: beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes someone holds about a group/is not based on experience; instead, it is a prejudgment, originating outside actual experience. Discrimination: actions against a group of people. Race-based laws against discrimination strive to address this set of social problems. Segregation: the separation or isolation of a race, class, or ethnic group by enforced or voluntary residence in a restricted area, by barriers to social intercourse, by separate
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educational facilities, or by other discriminatory means. Normally there are laws that support it. What is the relationship between prejudice and inequality? Prejudice is strongly influenced by inequality. It is common to see that poor people are the most prejudged by the rest of the society. Society think that the poors are the ones that rob the most, kill the most, use drugs the most. People marginalized them because of these generalizations and that leads to poor not being able to escape poverty by getting a job, for example. What is the civil rights movement? The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for blacks to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn’t end discrimination against blacks—they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, African Americans had had more than enough of prejudice and violence against them. They, along with many whites, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades. Preamble Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction. Article 1.
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All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Vocabulary equal and inalienable rights barbarous acts outrage: a strong feeling of anger and shock at something that you feel is wrong or unfair the advent of sth: the introduction of a new product, idea, custom etc rebellion against to compel to to reaffirm faith in to promote social progress to pledge oneself to: to promise seriously and publicly to do sth to be equal in dignity and rights to endow with: to give a particular quality to something, or to say that something has a particular quality to be entitled to
KIND OF DISCRIMINATION
PREJUDICES BASED ON
ACTS OF DISCRIMINATION
Racism
skin colour
Harassment
Ableism
diabillity
Discrimination in hiring - Harassment
Gingerism
red-colour hair
Harassment
Xenophobia
birthplace
Harassment - Discrimination in hiring/housing
Lookism
the way you look/your Harassment body
Ageism
age
Discrimination in hiring/housing - Harassment
Classism
social class
Harassment - DIscrimination in hiring/housing
Sexism
gender
Discrimination in wage/hiring/housing - being fired when pregnant
Sociology: understanding a diverse society Psychological theories:
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The scapegoat theory: Dominant groups in society harbour various frustrations in their desire to achieve social and economic success. This frustrations leads them to vent their anger in the form of aggression, and this aggression is directed towards some substitute for the original perception of anger. Members of minority groups become these substitutes - that is, scapegoats. Related to displaced aggression. High authoritarianism/Authoritarian personality: Individuals who possess and authoritarian personality are more likely to be prejudiced/biased against minorities than are nonathoritarian individuals. The authoritarian personality is characterized by a tendency to rigidly categorize other people, as well as tendencies to submit to authority, rigidly conform, be very tolerant of ambiguity, and be inclined to superstition. The authoritarian person is more likely to stereotype or rigidly categorize another person and thus readily place a member of a minority groups into convenient and oversimplified stereotypes. Some research links high authoritarianism with high religious orthodoxy and extreme varieties of political conservatism. A clear example of this theory is Assef from “The Kite Runner” Sociological theories: Functionalist theory: For race and ethnic relations to be functional to society and thus contribute to the harmonious and stability of that society, then racial and ethnic minority groups, and women as well, must assimilate into society. Assimilation is a process by which a minority becomes socially, economically, and culturally absorbed within the dominant society. A first step in the functionalist assimilation process is to adopt as much as possible of the language, mannerisms and goals for success of the dominant society and thus lose or give up much of its own culture. Assimilation stands in contrast to racial - cultural pluralism - the maintenance and persistence of one’s culture, language, mannerisms, practices, art, and so on. Symbolic interaction theory: This theory addresses two issues: the role of social interaction in reducing racial and ethnic hostility and how race and ethnicity are socially constructed. The contact theory argues that interaction between whites and minorities will reduce prejudice on the part of both groups - but only if three conditions are met: 1. The contact must be between individuals of equal status; the parties must interact on equal ground. 2. The contact between equals must be sustained; short-term contact will not decrease prejudice. 3. Social norms favouring equality must be agreed upon by the participants. Conflict theory: Class-based conflict is a inherent and fundamental part of social interaction. To the extent that racial and ethnic conflict it tied to class conflict, conflict theorists argue that class inequality must be reduced to lessen racial and ethnic conflict in theory. The current “class vs race” controversy in sociology concerns the questions of whether class (economic differences between races) or race (“caste” differences between races) is more important in explaining inequality and its consequences or whether they are of equal importance. Intersection perspective: it refers to the interactive or combined effects of racism, classism (elitism), and gender in the oppression of people. WORD
COLLOCATION
SEGREGATE
communities - races - on/for sth - sb into sth
TYPECAST
sb as sth - sb by doing sth - in - sb based on
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STIGMATIZE
sb - like sb - communities - homosexuals
OSTRACIZE: to refuse to let one another - sb somebody be a member of a social group; to refuse to meet or talk to somebody PIGEONHOLE: to decide that sb into sth - sb as - sth about somebody belongs to a particular group or type without thinking deeply enough about it and considering what other qualities they might have The Story of the Honourable Al Shaymaa J. Kwegyir Al Shaymaa J. Kwegyir, a Tanzanian member of parliament describes albinism as a “disability just like any other form of disability” but in Tanzania it's a condition where many sufferers are forced into hiding for fear of their lives. Not only do many Tanzanians believe albinism is a curse, the body parts of albinos are sought by witch doctors for use in potions sold to bring wealth and good luck. Kwegyir was more fortunate than many in the albino community. “We were loved by our parents and relatives. There was no stigmatization within the family”, she said. For many other albinos it's a very different story. Not only are they often cast out by their own families, in some tribes they are killed immediately after birth, and they are commonly hunted down and murdered because their body parts are used by witch doctors. There are no figures on the numbers of albinos in Tanzania but albinism is more common in Africa than the rest of the world. In Tanzania very few albinos manage to go beyond primary school level and they have few opportunities to compete for jobs. The incidence of poverty amongst albinos says Kwegyir, is alarming. Their poverty also makes it impossible to access appropriate medical care including the preventative medications for skin cancer. With the support of her family Kwegyir managed to go on through secondary school despite the daily taunts she faced on the streets and to a career in the civil service. For many years she has campaigned for the recognition and rights of albinos in Tanzania and last year her efforts were recognised by the President who appointed her a member of parliament. Kwegyir now campaigns on behalf of all disabled persons but particularly for albinos. At the first of the Voices side-events, Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights, Kyung-wha Kang spoke of the participants in Voices (15 individuals who share their personal experience) as the “main event” of the conference. “Your stories represent the challenges that we are all here to confront. They will inspire and remind us of the very real effects of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance on lives everywhere.” Vocabulary Expressions ● albinism: a genetic disorder which results in significant reduction or absence of pigmentation in the skin, eyes and hair
