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A
CHRISTIAN
HISTORY
OF
CHURCH
THE
Ill
A
OF
HISTORY
THE
CHURCH
CHRISTIAN
BY
WALKER
WILLISTON TITUS
STREET
PROFESSOR IN
OF TALE
NEW
CHARLES
ECCLEHIASTICAL
HISTORY
UNIVERSITY
YORK
SCRIBNER'S 1918
SONS
BR i^fe
Ws
COPYRIGHT, CHARLES
1918,
BY
SCRIBNER'S
Published
March,
SONS
1918
MY To
WIFE
this
!N:
of
field
he
as
is
the
of
which
life
of
directed
which
in
is
He
der
of
its
make
to
origin,
the
far
as
its
and
well
would
Christian
is
a
mine
special
express
Halle,
of
has
thought
and
Giessen,
have
who
many
Loofs,
Kirchengeschichte
tendencies
his
been
;
associates, of
recent
whose
the
has
modifica
and
to
in
labored
March,
1918.
this
indebtedness
to
Leitfaden
in
Gustav
Professor
whose
zum
helpful
specially
Handbuch
der
informa
bibliographical
WILLISTON HAVEN,
of
he
permit
tion.
NEW
as
influences
those
and
doctrine
develop
as
and
far
as
early
would
space
of
growth
evident,
Reformation,
situation
present
Dogmengeschichte of
treatment
of
to
to
he
but
Friedrich
Studium
Kriiger,
the
obligation him,
Professor
as
vast
thought.
under
before
field
the
As
to
so
the
treat
to
upheaval,
church.
the
Christian
of
led
tremendous
that
attention
tion
the
circumstances
resulted
have
endeavored
church
the
changes
course
the
the
able,
has
writer
of
story
the
ment,
the
history the
NOTE
PREFATORY
(
WALKER.
CONTENTS
I.
PERIOD
THE
FROM
BEGINNINGS
TO
THE
GNOSTIC
CRISIS PAGE
I.
THE
GENERAL
II.
THE
JEWISH
III.
JESUS
IV.
PAUL THE
CLOSE
VII.
THE
INTERPRETATION
OF
COMMUNITIES
22
CHRISTIANITY
GENTILE
25
APOSTOLIC
THE
AGE
33
JESUS
OF
CHRISTIANITY
GENTILE
18
CHRISTIAN
VI.
VIII.
11
DlSCIPLES
THE
AND
1
BACKGROUND
PALESTINIAN
THE
V.
AND
SITUATION
OF
35 SECOND
THE
CENTURY
41 ...
IX.
CHRISTIAN
X.
RELATIONS
XL
OF
II. III.
CHRISTIANITY
TO
ROMAN
THE
GOVERNMENT
48 50
FROM
II.
I.
44
APOLOGISTS
THE
PERIOD
ORGANIZATION
THE
GNOSTIC
CRISIS
CONSTANTINE
TO
GNOSTICISM
53
MARCION
56
MONTANISM
57
*
IV.
THE
CATHOLIC
CHURCH
V.
THE
GROWING
IMPORTANCE
VI. VII.
OF
ROME
63
IREN^US
65
TERTULLIAN THE
TRIUMPH
IX.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
CHURCH
CYPRIAN
AND
VIII.
X.
59
AND
OF
THE
67
LOGOS
CHRISTOLOGY
SCHOOL STATE
FROM
IN
THE
WEST
71 76
180 ix
TO
260
83
CONTENTS
x
PAGE
XL
DEVELOPMENT
CONSTITUTIONAL
THE
OF
CHURCH
THE
87 .
XII.
PUBLIC
WORSHIP
XIII.
BAPTISM
XIV.
THE
XV.
XVI.
LORD'S
XIX.
OF
100 THE
CHURCH
HIGHER
THE
AND
AND
102
260-303
GROWTH,
RELIGIOUS
104
FORCES
106
STRUGGLE
FINAL
THE
97
MORALITY
AND
RIVAL
XVIII.
92
SINS
OF
COMPOSITION
REST
SEASONS
SUPPER
FORGIVENESS THE
SACRED
93
LOWER XVII.
AND
108 .
PERIOD
I.
THE
II.
THE
III. IV. V.
III.
CHANGED
THE
GROWTH
MONASTICISM
'VIII.
AMBROSE
AND
THE
OF
OF
CONSTANTINE
114
SONS
119 ....
THE
123
GERMANIC
INVASIONS
129 .
.
.
PAPACY
134 .
.
136
AND
CHRYSOSTOM
IX.
THE
CHRISTOLOGICAL
X.
THE
EAST
XL
DEATH
THE
TO
STRUGGLE
NICENE
MISSIONS
112
CONSTANTINE'S
UNDER
LATER
""TIL
CHURCH
SITUATION
CONTROVERSY
ARIAN
STATE
IMPERIAL
CONTROVERSY
ARIAN
THE
THE
140
CONTROVERSIES
143^ 153
DIVIDED
CATASTROPHES
FURTHER
AND
CONTROVERSIES
IN
THE
159
EAST XII.
THE
DEVELOPMENT
CONSTITUTIONAL
XIII.
PUBLIC
WORSHIP
XIV.
LOWER
CHRISTIANITY
XV. XVI. XVII.
SOME
WESTERN
AND
SACRED
CHARACTERISTICS
SEASONS
OF
THE
CHURCH
164 .
167 170 172
JEROME
173
AUGUSTINE
175
~"a**a
CONTENTS
XI
PAGE
XVIII.
CONTROVERSY
PELAGIAN
THE
XIX.
SEMI-PELAGIANISM
"^XX.
GREGORY
188 190 ...
II.
FRANKS
III.
THE
liV.
CHARLEMAGNE
V. VI. VII. VIII.
MISSIONS
CONTINENTAL
REFORM
EMPIRE
X.
THE
PAPACY
BREAKS
HlLDEBRAND
XII.
THE
STRUGGLE
XIII.
THE
GREEK
XIV.
THE
III.
PAPACY
RISING BY
SECURES
THE
ENDS CHURCH
SPREAD
OF
V. VI. VII.
EARLY THE HIGH
EMPIRE
214 .
225
IV
228
COMPROMISE
IN
232
PICTURE
THE
AFTER
CONTROVERSY
234 .
236
CHURCH
THE
V.
222
MIDDLE
LATER
THE
AGES
CRUSADES
238
MOVEMENTS
RELIGIOUS
ANTICHURCHLY
THE
REVIVED
EMPIRE
245
CATHARI
SECTS.
AND
INQUISITION IV.
209
PAPACY
THE
THE
WITH
HENRY
AND
PERIOD
NEW
208
218
PARTY
II.
....
MOVEMENTS REFORM
THE
200
GROWTH
202
RENEWAL
AND
THE
'I.
PAPAL
PAPACY
AND
IX.
XI.
195
INSTITUTIONS
DECLINE
PAPAL
THE
205
ECCLESIASTICAL COLLAPSING
OF
ISLANDS AND
THE
AND
CLOSE
CONTROVERSY
BRITISH
THE
IN
THE
TO
AGES
MIDDLE
INVESTITURE
Vs-I.MISSIONS
185
.
GREAT
THE
'THE
iv.
PERIOD
.
DOMINICANS
WALDENSES.
THE 249
AND
FRANCISCANS
SCHOLASTICISM
261
UNIVERSITIES SCHOLASTICISM
254
267 AND
ITS
THEOLOGY
269
CONTENTS
xii
PAGE
VIII. IX. X. XL
MISSIONS THE
DEFEATS
AND
PAPACY
WYCLIF
REFORMING
XIV.
THE
ITALIAN
XV.
THE
NEW
III.
THE
.
.
.
SCHISM
292
POPES
313 20 320
INFLUENCES
OTHER
AND
ITS
AND
POWERS
NATIONAL
THE
VI.
NORTH
OF
ALPS
THE
AND
3-35
DIVISIONS
349
REVOLT
359
V. VI. VII.
366
ESTABLISHED
PROTESTANTISM
GERMAN THE
.
ANABAPTISTS
THE
REVOLT
IN
370
LANDS
SCANDINAVIAN
382
SWITZERLAND
FRENCH
AND
GENEVA
BEFORE
CALVIN
386
JOHN
CALVIN
IX.
THE
ENGLISH
REVOLT
401
X.
THE
SCOTTISH
REVOLT
415
XI.
THE
ROMAN
XII.
THE
VIII.
STRUGGLE
389
REVIVAL IN
422
FRANCE,
THE
NETHERLANDS,
AND
ENGLAND XIII.
GERMAN
430
CONTROVERSIES
AND
THE
THIRTY
YEARS'
WAR
441 .
XIV.
SOCINIANISM
451
XV.
ARMINIANISM
453
XVI.
ANGLICANISM, ENGLAND.
THE
AND
AND
CONGREGATIONALISM PRESBYTERIANISM IN
IN
SCOT 457
LAND
XVII.
PURITANISM, EPISCOPACY
QUAKERS
,(\
26X/
REFORMATION
.
IV.
326
REVOLUTION
SEPARATIONS Swiss
306
RENAISSANCE
LUTHERAN
THE
CRITICISM.
.
298
PERIOD
II.
285 .
COUNCILS
RENAISSANCE
THE
DECLINE
Huss
AND
THE
I.
ITS
AND
AVIGNON,
IN
XIII.
XVI.
283 HEIGHT
ITS
AT
PAPACY
THE
XII.
279
MYSTICS
THE
478
xiii
CONTENTS
THE
TO
TRANSITION
THE
VII.
PERIOD
MODERN
RELIGIOUS
SITUATION PAGE
THE
TURNING
II.
THE
BEGINNINGS
III.
DEISM*AND
IV.
ENGLISH
V.
PIETISM
SCEPTICISM
OPPONENTS.
494 495
501
METHODISM
EFFECTS
OF
THE
MISSIONARY
X.
THE
GERMAN
507
METHODISM
518
AWAKENING
522
ENLIGHTENMENT
(AUFKLARUNG)
524 ....
ROMANTICISM
529
XII.
FURTHER
GERMAN
XIII.
ENGLAND
IN
XIV.
SCOTTISH
DIVISIONS
XV.
ROMAN
THE
DEVELOPMENTS
536
NINETEENTH AND
CENTURY
544
REUNIONS
552
CATHOLICISM
AMERICAN
XVI.
483 487
MORAVIANISM
AND
IX.
XL
PHILOSOPHY
AND
GERMANY
IN
AND
SOME
VIII.
SCIENCE
UNITARIANISM
WESLEY
VII.
MODERN
OF
ITS
ZlNZENDORF
VI.
481
POINT
I.
555
CHRISTIANITY
564
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
591
INDEX
605
MAPS
LANDS
ABOUT
THE
EASTERN
MEDITERRANEAN
CENTURY EUROPE THE
IN
THE
DURING
THE
FIRST 28
TIME
OF
CHARLEMAGNE
206
CRUSADES
EUROPE
IN
240 THE
REFORMATION .
350
PERIOD
FROM
I.
SECTION
birth
THE
Christ
of
possessionof unapproached
equalled,and
territories, which
embraced
civilized
under
life,were
civilizations
The
side
its borders
The
Roman
All
and
Roman
by
peace
common
small
in
and
tribes. co
were
men
single Em
together by allegiance to a military system subject to him. comparison with that of a modern
the Roman adequate to preserve flourished,communication commerce roads
Out
semicivilized
civilized
the
within
Empire.
by
and
sea,
^mili
made
was
educated
among
The
Under
peace.
was
excellent
by
of
world
the
of
culture.
of
come
Roman or
savage
men
not
vast
knew
held
was
a
army,
tary state, that
and
did
never
these
times,
single type
a
the
degree
a
common
of the
only
knew
Empire
extensive. peror,
he
of China
or
inhabitant
ordinary
of the
vision
of India
in modern
of
sway
To
Rome.
all that the
surrounded
which
lands
the
saw
in the
Mediterranean before
SITUATION
GENERAL
THE
I.
THE
TO
CRISIS
GNOSTIC
*
;
BEGINNINGS
THE
easy
men,
at
language, that of Greece, larger towns, a common facilitated the interchange of thought. It was empire that, an of rulers lower in spite evil and corrupt officials,secured many and before rough justice such as the world had never a seen; least in the
its citizens with
Yet
control, domestic
proud
were
of it and
all its unity
Rome
far
was
the
matters
of its achievements.
imperial authority
of
crushing local
from
inhabitants
of the
and
military
institutions.
provinces
were
In
largely
generally self-governing. Their local religiousobservances were ancient the the respected. Among languages and masses limited allowed customs native rulers were a persisted. Even in portions of the empire, as native states still persist sway under time
British
rule
of Christ's
in India.
birth.
mistress
of its diverse
siderate
treatment
Not
Such a
a
land
little of the
was
Palestine
success
at
of Rome
the as
due to this con subject population was of local rights and prejudices. The diver1
RELIGIOUS
GENERAL
THE
2
BACKGROUND
sityin the empire was scarcelyless remarkable than its unity. nowhere more This varietywas apparent than in the realm of thought. religious Christianityentered no empty world. Its advent found men's minds filled with conceptionsof the universe,of religion, and punishments, with which it had to of sin,and of rewards it had and reckon to which to adjust itself. Christianity could not build on virginsoil. The conceptionswhich it found already existingformed much of the material with which it must erect its structure. Many of these ideas are no longer those of the modern
world.
fact of this inevitable inter
The
the permanent from compels the student to distinguish the transitoryin Christian thought,though the process is one of exceeding difficulty, and the solutions given by various mixture
scholars
diverse.
are
Certain
factors in the world
of
thought into
which
Chris
tianitycame belong to universal ancient religionand are of hoary antiquity. All men, except a few representativesof believed in the existence of a sophistication, philosophical of powers, invisible, or superhuman, and eternal,con power, human trolling destiny,and to be worshipped or placatedby sacrifice. The earth was viewed as the cen or prayer, ritual, it the sun, planets,and stars ran Around tre of the universe. their
Above
courses.
or departedspirits
called natural
ongoings of and
was
the
tfce abode
heaven; below
conceptionof what penetrated the popular mind.
of the wicked.
law had
nature
evil,who
it
the work
were
is now
No
of invisible powers
ruled arbitrarily.Miracles
of
All the of
good
therefore,
A~
were,
be regarded not merely as possible;they were to be expect( d the in the higher forces would whenever impress men witji the abode of inm The world was portant or the unusual.
spirits, righteousor malevolent,who touched human li entered into such possession" in all its phases,and who even to control their actions for good or ill. A profoun as men merable
of
sense
the
unworthiness, of ill desert,and of dissatisfaction wit
conditions "existing
kind.