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to be seek by witch doctors the weight of words the very real effects of racism Phrasals ● hunt down: to try to find every member of a group The Story of Creuza Oliveira The voice of Creuza Oliveira tells the story of more than nine million Brazilian domestic workers, mostly women, mostly black, for whom slavery is not relegated to the dust piles of history. Born in a family of poor rural workers with no schooling, Oliveira began life as a domestic worker in Bahia when she was a mere 10 years old. Unable to balance work and school, she had to pick work and dropped out of school numerous times. At work, Oliveira would be beaten and taunted whenever she broke something, often called lazy, monkey, even “nigger”. The physical and psychological abuse was compounded by sexual abuse from the young men in the household where she worked. To top it all off, Oliveira was not paid. “I only started to receive a salary as a domestic worker when I was 21,” she said. “Until that age, my payment was in used clothes and food. I did not have a right to vacations or any basic workers rights.” At age 14, her employers took her to Sao Paulo to work, without any authorisation from her relatives in Bahia. Such was Oliveira’s life until she heard on the radio about meetings of domestic workers fighting for their rights. She attended one meeting and thus began her evolution from a suffering young woman with low confidence into a leader in the fight for the rights of blacks, for women and for domestic workers. Oliveira is now President of the National Federation of Domestic Workers in Brazil and active in the Unified Black Movement and the Women’s Movement. She told of numerous changes in her country’s policies since she attended the 2001 World Conference against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance. Federal departments have been established to promote racial and gender equality, the organisation of domestic workers has gained visibility and there have been important victories in the recognition of property rights and on issues including domestic violence. Domestic workers are now guaranteed, by law, rest days and vacation days as well as job security for pregnant women. Employers are prohibited from deducting housing and food expenses from their salaries and there is construction of public housing for domestic workers. Legislation prohibiting domestic work for children and teenagers under 18 years of age has also been recently signed into law by the President. Oliveira says the situation for domestic workers has certainly improved with such laws and more access to redress, but the problem lies in implementing these laws, as domestic work is carried out in private households. Oliveira also referred to broader issues causing the perpetuation of racism in her country, including the media, songs that diminish women and encourage violence, TV shows that trivialise sexual abuse and depict black women as being ignorant, and the use of sexualised images of black women in the tourism industry. Vocabulary ● to balance work and school - pick work - drop out of school ● ● ●
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psychological abuse was compounded by sexual abuse to have a right to to carry the legacy of slavery to fight for your rights to be a leader in the fight for to be active in a victory in work is carried out in private household To diminish women: to male sb less important deliberately To trivialize sexual abuse: to make something seem less important or serious than it really is To depict sb as sth: to describe someone or something using words or pictures
Language focus stigmatization: treatment that may lead to feelings of shame and embarrassment to cast out: to be forced to leave one´s family taunt: remark or joke intended to make sob upset to campaign against/for: to lead or take part in a series of actions intended to achieve the particular result of obtaining public acceptance of the rights of an underprivileged group to do sth on behalf of sb/sth: to do sth for sb and as their representative not to be relegated to the dust piles of history: (said of sth) that still has contemporary existence although entrenched: strongly established and unlikely to change; affecting the whole of an organization to top it all off: to make a difficult situation even worse by adding suffering and problems to gain visibility: to reach the situation of being noticed by the general public To redress: to have the opportunity of receiving compensation for harm some issues cause the perpetuation of sth: more complex problems that cause sth bad to continue to exist The Durban Review Conference: conference about how to fight xenophobia, racism, and discrimination. It focuses on Western and European countries. During this conference, there was a session called Voices, a platform for individuals from diverse geographical and cultural backgrounds to share their experiences and give a human face to issues addressed by the conference. Combating Racism and Racial Discrimination - UN Chronicle by Isil Gachet In Europe, these issues increasingly lie at the heart of political and social concerns. We can outline a few broad categories in which racism and racial discrimination occur: day to day life in major areas, such as employment, education, housing and access to social services; human rights violations against members of Roma communities; hostile attitudes to and stigmatization of migrants, refugees and asylum-seekers; increasingly widespread anti-Semitic incidents; intensification of expressions of Islamophobia; use of racist, anti-Semitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse; and a negative climate in public opinion, which plays a crucial part in the emergence of expressions of racism and intolerance in society. European countries have devised responses at both national and European levels. The right to be protected from racism and racial discrimination is first and foremost a fundamental right of all human beings.
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All strategies in this respect should at least comprise measures in the areas of legislation, awareness-raising, education, positive action and participation. While legislation alone is not enough to combat racism and racial discrimination, the law is obviously a cornerstone. Many Member States have embarked on reforms to supplement their anti-discrimination legislation at a national level. This is a welcome development from the victims' point of view, given that appropriate legal measures to combat racial discrimination effectively. But enacting anti-discrimination legislation does not necessarily mean successfully ensuring equal rights for everyone in society. We must also combat it by ensuring that anti-discrimination provisions are actually applied and put into practice. If all these provisions are to be effective, it is imperative that they be implemented by the authorities, including the police and the judiciary. It is important to set up an independent national body with the unique responsibility of fighting racism and racial discrimination; many Council of Europe Member States have taken steps to set up such bodies. Lastly, Member States have taken a further step to combat racism and racial discrimination by setting up and bringing into operation the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) in 1994. ECRI, whose work is based on respect for human rights, aims to protect all persons on the territory of the Council of Europe Member States from racism and all forms of racial discrimination. It is made up of independent, impartial members, whose statutory activities include country by country monitoring of racism and racial discrimination. One of the main achievements of ECRI is bringing about changes in law and its practice at national and European levels to counteract racism and intolerance more effectively. European Governments are faced with several challenges, two of which are very significant: enforcing action against racism and racial discrimination in an environment increasingly affected by the fight against terrorism; and addressing the issue of integration, which is widely debated in most European countries. Regarding integration, it is essential to firmly underscore that the success of any integration strategy will essentially hinge on the importance it attaches to combating discrimination in general, particularly racial discrimination. The principle of non-discrimination and policies on the pursuit of equality are the necessary basis for achieving integration. Governments and civil society are genuinely involved in fighting racism and racial discrimination in Europe. But the fight is far from won and advances are needed now more than ever to guide our countries and give practical effect and full meaning to the universal principle: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights". Vocabulary contemporary forms of racism disturbing forms/expressions of discrimination to take firm and sustained action to outline: to give the main ideas of a plan or a piece of writing without giving all the day to day life human rights violations against stigmatization of migrants asylum-seekers = refugees increasingly widespread anti-Semitic incidents intensification of expressions of Islamophobia salient: a salient fact, issue, or feature is one that is especially noticeable or relevant
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to fight against sth from a particular perspectives to combat racism to comprise: to form sth a cornerstone to embark on reforms to... a welcome development from the victim's point of view to be of paramount important: more important than all other things enact anti-discrimination legislation to ensure equal rights to outlaw discrimination: to make something illegal it is imperative that... to put laws into force to take (further) steps to set up an independent national body a law comes into force to counteract racism: to do something to reduce or prevent the bad or harmful effects of something to encompass acts targeting person or groups enforcing action against racism addressing the issue of integration to underscore: to emphasize something, or to show that it is important to hinge on: to depend on something to be faced with/by: if you face a problem, or if it faces you, it is likely or certain to happen and you have to deal with it to be far from: used for saying that the real situation is the opposite of what you mention when it comes to sth regardless/irrespective of.. The Struggle against Apartheid: Lessons for Today’s World APARTHEID (Afrikaans word that means separateness). it was a system of racial segregation that governed South Africa for nearly 50 years it specifically aimed to protect the domination of the white South Africans over non-whites in every aspect of life. During the colonial grab for the country between the Dutch descended afrikaners and the British, the rights of native black South Africans were sidelined. there were a hundred and forty-eight apartheid laws blacks had to carry ID permits at all times and had to obey strict curfews public facilities were separated for white and non-white use and marriages between whites and other races were banned people were classified into four racial categories white black Indian and colored people of mixed race and they were all separated into different residential areas blacks were divided into ten so-called homelands based on tribal groups homelands were rural overcrowded and lack jobs forcing blacks to seek work as migrant laborers wages were low and it was illegal for workers to strike see apartheid was also economically motivated a cheap workforce was needed particularly to work in the country's gold mines powerful mining magnets had a huge stake in apartheid policies since their profits depended on keeping black wages low outside their designated home and non-whites had no political rights since they were not technically citizens they couldn't vote education also divided the state set up a separate education system for blacks.
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Nelson Mandela: a leader of the protests against apartheid. He was kept 27 years in isolation. Became South Africa's first democratically elected president in 1994 with the official end of apartheid The United Nations has been concerned with the issue of racial discrimination since its inception. The UN General Assembly adopted on 19 November 1946 during its first session a resolution declaring that "it is in the higher interests of humanity to put an immediate end to religious and so-called racial persecution and discrimination", and calling on "Governments and responsible authorities to conform both to the letter and to the spirit of the Charter of the United Nations, and to take the most prompt and energetic steps to that end". Racial discrimination became one of the main items on the United Nations agenda after African nations attained independence and after the Sharpeville massacre in South Africa on 21 March 1960 sensitized world opinion to the perils of apartheid and racial discrimination. In 1963, the Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which led to the International Convention in 1965. Racial discrimination is now being condemned by all Governments, and racially discriminatory legislation has been abrogated by most Member States. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination has had some success in persuading Governments to take further action. The progress made by these efforts should not be minimized. Developments worldwide, such as the greatly increased migration, have led to a resurgence of manifestations of racism. Xenophobia has also caused violent conflicts and even genocide. The National Party, which came to power in South Africa in 1948, made apartheid a State policy and espoused the vicious ideology that people of different racial origins could not live together in equality and harmony. Successive Governments reinforced the legacy of racist oppression against the non-white people-the indigenous Africans, people of Asian origin and of mixed descent -- who constitute over 80 per cent of the population. National liberation rather than human rights became the objective of the struggle against racist tyranny. Apartheid was an affront to the nations of Africa and Asia that were emerging into independence from colonial rule. They demanded that the United Nations consider the grave situation in South Africa as a threat to international peace and to take effective measures, including sanctions, for the liberation of the South African people. They received support from ever-increasing majorities in the United Nations. The liberation of South Africa from racist tyranny and the national reconciliation that followed were the result of the struggle of the South African people and the international action promoted by the United Nations for almost half a century. At present, no government espouses racism, and the problem is not the enactment of new racist laws. Racial discrimination in individual countries is seen in terms of human rights rather than as a threat to the peace. While United Nations declarations and resolutions have been adopted with unanimous support, a number of Governments have not shown the political will to combat age-old prejudices, traditional or customary inequities, or even violence against oppressed communities. Politicians and political parties incite racial hostility, while public authorities and local officials ignore national legislation on racial equality. The oppressed communities continue to have little representation in police forces, the judiciary, the legislatures and other decision-making bodies. Hence, racist oppression in individual countries rarely appears on the agenda of major United Nations organs. In the 1960s, when there was a deadlock on sanctions against South Africa because of the opposition of its trading partners, the United Nations launched an international campaign
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against apartheid to encourage committed Governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and individuals to implement a wide range of measures to isolate the South African regime and its supporters and assist the freedom movement. If the constraints of the United Nations as an organization of Governments prove a hurdle, the initiative may perhaps be taken by individual Governments that recognize the grave dangers of racial discrimination and related ills. With their support, NGOs could launch an effective campaign, set up structures to monitor constantly all developments concerning racial discrimination and violence, and expose those who profit from or incite racism. A worldwide campaign can help the United Nations to find ways to consider the situation in individual countries and take more effective actions than mere appeals. The elimination of racial discrimination, entrenched for centuries and reinforced by some recent developments, is not an easy task. It needs perseverance and determination, building on past achievements and developing new strategies as necessary. There must be a sense of urgency. The example of struggle against apartheid remains an inspiration for such an effort. Vocabulary Expressions agenda: a plan of things to be done, or problems to be addressed to attain independence: to succeed in getting something, usually after a lot of effort to put an end to sth the perils of: danger or problems connected with a particular activity to condemn discrimination to abrogate discriminatory legislation: to officially get rid of a law or political arrangement, often without the agreement of the other people, groups etc involved to be victims of the resurgence of racism the struggle against the outset: the start of something blatant racism: done in an obvious and open way without caring if people are shocked to espouse an ideology: to give your support to an idea, principle, or belief to affront: to insult someone or to make them shocked and angry (N: affront) to emerge into independence the vestiges of: a very small sign of something that has almost disappeared or stopped existing to be reluctant to: hesitating before doing something because you do not want to do it or because you are not sure that it is the right thing to do a deadlock of: a situation in which neither person or group involved in a disagreement is willing to change their opinions or position to prove a hurdle: one of several problems that you must solve before you can do something successfully to launch a campaign those who profit from or incite racism to build on past achievements Phrasals to point out: to show someone who a person is or where something is
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Vocabulary Work PREJUDICE Definitions: N: an unreasonable opinion or feeling, especially the feeling of not liking a particular group of ppl. V: o make sb form an opinion about sb/sth before they have enough information (Macmillan). N: an unreasonable dislike of a particular group of ppl/things, or a preference for one group of ppl/things over another. V: to influence ppl so that they are unfair in some way (Collins Cobuild). N: an unreasonable dislike or distrust of ppl who are different from you in some way, especially because of their race, sex, religion. V: to influence sb so that they have an unfair/unreasonable opinion about sb/sth (Longman). Patterns: To have prejudice against. To prejudice sb against sb. To be prejudiced: sb prejudiced has an unreasonable opinion/feeling about sb/sth, esp hatred or fear of a particular group of ppl. Collocations: PREJUDICE (N) Adj: deep, deep-rooted, deep-seated, strong, blatant (done in an obvious way that shows you are not embarrassed or ashamed to be doing sth bad or illegal), serious, anfair. V+prejudice: have, hold, express, arouse, feed, stir up (to make sb feel upset or angry), appeal to, come up against, encounter, suffer, challenge, overcome, eliminate, eradicate. Prep: about, against, among, towards. PREJUDICE (ADJ) Verb: be, seem. Adv: deeply, extremely, racially Prep: against. DISCRIMINATION Definition: N: unfair treatment of sb because of their religion, race, or other personal features. V: to treat sb unfairly because of their religion, race, or other personal features. Patterns: To discriminate against/in favour of. Discriminatory (adj) policies/practices/laws. Collocations: TO DISCRIMINATE (V) Adv: positively, unfairly. Prep: against, in favour of, on the grounds of. DISCRIMINATION (N) Adj: age, class, gender, race, racial, religious, sex, sexual, widespread, active, blatant, direct, indirect, explicit, overt (not hidden or secret), covert (secret), positive, reverse, illegal, unlawful, employment, job, government, institutional, institutionalized. Verb: amount to, constitute, experience, face, suffer (from), practise, be opposed to, combat, fight, ban, end, forbid, outlaw, prohibit, stop.