The
varied
of life characterized the
forms
of
mass
religiousmanifestation
of were
mar ev
dences of the universal need of better relations with the spiritu* and of men's Jonging for help greater than an. and unseen,
they
could
give one
another.
Besides these generalconceptionscommon
to
popular re
PLATO
4
AND
world, since known by reason give whatever of realityis present to
our
vious existence. remembrance
the body, must
before
soul knew
"
these "ideas"
in pre of the visible world call to
"ideas."
The
soul, existing
be independent of it,and
decay.
This
doctrine
of resurrection.
sires to
be
"ideas"
is the true
All "ideas"
affected
not
conception of immortality as of the soul,not shared by the body, was always Greek to thought and stood in sharp contrast
by
its
shared
known
once
than
and by the senses by the passing phenomena
phenomena
The
these
rather
The
senses.
ARISTOTLE
an
attribute
influential in the
Hebrew
of
equal worth. The highestare those of the true, the beautiful,and especially of the good. A clear perceptionof a personalGod, as embodied in the "idea" of the good, was perhaps not attained by Plato; but he certainlyapproached closelyto it. The good rules the of all lesser goods,and de It is the source world, not chance. imitated
in the home
actions
of the
satisfaction in communion
with
not
are
of
soul, which
them.
The
men.
of-
realm
finds its highest
Salvation
is the
recov
goodness and beauty. of a far less mystical spirit Aristotle (B. C. 384-322) was than Plato. To him the visible world was an unquestioned between reality.He discarded Plato's sharp discrimination and "ideas" phenomena. Neither exist without the other. of the vision of the eternal
ery
in the case of substance, the result,save God, who is purelyimmaterial,of the impress of idea," as the in formative Matter which is the content. force, on matter It has always existed,yet itself is only potentialsubstance. the world is eternal,for a realm without form. Hence never Each
existence
is
a
"
of
"ideas"
does -not and
antecedent
exist.
Aristotle
The
world
is therefore
changes
demand
Himself
unmoved.
argument
to
the
their manifestation is the in
a
prime object of true
initiation of Hence
for the existence
in
a
sense
a
phenomena knowledge,
scientist.
"prime mover,"
Its
who
is
Aristotle
presents this celebrated
of God.
But
the
"prime
mover"
God and is, therefore,not intelligent purpose, only the beginning but the end of the process of the world's belongs to the world of substances, but development. Man in him there is not merely the body and sensitive "soul" of the which he animal; there is also a divine spark,a Logos (Xcfyo?), is eternal,though, unlike Plato's shares with God, and which impersonal. In morals Arisconception of spirit, essentially
works
with
EPICUREANISM
5
1
Itotleheld that happiness, or
is the aim, and is at well-being, of the golden mean. tained by a careful maintenance much be Greek philosophy did not advance scientifically yond Plato and Aristotle,but they had little direct influence at
the time
of Christ.
birth,a modified
Two
centuries and
half
a
Platonism, Neo-Platonism,
was
to
after His
arise,of
profoundly affected Christian the powerfully ology, notably that of Augustine. Aristotle was to influence the scholastic theology of the later Middle Ages. in had viewed Those older Greek philosophers man chiefly the lightof his value to the state. The conquests of Alexander, who died B. C. 323, wrought a great change in men's outlook. the Eastern Hellenic culture was world, plantedwidely over but the small Greek states collapsedas independent political entities. It was difficultlongerto feel that devotion to the new and vast political units that a little, independent Athens had, for instance, from its citizens. The individual as an inde won pendent entitywas emphasized. Philosophy had to be inter could the individual preted in terms of individual life. How of himself? Two make the most were given, great answers of which was one wholly foreignto the genius of Christianity, and could not be used by it; the other only partially foreign, and therefore destined profoundly to influence Christian the ology. These were Epicureanism and Stoicism. Epicurus (B. C. 342-270), most of whose life was spent in Athens, taught that mental bliss is the highest aim of man. This state is most perfectwhen passive. It is the absence of all that disturbs and annoys. Hence Epicurus himself does deserve the reproaches often cast upon his system. In not great importance, which
deed, in his mental
baseless.
they
life,he
was
govern
an
ascetic.
The
worst
foes of
fears. Of these groundless/ dread of the anger of the gods and of death. Both did do The gods exist,but they not create nor
happinesshe taught
the chief are are
own
the world, which
are
Epicurus holds,with Democritus
by the chance and ever-changing combinations All islnaterial, of eternally even existingatoms. DeatlTelridsall,but tlie soul of man and the gods themselves. is no evi" since "in it there is no consciousness remaining. Hence, as far as it was a religion, Epicureanismwas one of in difference. The school spread widely. The Roman poet Lu (B. C. 470?-3SO?),
cretius
was
formed
(B. C. 98?-55), in his brilliant De
Rerum
Natura,
gave
STOICISM
6
of the
ence
system
view
sensual
side of
the worthier
expressionto
as
whole
a
Epicureanism;
but the influ
destructive and
was
toward
a
of
happiness. Contemporarily with Epicurus,Euhemerus (about B. C. 300) were taught that the gods of the old religions simply deified whom about myths and tradition had cast a halo of men, divinity. He found a translator and advocate in the Roman (B.C. 239?-170?). Parallel with Epicureanism, poet Ennius in the teaching of Pyrrho of Elis (B. C. 360?-270?), and his followers,a wholly sceptical point of view was presented. Not be understood, but merely can the real nature of things never of action the best course In practice is equally dubious. Pyrrho found, like Epicurus,the ideal of lifeone of withdrawal all that
from
could Christianity did not
disturbs.
or
annoys
nothing in
have
all these
With
and
common,
theories
they
in turn
affect it.
The
other
great
of Stoicism,the noblest ethical thought, the nearest in some re
answer
was
that
type of ancient pagan and in others spects to Christianity,
remote
from
it. Its lead
(B. C.?-264?),Cleanthes (B. C. 301?-232?), and Chrysippus (B. C. 280?-207?). Though developed in Athens, it flourished best outside of Greece, and notably in Rome, where Seneca (B. C. 3?-A. D. 65), Epictetus(A. D. 60?-?), and the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 121-180), had great influence. ers
wereZeno
powerfullyrepresentedin Tarsus during the early life Stoicism was of the Apostle Paul. primarilya great ethical system, yet not without claims to be considered a religion. Its thought of the universe was curiouslymaterialistic. All It
was
is real is
that
fineness of Hence
bodies, and
fine and
dis correspond roughly to the common Stoicism approximated, spiritand matter.
coarse
tinctions between
though
there is great difference in the the coarser are penetratedby the finer.
physical. Yet
it much
The
modified, the view of Heraclitus.
source
the shaping,harmonizing influence in the universe is the vital warmth, from which all has developed by differing of
all,and
interpenetratesall things,and
degrees of tension, which
to
Heraclitus's fire,which it resembles,it is the intelligent, self-conscious world-soul,an all
which
all will return.
indwellingreason, It is
We
God,
can
the
Far
more
than
of which Logos (Xcfyo?),
life and
"follow the God
wisdom
of all.
within" ; and
reason
our
It is
by
is
a
truly within
reason
of it one
part. us.
can
STOICISM
popular gods
The
Since
law,
are
of Zeus:
"We
too
are
thy offspring."
for the forces that stream
simply names
God.
from
out
did
Cleanthes
as
say,
7
wisdom
one
exists in all the world, there is one
rule of conduct
one
Since all
are
frfom
station in lifeare
for all
God, all
accidental.
men
are
To
All
men.
are
brothers.
follow
reason
natural
morally
free.