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Prep: against, by, in favour of, on the grounds of. RACISM Definitions: N: a way of behaving or thinking, that shows that you do not like or respect ppl who belong to races that are different from your own and that you believe your race is better than others. N: the belief that ppl of some races are inferior to others, and the behaviour which is the result of this belief. Patterns: RACIST N: sb who does not like/respect ppl who belong to races that are different from their own and who believes their race is better than others. Adj: behaviour, things, ppl. Collocations: Adj: blatant, overt, institutional/institutionalized. V: be victim of, experience, combat, fight (against). Ableism This term appears to have originated in the early 1980s, around the time that people with disabilities became much more politically and socially active. Historically, disability had been a cause of shame and fear, but thanks to the protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s in which people of color and women started fighting for their rights, the disabled community was inspired to follow suit. Like other “-isms,” ableism can be insidious, and so closely woven in society that people without obvious physical or mental disabilities might not even think about their ableist attitudes and the ableist structure of their society. For example, people with use of their legs may not consider how difficult navigation can be in a wheelchair. Ableism also penetrates language and society; terms like “weak,” “lame,” and “retarded” are all ableist, and widely used. Ableism can make it hard for someone to get a job, force students out of some universities and colleges, create social barriers, and make basic life tasks very frustrating, especially for disabled individuals who want to live independent, active lifestyles. This form of discrimination also highlights the difference between people with obvious physical disabilities and people with hidden disabilities. Organizations designed to fight ableism can be found all over the world, working in a variety of ways to combat the various forms of ableism. Many of these groups fight for inclusive accessibility, encouraging mandates to make public spaces accessible to people of all levels of physical ability, and they also fight against discriminatory practices in the workplace and in college admissions. Individuals can also fight ableism, by reflecting on ableist attitudes which they may have and working to correct these attitudes. Vocabulary Expressions to make it hard for sb to do sth sth creates ample fodder for sb: people or things that are useful for the stated purpose a groundbreaking piece of legislation 29
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ableism can be insidious: spreading gradually or without being noticed, but causing serious harm to be woven in society: to include something to create social barriers chronic ill-health without an outward manifestation of disability: connected with the way people or things seem to be rather than with what is actually true to perform outreach education: the activity of an organization that provides a service or advice to people in the community, especially those who cannot or are unlikely to come to an office, a hospital, etc. for help Phrasals to force sb out of sth: to make somebody tell you something, especially by threatening them Idioms to follow suit: conform to another's actions Types of Discrimination Misogyny: the feeling of hating or strongly disliking women, or being prejudiced against them Homophobia: a strong dislike, hate and fear of homosexuals. Hate crimes: a crime that is done by sb because they hate the group that the victim (=person who is attacked) belongs to. Misanthropy: hate of people in general/social situations. Jingoism: the belief that other countries are not as good as your own, and that your government should never trust them. Religious intolerance: intolerance of another's religious beliefs or practices or lack thereof. Fanaticism: very strong religious or political beliefs that make someone behave in an unreasonable way. Conscientious objection: the refusal to perform a legal role or responsibility because of personal beliefs. Is Gingerism as Bad as Racism? by Finlo Rohrer Gingers suffer so much from verbal abuse than the may gloss over their hair colour. They suffer this abuse from friends and even strangers. Redheads get teased at school but it stops when they become adults. Women are considered to be fiery, alluring and beautiful. In adult life, women get stereotyped and red-haired man take much of the worst abuse. Children treatment in school ranges from mild taunts to grim persecution. Bullies at school and in later life may sense that ill.treatment of redhaired will not be treated as seriously by the authorities as persecution of other groups. RED HAIR MYTHOLOGY: redheads were sacrificed in ancient Egypt, were associated with witches and vampires in Europe, had the reputation to bleed more. Attacking sb on the basis of their hair colour can be every bit as damaging as persecuting sb for their race or religion, and therefore, in some cases, needs to be taken just as seriously. When does this date from? Some claim it could be a throwback to anti-Irish sentiment from the 19th Century and before when the Irish, with a greater prevalence of red hair, were regarded as ethnically inferior. Abuse can be an unhealthy release valve for stress and redheads, as visible minority not protected by law, have become a target.
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Comments: 1. There were howls of laughter when we said we did not have red hair but were “strawberry blonde”. For a time it may have affected but in our 50s we realize how lucky we are. 2. I have to contend with “dumb blonde” jokes either by the media or at work. It is all fault of the media because they sell the image of the unintelligent, bimbos and clumsy blonde girl. 3. No doubt American kids are teased for having red hair, but no more so than any other kids are teased for anything else (name,glasses). I was very surprised when I moved to England to find that having red hair would make anyone subject to taunts and discrimination. 4. There is a line between teasing and harassment, and the British evidently cross it. In the States we often tell blond jokes, but I have never heard of a blond actually being offended. 5. I am a redhead, of the outburn persuasion, and believe me, if someone taunts me about my colouring, they will soon find out why redheads are reputed to have fiery tempers. 6. All prejudice should be outlawed. 7. I feel spiteful hostility to gingers is definitely on the rise. The lack of challenge allows ppl who enjoy being horrible about other ppl, but cannot any more to other groups, to get away with it, from individuals to businesses and advertisers. Vocabulary Expressions ● to spare bullying: to allow somebody/something to escape harm, damage or death, especially when others do not escape it ● to suffer from ● to get teased ● to get stereotyped ● mild taunts ● grim persecution: serious and unfriendly/unpleasant ● to be outside the norm ● ginger-baiting: to deliberately try to make somebody angry by making cruel or insulting remarks ● to have cultural resonance: the power to bring images, feelings, etc. into the mind of the person reading or listening; the images, etc. produced in this way ● abuse is a release valve for stress ● to attack sb on the basis of ● to seep into culture: to flow into or out of sth through small holes, esp. when this shouldn't happen ● to banter: to speak playfully or teasingly ● to be spat at: to say something in an angry or aggressive way Phrasals ● contend with jokes: to have to deal with a problem or with a difficult situation or person Racism and Racial Discrimination - UN Chronicle Racism and racial discrimination are a clear affront to the fundamental truth that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”. Yet, the principles of equality and nondiscrimination are still far from a universal reality. In 2001, the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action were adopted, providing a common agenda for eradicating racial discrimination. They only created expectations that can only be met by determined and