Differences in the
in
placein
is equally oneself is the highest duty, and is an Emperor or a slave. So to praiseworthywhether a man which
finds
one
J obey reason, is
no
the Logos, is the sole objectof pursuit.Happiness just aim, though duty done brings a certain happiness
by-product. The chief enemies of a perfectobedi are passions and lusts, which pervert the judgment. ence These must resolutelybe put aside. God inspiresall good pantheistic. acts, though the notion of God is essentially The strenuous ascetic attitude of Stoicism,its doctrine of the divine wisdom, Logos (Xctyo?), its all-pervadingand all-ruling insistence that all who do well are equallydeserving,whatever i their station,and its assertion of the essential brotherhood of / all men, were profoundly to affect Christian theology. In its the creed and its results were noble. ( highestrepresentatives It was, however, too often hard, narrow, and unsympathetic. It was for the few. It recognizedthat the many could never reach its standards. Its spiritwas often one of pride. too That of Christianity is one of humility. Still it produced re markable effects. Stoicism gave Rome excellent Emperors and lesser officials. Though it never became a really popular many followed by many of high influence and position creed, it was in the Roman law for the better. world, and modified Roman It introduced into jurisprudencethe conception of a law of and above all arbitraryhuman nature, expressed in reason, statutes. are By its doctrine that all men by nature equal,the features of slavery were worst gradually ameliorated,and Roman citizenship widely extended. One may and thought in Rome say that the best educated the provinces,by the time of Christ, in spiteof wide-spread Epicureanism and Scepticism,inclined to pantheisticMono to the theism, to the conception of God as good, in contrast non-moral character of the old Greek and Roman deities,to belief in a rulingdivine providence,to the thought that true is not ceremonies but an imitation of the moral qualireligion
purelyas
a
POPULAR
8
RELIGION
The two God, and toward a humaner attitude to men. elements those of lacking in this educated philosophy were certaintysuch as could only be given by belief in a divine revelation,and of that loyaltyto a person which Christianity to emphasize. was The common people,however, shared in few of these bene fits. They lay in gross superstition.If the grip of the old of Greece and Rome had largelyrelaxed,they never* religions theless believed in gods many and lords many. Every town had its patron god or goddess,every trade,the farm, the spring, of life,marriage, childbirth. the household, the chief events These views, too, were ultimatelyto appear in Christian his into saint-worship.Soothsayers and magi tory transmuted cians drove a thrivingtrade among the ignorant,and none Above all, were more patronizedthan those of Jewish race. the of the common convinced that maintenance people were the historic religious cult of the ancient gods was necessary If not observed, for the safety and perpetuityof the state. in calamities the gods wreaked vengeance an opinionthat was of much later persecutionof Christianity.These the source not vigorouslyopposed by the learned, popular ideas were who largelyheld that the old religionshad a police value. They regarded the state ceremonies as a necessityfor the com Seneca put the philosophical mon man. opinionbluntlywhen will observe all religious he declared that "the wise man usages commanded as by the law, not as pleasingto the gods." The lowest point in popular religious Empire feelingin the Roman correspondsroughly to the time of the birth of Christ. The abler Emperors strove to strengthen and modify the into worship \Jancient popular worships, for patrioticreasons, deification of the This patriotic of the state and of its head. Roman state began, indeed, in the days of the republic. The be found in Smyrna as early worship of the "Dea Roma" may This reverence B. C. 195. was strengthenedby the popu as larityof the empire in the provincesas securingthem better than that of the republic. As early as B. C. 29, government Pergamum had a temple to Rome and Augustus. This worship, ties of
"
/
directed
and
the ruler
as
the embodiment
of the state,
or
rather
spread rapidly. It soon indwellingspirit, elaborate an priesthood under state patronage, divided and celebrating not only worship organizedby provinces,
to his
had
to
"genius"
or
WORSHIP
OF
THE
STATE
9
largescale. It was probablythe most char of a professedly religious highlydevelopedorganization the earlyempire,and the degreeto which it ulti acter under mately affected Christian institutions awaits further investiga of tion. From a modern point of view there was much more in this system. Christian mission than of religion patriotism aries in Japan have solved a similar, though probablyless diffi to the Emperor to be cult, situation by holding reverence But early Christian feelingregarded this purely patriotic. irreconcilablewith allegiance worshipof the Emperor as utterly of Pergamum is shown in the description to Christ. The feeling in Revelation 213. Christian refusal to render the worshipseemed treasonable,and was the great occasion of the martyrdoms. Men need a religion deeper than philosophyor ceremonies. Ceremonies Philosophy satisfiesonly the exceptionalman. but not those whose avail far more, thoughts are active,or Some attempt of personalunworthiness is keen. whose sense made to revive the dying older popular paganism. The was of them, extensive builders and earlier Emperors were, many patrons of temples. The most notable effort to effect a revival that of Plutarch (A.D. and purification of popularreligion was but annual
games
on
a
46?-120?), of Chseronea of others.
He
in
Greece, which
criticised the traditional
may
serve
mythology.
as
typical All that
impliedcruel or morallyunworthy actions on the part of the All the popular gods gods he rejected.There is one God. Plutarch His attributes personified, subordinate spirits. are or had faith in oracles, and future retribution. providences, special He taught a strenuous morality. His attempt to wake up what best in the dying older paganism was a was hopeless task and
won
few followers.
The great majorityof those who felt religious longingssimply those of a redemptivena adopted Oriental religions, especially
mysticismor sacramentalism were prominent fea the great -influx Ease of communication, and especially tures. world of Oriental slaves into the western portionof the Roman The spread during the later republicfacilitated this process. of these faiths independentof,and to a certain extent as rivals of,Christianity duringthe firstthree centuries of our era made that epoch one of deepeningreligious feeling throughoutthe em pire,and, in that sense, undoubtedly facilitatedthe ultimate^ ture in which
'
triumphof Christianity.
J-
MYSTERY
10
RELIGIONS
One
of considerablyextended appeal, such Oriental religion, though with little of the element of mystery, was Judaism, of which
there
will be
occasion
fullyin another The connection. popular mind turned more largelyto other Oriental cults,of greater mystery, or rather of largerredemp tive sacramental significance.Their meaning for the religious world has been only recentlyap development of the Roman preciatedat anything like its true value. The most popular of these Oriental religions those of the Great Mother were (Cybele) and Attis,originating in Asia Minor Isis of and Serapisfrom ; time there Egypt ; and of Mithras from Persia. At the same much of these religions, with mixture was syncretistic one of the lands to which they another, and with the older religions That of the Great came. Mother, which was a essentially primitive nature worship, accompanied by licentious rites, in B. C. 204, and was the first to gain extensive reached Rome That of Isis and Serapis,with its em foothold in the West. well established in was phasison regenerationand a future life, Rome by B. C. 80, but had long to endure governmental oppo sition. That of Mithras, the noblest of all,though having an extended historyin the East, did not become conspicuous at tilltoward the year A. D. 100, and its great spread was Rome in the latter part of the second and during the third centuries. It was especiallybeloved of soldiers. In the later years, at to
speak
more
in the Roman least of its progress Empire, Mithras fied with the sun the Sol Invictus of the Emperors "
Constantine.