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cooperative action because of the cultural depth of racism and the major historical causes of racial discrimination. The UN has called for a Durban Review Conference, to be held in 2009, to appraise the progress made thus far. Some of the most vicious forms of racial discrimination in history aare slavery, as well as colonialism, which caused immeasurable suffering to the indigenous people worldwide, who were forcibly subjected to servitude as a result of , for example, the transatlantic slave trade. These practices are leading factor to the lasting forms of social exclusion and structures of economic inequality. In Latin America and the Caribbean whole communities, particularly indigenous and Afro-descendant populations are stigmatized and live in a state of marginalization and extreme poverty. The multiple dimensions of racial discrimination frequently extend to related forms of intolerance based on gender, language or religion, reinforcing patterns of exclusion, disadvantage and abuse, preventing victims from enjoying adequate access to social services, education, health care, housing and injustice. These disparities illustrate the pervasiveness of racial discrimination even in democratic countries. Racial intolerance, if left unchecked, fuels large-scale human right abuses, including genocidal acts and crimes against humanity. Racism represents a systematic deprivation of humans right to specific ethnic groups; often, attempts are made to justify the racist ideology on scientific grounds. The success of the struggle against apartheid in South Africa, and the role of the UN in launching campaigns against the racist regime, prove valuable lessons for combating contemporary forms of racism, newly virulent in the guise of xenophobia. The “new racism” based on cultural differences instead of racial superiority, has been leaking into the mainstream through the Internet and has already had an impact on immigration policies and asylum procedures. In response to these disturbing trends, the Council of Europe has set up the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance to monitor racist incidents and to build awareness against xenophobia. Human rights education, alon with anti-discrimination legislation, offers the best weapon in eliminating racism and xenophobia and the most powerful tool to bridge the racial divide and advance THE SOLIDARITY OF PEOPLE. Vocabulary Expressions affront (to): something insulting that m akes you shocked and angry to be far from universal reality a common agenda for to eradicate racial discrimination the cultural depth of the historical causes of to appraise: to form an opinion about how successful, effective etc someone or something is to live in a state of marginalization incarcerated: to put sb in prison racial disparity (in): a difference between things pervasiveness: spreading through the whole of something and becoming a very obvious feature of it systematic deprivation of human rights: a situation in which ppl do not have basic things that they need to live a comfortable life a campaign against
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Debate about Immigration Control in Arizona. Background information: The Arizona State moved forward with two controversial measures. One bill seeks to deny citizenship to the US born children of undocumented persons. Proponents argue that the bill would discourage unauthorized immigration by taking away a chief incentive. The measure would render generations of US born undocumented children vulnerable to a variety of discriminations (right to education, employment, social services), if not denied. The 1868 fourteenth amendment - “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and the State they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States…” to run afoul of: to be in a state of difficulty, confusion or conflict with sth. an alien: a foreigner, sb who owes politica allegiance to another country/government. to bestow American citizenship upon sb: give, grant. Dred Scott decision (1857): it was ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court that ppl of African descent imported to the U.S. and held as slaves were not protected by the Constitution and could never be U.S. citizens. Arizona signed the nation’s toughest bill on illegal immigration into law. Its aim is to identify, prosecute and deport illegal immigrants. It is the broadest and strictest immigration measure in generations, and it would make the failure to carry immigrations documents a crime and give the police broad power to detain anyone suspected of being in the country illegally. Opponents have called it an open invitation for harassment and discrimination against Hispanics regardless of their citizenship status. Arizona is the first State to demand that immigrants meet federal requirements to carry identity documents legitimizing their presence on American soil. The bill requires police officer to detain ppl they reasonably suspect are in the country without authorization and to verify their status with federal officials, unless doing so would hinder an investigations or emergency medical treatment. It also makes it a state crime to not carry immigration papers. It allows ppl to sue local government or agencies if they believe federal or state immigration law is not being enforced. Comments: 1. In the latest installment of something wicked this way comes, the illustrious state of Arizona is now targeting the children of illegal aliens in its quest to eliminate brown people from sight. They’re bringing back the term “anchor babies” with a vengeance, tagging the children of “illegals” born in the US. They’re going to attempt to change the U.S. constitution. This is the brainchild (and we use the term brain loosely), of Republican Senator Russell Pearce, the lead architect of Senate Bill 1070, referred to fondly as the racial profiling bill. Going after children? Yeah, that’s a fair fight.
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2. “Anchor babies” has become an increasingly used term in Arizona when referencing children born in the U.S. to illegal immigrants. Arizona Republicans will most likely introduce new legislation this fall that will deny birth certificates to children born in Arizona to illegal immigrants, defying the U.S. Constitution’s 14th Amendment that states being born on U.S. soil makes you a U.S. citizen. The new possible law has been brought into play largely by Russell Pearce, a Republican whose suburban district, Mesa, is considered the conservation bastion of Phoenix’s political scene, according to Time.com. While SB1070 requires of-age immigrants to have citizenship paperwork, the “anchor baby” bill will stop the next generation from ever being able to obtain the paperwork. The idea is to make the process of citizenship difficult enough to make illegal immigrants pull up “the anchor” and leave. But would it violate the U.S. Constitution? The 14th Amendment states that any person born or naturalized in the United States is a citizen of the United States and that no state shall make or enforce any law that revokes these privileges. That was over 100 years ago. Those oppose to the possible bill say it would lead to even more discrimination in the state and divide the community further. 3. I think when a pregnant women go to the hospital to have their babies they should prove they are citizens, otherwise put them in a room with international soil underneath and let the babies become citizens of whatever country will adopt them. 4. I agree that the children are just as illegal as their parents. Send everyone back. To become a citizen of this great country you have to read and speak English. The illegals are hoping their kids will keep them from being deportes. I´m tired of paying health insurance, school taxes, food…” 5. Legal Alien! We know these ppl. They are the ones that stole this land from the Indian’s. The wrath of God is on the south and yet there white racist ppl will not stop their wicked behaviour. What about Katrina? I remember those black bodies floating, I don’t see any white body floating any place. They are alive and well. “anchor babies”: a baby who is born in a country that gives all babies born there the right of citizenship, but whose parents are not citizens and do not have the right to live there. Vocabulary ● to be an open invitation for ● to rail against the law: to express strong anger about something ● litigation: use of the legal system to settle a disagreement ● to hinder: to stop someone or something from making progress or developing TED Talk “Nina Jablonski breaks the illusion of skin colour” 1. Why does the speaker apparently find fault with Charles Darwin at the beginning of her speech? She finds fault in Darwin because que was a privileged white man, who wrote about tremendous diversity of plants and animals, and humans. And the observations that he made on that epic journey were to be eventually distilled into his wonderful book, "On the Origin of Species," published 150 years ago. However he forgot to write about an important issue. 2. Which was, according to Jablonski, the one idea that Darwin was oblivious to?