Like
the universe
was
other
was
identi
just before
of Persian origin, its view religions
of
dualistic.
religions taught a redeemer-god. All held that the initiateshared in symbolic(sacramental) fashion the experiences with him, became of the god, died with him, rose partakersof the divine nature, usuallythrough a meal shared symbolically in his immortality. All had secret with him, and participated rites for the initiated. All offered mystical (sacramental) cleansingfrom sin. In the religionof Isis and Serapis that cleansingwas by bathing in sacred water; in those of the and of Mithras by the blood of a bull,the tauGreat Mother the initiate was robolium,by which, as recorded in inscriptions, "reborn forever." All promised a happy future life for the All these
faithful.
the world.
All
were
more
or
less ascetic in their attitude toward
Some, like Mithraism, taught the brotherhood
and
AND
LAW
THE
12
undisturbed practically
SYNAGOGUE
after their restoration
consequent upon
conquest of Babylonia ; and the hereditarypriestly the real native aristocracy of the land. In their
the Persian families
THE
were
they
higher ranks
be marked
interest and by political indifference. The high-priesthood in particular became religious of its influence. a coveted office by reason pecuniaryand political from the Greek With it was associated,certainly period,a body the Sanhedrim, ultimately of advisers and legalinterpreters, Thus administered,the temple and its seventy-one in number. came priesthood
to
came
to
represent the
more
formal
aspect of the reli
On the other hand, the feeling that gious life of the Hebrews. a holy people livingunder Yahwe's holy law, their they were of religious separatism,and the comparative cessation of sense prophecy,turned the nation to the study of the law, which was of tradition. As in Mo mass interpreted by an ever-increasing lands to-day,the Jewish law was hammedan at once religious and civil the Its statute. interpreters, scribes,became precept the real religious and more leaders of the people. Juda more ism grew of a the religion to be, in ever-increasing measure, and its mass of interpretative sacred scripture precedent. For of the law, and for fuller understanding and administration a developedwherever Judaism prayer and worship,the synagogue was represented.Its originis uncertain,going back probably to local congregationin the Exile. In its typicalform it was a by a group of cluding all Jews of the district presidedover These were em "elders,"having often a "ruler" at its head. and punish offenders. The services powered to excommunicate were very simple and could be led by any Hebrew, though usu a ruler of the synagogue." They included prayer, allyunder the readingof the law and the prophets,their translation and exposition(sermon), and the benediction. Because of the un and the growing im character of the priesthood, representative the temple,though highlyregarded, portance of the synagogues, life of the people as less and less vital for the religious became the time of Christ is approached,and could be totallyde stroyedin A. D. 70, without any overthrow of the essential ele "
in"Judaism.
ments
Under into
the Seleucid
Judaea, and
office.
The
Epiphanes
influences Kings Hellenizing
divided
the
claimants
for the
strongly high-priestly
came
forcible support of Hellenism IV, by Antiochus (B. C. 175-164), and its accompanying repression
AND
PHARISEES
SADDUCEES
13
worship and customs, led, in B. C. 167, to the great rebellion headed by the Maccabees, and ultimatelyto a period lasted till the conquest by the of Judsean independence which This Hellenizingepisodebrought about in B. C. 63. Romans
of Jewish
a
profoundcleft in
Jewish
life. The
rulers secured
Maccabean
the family office ; but high-priestly though and by re had risen to leadershipby oppositionto Hellenism ;zeal,it graduallydrifted toward Hellenism and purely ligious Under John Hyrcanus, the Maccabean politicalambition. for themselves* the
ruler from
B. C.
135
to
105, the distinction
between
the
re
marked. The aristo became ligiouspartiesof later Judaism cratic-political party, with which Hyrcanus and the leading to be known Sad as priestlyfamilies allied themselves, came ducees title the meaning and antiquityof which is uncer a tain. It was a worldly party without strong re essentially ligiousconviction. Many of the views that the Sadducees entertained were conservativelyrepresentativeof the older Judaism. Thus, they held to the law without its traditional and denied a resurrection or a personalimmor interpretation, tality. On the other hand, they rejectedthe ancient notion of influential, Though politically they were spirits, good or bad. of the people,who opposed all foreign unpopular with the mass influences and stood firmlyfor the law as interpretedby the traditions. of this The most thoroughgoing representatives which attitude were the Pharisees,a name democratic-legalistic the Separated, presentingwhat was signifies undoubtedly a long previouslyexistingattitude,though the designationap shortly before the time of John Hyrcanus. With his pears reignthe historic struggleof Pharisees and Sadducees begins. As a whole, in spiteof the fact that the Zealots,or men of not action, sprang from them,_lhe Pharisees were a political held the admiration of a majority of the party. Though they The ordinaryworking never people,they were very numerous. "
Jew to
lacked the education
become
daism which normal
wras were
a
Pharisee.
in the minutiae of the law Their
the
the leisure of Ju
mass
however, They represented,
contemptuous.1
widely
attitude toward
or
entertained
and
results of Jewish
were
in
many
views
respects
since the Exile.
religious development prime emphasis was on the exact keeping of the law interpretedby the traditions. They held stronglyto the
Their
1
John
749.
as ex-
MESSIANIC
THE
14
istence of
and
good spirits,
that
bad
HOPE a
"
doctrine of
angels and of powerful impulse from growth of a belief in
apparently received a Persian ideas. They representedthat the resurrection of the body, and in future rewards and punish^ remarkable which had seen ments a development during the centuries preceding Christ's birth. They held, like the two The Pharisees,from to the Messianic hope. people generally, pointsof view, were deservingof no littlerespect. From many the circle infused with these ideas Christ's disciples were largely Satan
to
had
The
come.
learned
most
a
Pharisee,and
a
Christian.1
called himself Their
keeping of
an
such
earnestness
failure of Pharisaism the
of the
was
twofold.
was
external
Apostleshad
been
himself
after
having become praiseworthy. The great It looked upon as religion
years
law, by which
a
reward
was
earned.
necessityneither a real inward right eousness a warm personalrelation to God. It also"* shut out from the divine promises those whose failures,sins, the attainment of the and imperfectkeeping of the law made lost sheep" Pharisaic standard impossible. It disinherited the
Such
keeping involved of spirit, nor
of
"
of the
house
condemnation
of Israel.
As
such
the
it received
well-merited
of Christ.
hope, shared by the Pharisees and common the outgrowth of strong national conscious people alike,was and faith in God. It was most ness vigorous in times of na God the earlier Maccabees, when tional oppression. Under a fearingline had given independence to the people,it was little their family felt. The later Maccabees, however, deserted tradition. The Romans conquered the land in B. C. 63. Nor the situation reallyimproved from a strict Jewish stand was point,when a half-Jewish adventurer, Herod, the son of the Idumean overAntipater,held a vassal kingshipunder Roman lordshipfrom B. C. 37 to B. C. 4. In spiteof his undoubted services to the material prosperityof the land, and his mag looked upon nificent rebuildingof the temple, he was a tool as The
Messianic
of the Romans
and
a
Hellenizer
at heart.
The On
Herodians
were
Herod's
death
and Pharisees alike. by Sadducees his kingdom was divided between three of his sons, Archelaus of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumea (B.C. becoming "ethnarch" and Persea 4-A. D. 6); Herod Antipas "tetrarch" of Galilee (B. C. 4-A. D. 39) ; and Philip"tetrarch" of the prevailingly disliked
1
Acts
236.
aroused
Augustus,
bitter
enmity,
was
succeeded
and
deposed by the
was
by A.
occupant of this post from
15
of the Sea of Galilee.
heathen regioneast and northeast laus
JUDAISM
IN
FORCES
OTHER
D.