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The one idea that Darwin was oblivious to was the fact that he saw during his journey that difference between races of men and the colour of their skin coincide with corresponding differences in climate. For instance, he saw that darkly pigmented peoples were found close to the equator; lightly pigmented peoples, like himself, were found closer to the poles. 3. Why has the information supplied by NASA become so important? The TOMS 7 satellite data show the annual average ultraviolet radiation at the Earth's surface. Now the really hot pink and red areas are those parts of the world that receive the highest amounts of UV during the year. The incrementally cooler colors -- blues, greens, yellows, and finally grays -- indicate areas of much lower ultraviolet radiation. What's significant to the story of human skin pigmentation is just how much of the Northern Hemisphere is in these cool gray zones. This has tremendous implications for our understanding of the evolution of human skin pigmentation. 4. What is the speaker's central claim about the evolution of skin pigmentation? There was a fundamental relationship between the intensity of ultraviolet radiation and skin pigmentation. And that skin pigmentation itself was a product of evolution. And so when we look at a map of skin color, and predicted skin color, as we know it today, what we see is a beautiful gradient from the darkest skin pigmentations toward the equator, and the lightest ones toward the poles. 5. What is melanin? What functions does melanin have? The melanin is a wonderful, complex, ancient polymer compound in our skin which served as a superb natural sunscreen. This polymer is amazing because it's present in so many different organisms. Melanin, in various forms, has probably been on the Earth a billion years, and has been recruited over and over again by evolution, as often happens. Melanin was recruited, in our lineage, and specifically in our earliest ancestors evolving in Africa, to be a natural sunscreen. Where it protected the body against the degradations of ultraviolet radiation, the destruction, or damage to DNA, and the breakdown of a very important molecule called folate, which helps to fuel cell production, and reproduction in the body. 6. What happened when humans dispersed from their African homeland? We moved. And humans dispersed -- not once, but twice. Major moves, outside of our equatorial homeland, from Africa into other parts of the Old World, and most recently, into the New World. Conditions were significantly colder, but they were also less intense with respect to the ultraviolet regime. So people inhabiting northern hemispheric environments were bereft of the potential to make vitamin D in their skin for most of the year. This had tremendous consequences for the evolution of human skin pigmentation. Because what happened, in order to ensure health and well-being, these lineages of people dispersing into the Northern Hemisphere lost their pigmentation. There was natural selection for the evolution of lightly pigmented skin. 7. What has happened during the last 5000 years? Humans have been on the move for a long time. And just in the last 5,000 years, in increasing rates, over increasing distances. Here are just some of the biggest movements of people, voluntary movements, in the last 5,000 years. 8. What are some of the consequences for human health that result from living in areas where the skin is poorly adapted? Some of us with lightly pigmented skin live in high-UV areas. Some of us with darkly pigmented skin live in low-UV areas. These have tremendous consequences for our health. We have to, if we're lightly pigmented, be careful about the problems of skin cancer, and
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destruction of folate in our bodies, by lots of sun. Epidemiologists and doctors have been very good about telling us about protecting our skin. What they haven't been so good about instructing people is the problem of darkly pigmented people living in high latitude areas, or working inside all the time. Because the problem there is just as severe, but it is more sinister, because vitamin D deficiency, from a lack of ultraviolet B radiation, is a major problem. Vitamin D deficiency creeps up on people, and causes all sorts of health problems to their bones, to their gradual decay of their immune systems, or loss of immune function, and probably some problems with their mood and health, their mental health. 9. What is the speaker’s conclusion? So we have, in skin pigmentation, one of these wonderful products of evolution that still has consequences for us today. And the social consequences, as we know, are incredibly profound. We live in a world where we have lightly and darkly pigmented people living next to one another, but often brought into proximity initially as a result of very invidious social interactions. Now what is wonderful about the evolution of human skin pigmentation, and the phenomenon of pigmentation, is that it is the demonstration, the evidence, of evolution by natural selection, right on your body. When people ask you, "What is the evidence for evolution?" You don't have to think about some exotic examples, or fossils. You just have to look at your skin. 10. How does the speaker eventually vindicate Charles Darwin? Darwin, I think, would have appreciated this, even though he eschewed the importance of climate on the evolution of pigmentation during his own life. I think, were he able to look at the evidence we have today, he would understand it. He would appreciate it. And most of all, he would teach it. The Theoretical Basis of Ageism Ageism consists of a negative bias or stereotypic attitude toward aging and the aged. It is maintained in the form of primarily negative stereotypes and myths concerning the older adult. Traxler (1980) outlines four factors that have contributed to this negative image of aging. ● The first factor is postulated to contribute to ageism is the fear of death in Western society. Western civilization conceptualizes death as outside of the human life cycle (Butler & Lewis, 1977). As such, death is experienced and viewed as an affront to the self. Death is not seen as natural and inevitable part of the life course. This can be contrasted with Eastern philosophy where life and death are all part of a continuous cycle. To be a person, in Western society, however, means that one must be alive and in control of the events of one's life. As death is feared, old age is feared. Ageism attitudes and stereotypes serve to insulate the young and middle-aged from the ambivalence they feel towards the elderly. This ambivalence results from the fact that the older adult is viewed as representing aging and death ● The second factor is the emphasis on the youth culture in American society. The emphasis on youth not only affects how older individuals are perceived but also how older individuals perceive themselves. Persons who are dependent on physical appearance and youth for their identity are likely to experience loss of self-esteem with age (Block, Davidson, & Grumbs, 1981). ● The emphasis in American culture on productivity represents the third factor. Productivity is narrowly defined in terms of economic potential. Both ends of the life cycle are viewed as unproductive, children and the aged. The middle-aged are perceived as carrying the burdens
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imposed by both groups (Butler, 1969). Children, are seen as an economic investment. Economically, older adults are perceived as a financial liability. The fourth factor is the manner in which aging was originally researched. Poorly controlled gerontological studies have reinforced the negative image of the older adult. The early research on the aged and aging was based upon non-well, institutionalized older individuals. There is still a need for more research to be undertaken using a healthy, community-dwelling older population. It has been proposed that individual ageist attitudes can be decreased through continual exposure to and work with older adults (Rosencranz & McNevin, 1969). If the fear of death and therefore aging is not somehow addressed societally, then younger individuals will continue to attempt to make the older population somehow different from themselves. This differentiation of themselves from older adults, thus serves to protect them from the reality of death. Vocabulary Expressions to have a stereotypical attitude towards sb negative stereotypes concerning sb to outline: to give the main ideas of a plan or a piece of writing without giving all the details to be an affront to the self to insulate: to protect someone from unpleasant knowledge or harmful experiences ambivalence towards sth: the fact of having or showing both good and bad feelings about somebody/something revulsion to: a strong feeling of disgust or horror distaste for growing old: a feeling that somebody/something is unpleasant or offensive productivity is defined in terms of economic potential to carry the burdens imposed by: a feeling that somebody/something is unpleasant or offensive to be seen as an economic investment to be perceived as a financial liability to reinforce the negative image of to undertake: to agree to be responsible for a job or a project and do it Aging in the Land of Young by Sharon Curtin Old men, old women constitute 10 percent of the total population, and the percentage is steadily growing. To age is to learn the feeling of no longer growing, of struggling to do old tasks, to remember familiar actions. The cells of the brain are destroyed with thousands of unfelt tiny strokes, little pockets of clotted blood wiping out memories and abilities without warning. Rge aged live with enforced leisure, on fixed incomes, subject to many chronic illnesses, and most of their money goes to keep a roof over the head. They also live in a culture which worships youth. A kind of culture attitude makes me bigoted against old people; it makes me think young is best; it makes me treat old people like outcasts. The fear of growing old is so great that every aged person is an insult and threat to the society. They remind us of our own death; that our own body won't always remain smooth and responsive but will someday betray us by aging. The ideal way to age would be to grow slowly
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invisible, gradually disappearing, without causing worry or discomfort to the young. In some ways that does happens. Example: In a park there are two sides. In one side there are young mothers with their children, who are playing. In the other side, old people sitting and enjoying nature. When a kid cross to the other side, the old just smile but a mother appears, apologize and takes her kid back to the “young” side. The children do not feel any particular fear and the old people do not seem to be threatened by the children. The division is drawn by the mothers, who never looked at old people directly into their eyes, they have a way of sliding their eyes over. The old people may as well have been invisible; they had no reality for the youngsters, who were not permitted to speak to them, and they offended the aesthetic eye of the mothers. Vocabulary ● a ruthless and single-minded perversity ● bigoted against old people : showing strong, unreasonable beliefs or opinions and a refusal to change them ● outcast Europe’s Extraordinary Makeover - TIME There are other voices, siren voices of the media and of a deeper collective unconscious, that are sending supplicants to his clinic and to similar private centers, hospitals and beauty parlors across Europe. The voices, as insistent as nagging spouses and as urgent as adolescent sex, promise that cosmetic interventions will deliver more than just better chances in the dating game or improved conjugal relations.They whisper that surgery can grant a gift greater than immortality — the chance to stay young until you die. Once an indulgence of the moneyed élite and a professional necessity for actress-model- whatevers, cosmetic alterations are becoming a mass-market activity. Think you don’t know anyone vain enough or desperate enough to try it? Think again. According to the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (isaps), a body representing 1,315 practitioners, Europe accounted for more than 33% of cosmetic procedures conducted in 2004, second only to all of the Americas. Why is cosmetic surgery growing so fast in Europe? The Continent’s aging profile may go some way to explain why older Europeans regard plastic surgeons as high priests. But the newly powerful appeal of the religion for younger generations — and for men of all ages and every sexual orientation — is tougher to interpret. Time reporters spoke to practitioners, social scientists and psychologists to try to fathom why Europeans place such a high value on beauty. And we talked to patients of different nationalities, from teenagers to retirees, about the choices they have made, their expectations and their lives — before and after. They mentioned the temptingly wide range of options on price, procedure and location. But their answers hinted at deeper cultural shifts, too. Cosmetic surgery today isn't just the preserve of the ancient riches who parade their taut faces along the promenade at Puerto Banus, or the starlets whose undernourished frames barely support their embonpoints. Rather, the cosmetic-surgery boom reflects changing patterns of behavior in Europe. Plenty of patients go under the knife for the oldest reason of all — because they want to look more beautiful. But a surprising number attribute their passion for cosmetic surgery to television — to the rash of programs designed to convince viewers that a makeover is something they need feel no guilt in desiring. Something else is new, too; increasingly, cosmetic surgery is for men as much as
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for women. In the intersection between the search for beauty, the power of TV and the needs of the new male, Europe's face is changing. Literally. Example of Wendy Lewis: L ewis is a walking advertisement for her self-created profession: she is a consultant on cosmetic surgery, independent from any practitioners, who makes her living by charging clients for advice on how they can improve their appearance and whom they should entrust with the task. In one important respect, the European market is different from that in the U.S. “Americans are notoriously litigious” says Lewis, “so American doctors practice defensively”. Fillers — the injectable substances used to plump out creases and wrinkles — go through the arduous approvals process of the Food and Drug Administration before being licensed for use in the U.S. In Europe, most are classed as “medical devices” so require only “Conformité Européene” certificate, a cheaper and quicker process. As a result, explains Lewis, “there are more than 70 fillers available in the European Union” but only eight approved for cosmetic use in the U.S. Professional qualifications vary from one European country to the next. Clients want to look better, not different. ● Jaqueline Dusseaux: S he had a face-lift at the end of January. While admitting that she had to adjust to her ”new face.” “Just the other day I went to get medicine. Everyone was staring at me,” says Dusseaux. “Then the pharmacist came over and said, ‘My God, with the other customers it is hard to tell that they have had something done, but on you it really shows.” And she hasn’t told her parents. “In France there is still a taboo,” says Dusseaux. “It is perceived as a frivolous thing that rich people do. I don’t understand it. Anyone can have plastic surgery now. It has been democratized.” ● Isabllee Dinoire: She was world’s first partial face transplant, which made her postoperative press debut last month, the scene at the hospital in Amiens, France, echoed the set-piece closing sequences of Extreme Makeover. That TV program uses surgery to transform plain Janes into sultry Suzys. The media applauded Dinoire’s entrance and the patient declared, “I now have a face like everyone else. A door to the future is opening.” One of the most successful examples of the transformation genre, Extreme Makeover, devised in the U.S., has been sold to broadcasters in 30 European territories; the format has also been licensed to homegrown versions in six European countries. Each episode introduces participants at their lowest ebb, discusses their “defects” and emphasizes their unhappiness in voiceover. Then comes the transformation scene: a surgical makeover, usually involving multiple procedures, new teeth and wardrobe, and industrial quantities of makeup. Finally we arrive at the “reveal”, the climax when the transfigured patient is unveiled, à la Dinoire, to the applause of friends and family. It’s a great moment. But Wendy Lewis worries the TV shows have raised unrealistic expectations. “We’ve created a culture of people who can’t afford surgery or aren’t stable enough for it. We’ve made it seem a little too accessible. Having your boobs done won’t mean you meet the man of your dreams” Gérard Le Gouès, a Paris-based psychoanalyst and author of a book about cosmetic surgery, believes that many successful surgical operations are “failures, psychologically speaking — I would estimate about 35-40%. Surgeons aren’t psychological specialists.” And sometimes it’s more than the psyche that’s damaged. In France, Muriel Bessis, 62, has undergone five breast operations, six facial procedures and 11 years of tribulation to achieve her current look. And she says frankly, “I do not recognize myself.” Le Gouès, the psychoanalyst, stresses that cosmetic surgery can bring about substantial benefits. “Take, for example, a young woman whose breasts are too large. She can’t do sports;
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she has trouble knowing how to dress well; she has trouble with boys. In other words, it’s a sort of handicap for her.” A breast reduction, he suggests, will not only solve the practical problems. “There’s something more; suddenly her chest is something she’s pleased with, that she finds beautiful.” Hold that nice thought and add one twist to it. In Europe today, increasingly, that “she” opting for breast reduction is a “he.” Anyway, what’s wrong with an American smile? Dr. Jonathan Cole, a professor and a hospital consultant in clinical neurophysiology at Poole and Salisbury Hospitals in southwestern England, has studied the relation between the self and the face, and can explain why it pays to look good. “Before the Industrial Revolution” he says, “your society might extend to 200 or so people. Now you see thousands of people. You see them but you don’t interact. The only way people make an impact on each other is through the visible self.” Men such as Jennings and Massimi say their cosmetic interventions are helping them to make the right impact; cosmetic surgery, in other words, is as much a professional tool as an indulgence. In the end, most men — and women — have cosmetic surgery because they think it will make them look good. “You remain the same individual, whatever you look like — because ultimately it’s your inner values that count.” Dr. Jean-Luc Roffé, a plastic surgeon at the Clinique St. Martin in Normandy, thinks not. “My French patients come in wanting small breasts on the cheap that nobody will notice. My American patients come in wanting big breasts that cost a