26
to
Emperor
procurator the
Roman
a
Arche-
"
being Pontius
36
Pilate. With
it seemed adverse political conditions, hppelessly
such
if the Messianic
as
be realizable
could
hope
only by divine aid.
hope involved the destruction of Roman authorityby supernaturaldivine intervention through Messiah; and the establishment of a kingdom of God in a should flourish under Judaism freed and all-powerful which a a righteousMessianic King of Davidic descent,into which the Jews scattered throughout the Roman Empire should be gath be begun. To the ered, and by which a golden age would than that, by divine littlemore Jew it probablymeant average would be driven out and the kingdom the Romans intervention, based on Malachi restored to Israel. A wide-spreadbelief, 31, of heralded Messiah would be the the that held by a coming By
the
of Christ that
time
forerunner. These
ture,
nourished
hopes were
as pessimistic
color the age
ancient
to
to
come.
litera body of apocalyptic the present, but painting in brilliant often ascribed to The writingswere a
in the Old
Such
worthies.
by
prophecy of Daniel, such without Assumption of Moses, and a number this class of literature from much
use
are
the Book
of others.
Christian
canon
is the
of Enoch, the A specimen of
point of view, but with
is Revelation in the New Testa conceptions, nourished a forward-looking,hopeful religious
of Jewish These
ment.
a
Testament
attitude that must
served
have
in
a
to offset
measure
the strict
of the law. interpretation of religious lifewere Other currents moving also in Palestine, of which it is impossibleto estimate,but the reality the extent
legalismof
of which from
the Pharisaic
In the country districts especially, away of official Judaism, there was real mystical a
is evident.
the centres
that piety. It was spirit"of the New
later Psalms
"poor in Testament, and the "Magnificat" and l well be expressions of it. To this mystic Benedictus may type belong also the recentlydiscovered so-called Odes of Solo From this simplerpiety,in a largerand less mystical mon. appeals for repentance, of which those prophetic sense, came "
of the
"
1
Luke
I46-"- ""'",
and
of the
of John far
the
on
the
not
was
Pharisaic,but
"wisdom/' which istingside by side with God, of the
the foundation
is of
importance by theology. as practically ex personified with Him, His "possession"
development of Christian is
It is that of
before
It
later Judaism
conceptionof
further
of its influence
reason
best known.
Baptistare
vital.
more
One
PALESTINE
OUTSIDE
JUDAISM
16
one
world, His agent in its creation.1
possiblethat the influence of the Stoic thought of the allis here to be seen ; but a more pervading divine Logos (Xcfyo?) ethical note sounds than in the correspondingGreek teaching. It is
Yet
views
the two
Palestine is Judaism.
It
were
easy
of assimilation.
naturallyfirst in thought its
home, and
the
in
a
consideration
of
of the
beginningsof the importance of the dispersion Christianity.Nevertheless life of of the Jews outside of Palestine,both for the religious the Roman Empire as a whole, and for the reflex effect upon Judaism itselfof the consequent contact with Hellenic thought, was great. This dispersionhad begun with the conquests of the Assyrianand Babylonian monarchs, and had been furthered rulers,notably by the Ptolemies of Egypt, and the by many of the closingdays of the republicand the dawn great Romans but it is not ing empire. Estimates are at best conjectural, five or six improbablethat, at the birth of Christ there were was
scene
"
times
as
many
Jews
outside
as
within its borders.
population of Alexandria. were They were stronglyrooted in Syriaand Asia Minor. small numbers, in Rome. Few to be found, if in relatively without their presence. Clannish and citiesof the empire were viewed with littlefavor by the heathen population,they pros by the rulers, pered in trade,were valued for their good qualities their religious scrupleswere generallyrespected,and, in turn, they displayeda missionaryspiritwhich made their religious impress felt. As this Judaism of the dispersionpresentedit self to the surroundingheathen, it was a far simplercreed than It taught one Palestinian Pharisaism. God, who had revealed His will in sacred Scriptures, a strenuous morality,a future life with rewards and punishments, ,and a few relatively simple and the the commands to circumcision, use Sabbath, relating with It carried with it everywhere the synagogue, of meats. its unelaborate and non-ritualistic worship. It appealedpower-
They They
were
a
notable
of Palestine
part of the
"
iProv.
319; 8; Psalms
336.
.
HELLENIZED
JUDAISM
fullyto
many
agogues
had
Judaized
17
the heathens; and, besides full proselytes, them
about
much
a
converts,
for much
largerpenumbra men/' wh'o
the "devout
of
to
were
syn
partially as
serve
a
early Christian missionary
of the
ground recruiting propaganda. In its turn, the. Judaism of the dispersion much influenced was by Hellenism, especiallyby Greek philosophy,and nowhere more deeply than in Egypt. There, in Alexandria, the Old Testament was given to the readingworld in Greek translation, the so-called Septuagint,as earlyas the reignof Ptolemy Philathe Jewish Scriptures, delphus (B. C. 285-246). This made heretofore locked up in an obscure tongue, widely accessible. In Alexandria, also,Old Testament ideas were com religious bined with Greek philosophical conceptions,notably Platonic and Stoic, in a remarkable syncretism. The most influential of these Alexandrian Philo (B. C. 20?-A. D. was interpreters To
is the wisest of books, a Philo, the Old Testament real divine revelation,and Moses the greatest of teachers ; but
42?).
Philo by allegorical interpretation harmony with the best in Platonism that the Old
Testament
and
finds the Old and
in
Testament
Stoicism.
The
belief
Greek
in essential philosophywere of far-reaching for the develop one significance agreement was of Christian theology. This allegorical ment method of Bib lical explanationwas greatlyto influence later Christian study of the Scriptures. To Philo, the one God made the world as an expressionof His goodness to His creation; but between God and the world the unitinglinks are a group of divine powers, viewed partlyas attributes of God and partlyas personalexist Of these the highestis the Logos (Xctyo?) which flows out ences. of the being of God Himself, and is the agent not merely through ,
whom
God
flow.
Through
actual
man
well
created
is
the
the
a
world, but from whom
Logos
poor
God
created
the work
copy,
all other
powers
the ideal man, of whom of lower spiritual powers
of the
Logos. Even from his fallen state man may rise to connection with God the the through Logos, agent of divine revelation. Yet Philo's conception of the Logos is far in Proverbs, of more philosophicalthan that of "wisdom" as
which tament
as
mention
Logos
has been
made
doctrine
is to
tion of "wisdom" was,
however, a
rather
; and
the
be found
source
of the New
in the Hebrew
Tes
concep
in the thought of Philo. He in which Helgreat illustration of the manner than
THE
JOHN
18
lenic and
Hebrew
be
united, in the
no
other
Philo
BAPTIST
ideas
might be united, and were actuallyto development of later Christian theology. In
world portion of the Roman so fullydeveloped as represented
SECTION
^
III.
JESUS
AND
THE
was
the
process
which
in Alexandria.