lot of money that everyone will notice,” he says. Wendy Lewis isn’t so confident that la différence will survive. “Images of beauty are homogenizing,” she says. “Brazil used to be the home of the breast reduction because they liked pert, small breasts and big bottoms. That’s gone. Now they can’t keep silicone implants on the shelves down there. And Korean women come to me with massive big cheekbones a Western woman would kill for that they want shaved down.” Women, on the cusp of economic parity with men, were being tricked into diverting their energies, said Wolf, obsessing instead about their physical imperfections. But Wolf failed to foresee that men might be ensnared by the same obsessions. Or that, in a faster, flickering, image-rich world, transforming your appearance might be the quickest route to transforming your whole life. After all, as Europeans are learning, it’s what’s on the outside that counts. Language 1. to endorse a sentiment 2. to chart the astounding surge of Europeans demanding elective cosmetic surgery 3. Europe's booming transformation industry 4. ravening hunger for beautification display 5. widening acceptance of 6. to preclude a normal existence 7. to unveil the transfigures patient 8. to conceal ageing 9. to be consumed with guilt 10. to plunge (fall quickly) from 85kg to 60kg 11. to be a far cry from (to be very different from sb/sth) 12. new ideals can take hold (to become stronger and difficult to stop) 13. to place a high value on beauty
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14. the premium Europeans place on beauty will continue to soar (to quickly increase to a high level) 15. to be ensnared (to trick sb in an unpleasant way and get control of them) by the same obsession CHAPTER 4: ABLEISM Definitions of Ableism ● According to Thomas Hehir, ableism is ‘’The devaluation of disability that results in societal attitudes’’ that assert that it is better for a child to do certain things instead of others, such as read print instead of Braille or walk instead of roll. ● Is a belief system that sees persons with disabilities as being less worthy of respect and consideration. This leads to their exclusion from the mainstream of society. ● Negative attitudes and stigma associated with persons with disabilities. Background Information of Ableism Ableism may be conscious or unconscious; it may be embedded in institutions, systems or in the culture of a particular society. Ableism creates significant barriers to equality, dignity and participation. Sometimes these barriers are greater than the impairment itself. So, the recognition of these barriers is core to the social approach to disability, and the identification and removal of them has been a central aim for disability activism. Ableism affects the implementation of laws and policies. An example of it is the zoning bylaws, which states that persons with psychiatric or intellectual disabilities should be excluded from particular neighbourhoods. Legislators have to act on the assumption that assistance and protection necessary to permit persons with disabilities to achieve equality and full participation in society are required as a right. It is necessary to fine-tune society to avoid the relegation and banishment of disabled persons from participation in society, which most of the time results in discrimination. WORD/EXPRESSIO N
MEANING
embedded in
Firmly established
Worthy off
to deserve. A person can be worthy of respect, attention, notice.
stigma
A strong feeling in society that being in a particular situation or having a particular illness is something to be ashamed of
A barrier to
A law, rule, problem that makes something difficult or impossible. Coll: equality, exit (sth such as $ or regulations that makes it diff por a person to leave a business), entry (sth that prevents companies entering an industry).
Impairment
Deterioration of the functioning of a body part, organ, or system that can 41
be temporary or permanent. Collocations: mental, visual, cognitive impairment Zoning bylaw
Laws that control the use of lands in a community
To act on the in the belief assumption that
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The mainstream of
The most usual ideas, methods, or the people who have these ideas or methods. -Coll:’: politics, a community, scientific activity, a particular society. Eg: the mainstream of American life.
Mainstream
accepted by or involving most people in a society. Coll: Mainstream + education, media/press, culture, journals, life, tastes.
To fine-tune
to make small changes to something (eg a system) to improve it. Coll: fine-tuned machine, system, plan, society.
Banishment
prohibition
To be core to
the most important part of something.
Laws that prohibit certain forms of discrimination: In Australia, The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA; 1992) supports non-discrimination in employment, education, access to premises, accomodation, buying or selling land, etc. The Disability Services Act (DSA; 1986) enables people with disabilities the right to achieve their individual capacity for physical, social, emotional and intellectual development. In the US, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 1975, 1997) requires schools to provide ‘’free and appropriate education’’ for all students. In the UK, the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA; 1995, 2005) requires public bodies to promote equal opportunities for disabled people. In Argentina: Comprehensive system of protection to the disabled (1981): This Act provides for a system of comprehensive protection for persons with disabilities, with the aim of ensuring that they receive medical care, education, and social security. It also grants exemptions and incentives in order to give them opportunities [...] to fulfill a role in society that is equivalent to that of citizens without disabilities. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2008):“to promote, safeguard and ensure that persons with disabilities are able to fully enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedoms, and to promote respect for their intrinsic dignity.” The term “persons with disabilities” includes “persons who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments [...]”. Other related acts: National system of health insurance: rehabilitation services should be provided to disabled persons as well as coverage for medicines; system of basic services for comprehensive habilitation and rehabilitation for persons with disabilities; comprehensive health care of persons with rare diseases, among others. Vocabulary
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Terms of contempt* frequently heard with reference to people with some kind of handicap (disability): asinine (extremely stupid) daft/inane/gimp (silly) ignoramus (someone who does not know about most things people know) ignorant/unintelligent/vapid (lacking intelligence) ridiculous/unbelievable/unthinkable/unconscionable (much more than is reasonable or imaginable) incomprehensible insensible insipid (not interesting, exciting, attractive) irrational obtuse (slow to understand in a way that is annoying) lame/cripple (lisiado) retarded *contempt: a feeling that someone or something is not important and deserves no respect. Encyclopedia of American Disability History Until the 20th century, disabling conditions where shrouded (hidden) in shame, condemnation and isolation. An example of it is the dehumanizing hypervisibility of disabled people who worked in circuses. However, in 1970s the Independent Living Movement started to encourage people with disabilities to fight for self-determination and independence. Ableism is the result of society medicalizing and pathologizing disability. The term is connected to the culturally ingrained notion of non-disabled bodies as the norm.The idea of ‘’compulsory able-bodiedness’’ coined by Robert McRuer states that people are presumed to be able-bodied and are compelled to cultivate the appearance of normalcy. Disability activists use the term ‘’temporarily able-bodied’ ’ to identify the nondisabled. This idea shows that anyone could become disabled at any time, which instead of fostering identification, it created fear and disavowal. Through ableism, which is a form of subjugation, disabled lives are thought of as full of suffering and burdensome to both families and the society. The ableist culture sees disabled people as sick rather than as an oppressed group, attributing exclusion to physical factors instead of social ones. Vocabulary condemnation: expression of very strong disapproval of sm/sth, especially something you think is morally wrong to dehumanize: to treat people so badly that they lose their human qualities. ingrained: when attitudes/behaviour are firmly established and difficult to change. able-bodied: physically strong and healthy. normalcy: the state of being normal disavowal: disclaim, rechazo. subjugation: bringing someone or something under control. burdensome: causing problems or additional work. oppressed exclusion
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Transhumanization Transhumanism is an international philosophical movement that advocates for the transformation of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies to eliminate aging and enhance human intelectual, physical and psychological capacities. Transhumanists study the potential benefits and dangers of emerging technologies that could overcome some human and ethical limitations of using such technologies A transhumanist thesis is that human beings may be able to transform themselves into different beings with abilities so greatly expanded from the current condition to label them as posthuman beings.
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