DISCIPLES
prepared for Jesus by John the Baptist,in the of the Mes thought of the early Christians the "forerunner" he preached in the regionof the Jordan siah. Ascetic in life, Israel was that the day of judgment upon at hand, that the Messiah about and despisingall formalism in to come; was and all dependence on Abrahamic descent, he pro religion, claimed in the spiritof the ancient prophets their message: "repent,do justice." His directions to the various classes of He his hearers were bap simple and utterlynon-legalistic.1 tized his disciples in token of the washing away of their sins ; the Jesus classed him he taught them as a specialprayer. last and among the greatest of the prophets. Though many those of Jesus, some of his followers became persistedinde pendently and were, to be found as late as Paul's ministryin Ephesus.2 While the materials are lackingfor any full biography of of one Jesus such as would be available in the case livingin modern times, they are entirelyadequate to determine His if many of life, His character,and His teaching,even manner points on which greater lightcould be desired are left in ob scurity. He stands forth clearlyin all His essential qualities. of Galilee,in the simple sur He was brought up in Nazareth The home. land, though despised roundings of a carpenter's of of the Judaea on account more by purelyJewish inhabitants of races, was re a considerable admixture loyalto the Hebrew ligionand traditions,the home of a hardy, self-respecting pop ulation, and particularlypervaded by the Messianic hope. Here Jesus grew to manhood through years of unrecorded experience,which, from His later ministry,must have been The
also of
way
was
insightand profound spiritual
with
"favor
God
and
man." From
the 1
this
quietlife He
Baptist. Luke
To
32-14; Matt.
him 31-12.
He
by the preachingof John baptized in went, and by him was
was
drawn
2
Acts, 191-4.
TEACHING
THE
20
of the
founder
the Messianic
OF
JESUS of God.
kingdom
Yet
that
king always spiritual.
It was earthly,Maccabean. But His conceptionof it enlarged. At first He seems to have regarded it as for Jews only.1 As He went on, His conception of its inclusiveness grew, and He taught not merely that many dom
not
was
"shall
from
come
the
that
south,"2 but
the
unbelievingJews.3 friend
the
and
Jesus
and
west
held
the
north
taken
from
from
itself will be
kingdom
Himself
in
and the
peculiardegree sons daughters kingdom whom disinherited,the outcasts, publicans,harlots, of value in the sight of Their repentance was and
of the had
Pharisaism
and
east
the poor.
a
of the
God. The
sovereigntyand
nition -of God's dren.
Hence
whom
we
now.
Hence God
to
help
are
need
we
fatherhood.
love
should
we
can
; and
God, in Jesus' teaching,involves the
of
kingdom
Him
and
repent with
this attitude
of
faith) is followed
like
was,
Though much
more
love
so
sin,and
turn
is in heaven
which
toward
strenuousness
others.9
Forgiveness forgivingus.10 There the other
easy,
the
are
and
narrow
ends.11
Jesus
strongly eschatologicalin His outlook. felt that the kingdom is begun now,12 it is to be in the near future. The powerfully manifested
His
He
and
destruction
or
for
not
trust
of God's
broad
blessed future
A
hard.
chil
(repentanceand ethical divine forgiveness.6The the highest conceivable. "Be ye and
sorrow
condition one
are
do
sorrow
by the standard of the kingdom is Father therefore as perfect,even your the utmost is perfect."7 It involves self,8and unlimited forgivenesstoward of others is a necessary in life: two are ways
recog
His
neighbors.4 All
our
neighbors.5 We
our
to
We
age,
of the present age seemed not far off.13 doubtless Most of these views and sayingscan
end
of the
thought religious revolutionary. "He taught
in the
and
not
as
1
Mark
4
Mark
7
Matt.
10
727; Matt.
than
John
2
105-7,1524.
1228-34. 548.
Mark
II25- 26.
13
Matt.
1023,1928,2434
14
Mark
I22.
as
one
could
say
the
paralleled
total effect
that
had
that the least of His that heaven
3
Mark
121-12.
Luke
1025-37.
6
Luke
1511-32.
Mark
943'60.
9
Matt.
IS21- 22.
Mark
41-32;Luke
Matt.
713- 14.
1330. Matt.
11".
was
authority,
1329.
Luke
8
16
the
Baptist;15and
B
"
; Mark
them
He
the scribes."14
is greater disciples
age;
but
be
12
1721.
earth should pass
and
who
them
before His but
Father
a
Son, and he
law.
the God-given Jewish felt His
did not
that
world-age; His
left in His His
power
hand, He
He
arid His
the Father's
will,not
of the The
me?"10
not
was
right hand
cried in the agony
forsaken
It
alone.7
His
on
prayed that
He
exaltation.8
God, why hast Thou
sit
should
who
be done.9
own,
to the Father
known
was
determine
to
had
other
the
part of
humanity and its limitations no less clearly. He He declared that to pray. taught His disciples know the day or the hour of ending of the present
own
prayed, and He
He
that
sins.6 On
reveal the
sacred
more
no
affirmed
He
forgivenessof
pronounce
was
the
Sabbath,5 than
of the
lord
to
confess knew
none
should
the Son
to whom
proclaimedHimself popular estimate, there
which, in
that
declared
He
Father.3
promised
would
He
that
called the
He He
rest.2
men
He
Father.4
to
before
Him
confessed
those
offered them
and
21
before His words.1
away
Him
heavy-laden to
PERSON
HIS
OF
MYSTERY
THE
"My
cross:
of His
mystery
divinityis no less evident how is beyond our than its humanity. The experience,and of comprehension ; but the church therefore beyond our powers has always busied itself with the problem, and has too often emphasized one side to the exclusion of the other. practically Jesus substituted for the external, work righteous,cere monial religion of contemporary Judaism, the thought of piety as consistingin love to God and to one's neighbor to a God manifested is a brother who is a Father and a neighbor who primarilyin an attitude of the heart and inward life,the fruit is in these
person
Its
utterances.
"
"
is external acts.
of which
to personalallegiance
the
type of redeemed
motive
The
Himself
as
of that
power
of the
the revelation
humanity, the
Elder
end is
"
Father, the
Brother, and
kingdom- of God. What Jesus taught and was gained immense from the conviction of His disciples that His death King
life is
of the
from
one
the resurrection
of the most
of this conviction first to 1
Mark
4
who Peter,11
faith.
puzzlingof
The
how
historical
is unquestionable. It was
in that
sense
significance not
was
of this conviction The
problems. the
have
to
seems
at least
the
"
rock"
fact come
Apostle
1331.
2
Matt. II28.
8
Matt.
1032.
Matt.
II27',Luke
6
Mark
223-28.
"
M
21-11.
7
Mark
1332.
8
Mark
1040.
9
Mark
16
Mark
1534.
"1
1022.
Cor. 155.
ark
1436.
It
shared it. It gave
church
the
whom
on
to
courage
risen
Lord,
All
the
early disciples
turning-pointin the conversion
the scattered
made
them
in the exaltation
Messiah
of Jewish
realitythan
Judaism
had
ever
of Paul.
disciples, brought
witnesses.
The
them.
PENTECOST
founded.
was
the
was
getheragain,and a
AND
RESURRECTION
22
them
Henceforth
to
they
had
of
glory,yet ever interested in hope,in a profounder spiritual imagined Him, had reallylived,
died, and risen again for their salvation. These
convictions
deepened by the experiencesof the of the pentecostalmani The exact nature day of Pentecost. festation is,perhaps,impossibleto recover. Certainlythe con ception of a proclamation of the Gospel in many foreignlan is inconsistent with what know of speaking with we guages tongues elsewhere1 and with the criticism reported by the "full of new author of Acts that they were wine/' 2 which Peter deemed worthy of a reply. But the point of significance manifestations is that these spiritual appeared the visible and of Christ.3 To these audible evidence of the giftand power the triumphant inaugurationof a rela first Christians it was tion to the livingLord, confidence in which controlled much If the disciple of the thinkingof the ApostolicChurch. visibly by faith,repentance, and baptism, acknowledged his allegiance the exalted Christ, it was believed,in turn no less evidently by His giftof the Spirit. Pentecost acknowledged the disciple indeed a day of the Lord ; and though hardly to be called was the birthdayof the church, for that had its beginningsin Jesus' it marked association with the disciples, an epoch in the proc conviction of Christ's lamation of the Gospel,in the disciples' and
presence,
SECTION
The
were
in the increase of adherents
IV.
THE
in Jerusalem
rapidly. persionas
It speedilyincluded well
as
Jews
who
natives of Galilee and
the
faith.
new
COMMUNITIES
CHRISTIAN
PALESTINIAN
Christian community
to
seems
had
to have
grown
lived in the dis
Judaea,and
even
some
the
name priests.By the Christian body "church" was early adopted. The designationcomes very from the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, where it had been employed to indicate the whole people of Israel as a fittingtitle a divinelycalled congregation. As such it was
the
of
1
See
Hebrew
1 Cor. H2-19.
2
Acts 213.
3
Acts 233.
felt themselves
Christians
he.
to
23
such the early
The
early Jerusalem com in obedi at the temple, and addition, they had their own
faithful in attendance
were
ORGANIZATION
Israel,the real people of God, and
for the true
pany
AND
WORSHIP
PRIMITIVE
law, but, in mutual themselves, with prayer, specialservices among ex of bread" in and houses.1 hortation, "breaking daily private the Jewish
ence
to
This
bread" "breakingof and of fellowship
bond
served a
a
twofold of
means
It
purpose.
for the
support
was
a
needy.
The
expectationof the speedy coming of the Lord made the at Jerusalem a waiting congregation,in which the company provided by the giftsof the support of the less well-to-do was better able, so that they "had all thingscommon."2 The act was
much
and
a
than
more
of the Lord's
reminder
before
His
that, however.
crucifixion.
It
Last
had,
It
was
Supper
continuation
a
\vith His
disciples the first, a
therefore, from
sacramental
significance. of the Jeru Organizationwas simple. The leadership very salem congregationwas in a lesser at first that of Peter, and With them the whole apostoliccompany degree of John. was associated in prominence, though whether they constituted so fullya governing board as tradition affirmed by the time that be doubted. Acts was written may Questions arisingfrom the distribution of aid to the needy resulted in the appointment of
a
of seven,3 but
committee
originof
the diaconate
a
or
lar situation is uncertain.
the
duties
thus
by
deacons
in
The
Gentile
this action
device to meet
temporary
intrusted the
whether
that
utmost
resembled
those
churches.
At
the
was a
particu
be said is that
can
later discharged
early though (Trpeafivi-epoi) are mentioned,4 these whether older the of the members were though simply officers6 not improbably patterned after those church,5 or were of the Jewish synagogue, is impossibleto determine. The Jerusalem filled with the Messianic congregation was at first in a cruder and less spiritual form hope, it would seem than Jesus had taught.7 It was devoted in its loyaltyto the somewhat
later
Christ, who receive
period "elders"
would
until the
tion it viewed
as
return, but
soon
times
of restoration
to be obtained
1
Acts 248.
2
Acts 244.
4
Acts
"
As
7
See Acts
8
Acts
II30. I6.
an
Acts 3".
1523
"whom of all
the heaven
things."8
by repentance, might imply.
which
must
Salva
included
8
Acts 61-8.
6
Acts
1423.
CONGREGATION
24
THE
sorrow
for the
national
IN
sin of
JERUSALEM
rejectingJesus
as
the Messiah
personalsins. This repentance and acknowledg followed by baptism in the name of loyaltywas of Christ, ment and was a as relationship, sign of cleansingand token of new of spiritual sealed with the divine approval by the bestowment gifts.1This preaching of Jesus as the true Messiah, and fear of a consequent disregardof the historic ritual,led to an at tack by Pharisaic Hellenist Jews, which resulted in the death of the first Christian martyr, Stephen,by stoningat the hands The immediate of a mob. was a partialscatter consequence ing of the Jerusalem congregation,so that the seeds of Chris sown throughout Judsea, in Samaria, and even tianitywere in as remote regionsas Csesarea,Damascus, Antioch, and the island of Cyprus. Of the original Apostles the only one who known is certainly to have exercised a considerable missionary Peter, though tradition ascribes such labors to activitywas well
as
as
all.
them
for
John
may
have
engaged,also, in
such
endeavor,
historyof this Apostle is much in dispute. The comparative peace which followed the martyrdom of Stephen was broken for the Jerusalem church by a much more severe persecutionabout A. D. 44, instigated by Herod Agrippa the I, who from 41 to his death in 44, was vassal-kingover the Great. former territories of Herod Peter was imprisoned, but escaped death, and the Apostle James beheaded. In was this persecu connection with the scatteringconsequent upon truth underlies the tradi tion is probably to be found whatever twelve years after the tion that the Apostles left Jerusalem crucifixion. At all events, Peter seems to have been only oc of the Jerusalem there henceforth;and the leadership casionally though
the later
church
fell to
James, "the
Lord's
brother," who
even
earlier
which he prominent in its affairs.2 This position, held till his martyr's death about 63, has often been called a "bishopric,"and undoubtedly it corresponded in many ways There churches. the Gentile in to the monarchical bishopric of the is no evidence, however, of the applicationto James the successions of re term "bishop" in his lifetime. When Semitic remembered, peoples are ligiousleadership among to relationshipto the especiallythe importance attached much more founder, it seems likelythat there was here a rudi is rendered the more mentary caliphate. This interpretation
had
1
become
Acts
2".
38.
2
Gal. I19,29; Acts 2118.
PALESTINIAN
IN
TENDENCIES
James's
probable because
church, though
Jerusalem
CHRISTIANITY
25
in the leadershipof the chosen tillafter the conquest of
successor
not
Jesus' kinsman. the cityby Titus in 70, was Simeon, esteemed the church in Jerusalem Under the leadershipof James em both in agreement that the ancient law of parties, Israel was binding on Christians of Jewish race, but differing it was to whether similarly regulativefor Christian converts as One wing held it to be binding on all ; the from heathenism. was was a willingto representative, other, of which James from the law to Gentile Christians,though it allow freedom viewed with disfavor such a mingling of Jews and Gentiles at table as Peter was a disposed,for a time at least,to common The welcome.1 catastrophewhich ended the Jewish rebellion braced
two
in the year 70 was fateful,however, to all the Christian com munities in Palestine,even though that of Jerusalem escaped
by flight.The yet greater overthrow of perilsof the 'siege of 132 to 135, left Jewish hopes under Hadrian, in the war Even before the Palestinian Christianitya feeble remnant. influential foci of Christian in first capture of the city,more in other portionsof the empire. The fluence were to be found the
were
flowed
and
church
Jerusalem
important forth,and
as as
of Jesus' life and rather
from
which
Christianityfirst
of many securingthe preservation that
words
would
otherwise
have
as
SECTION
As
the fountain
memorials
been
influencing, by direct and permanent as a whole. development of Christianity
than
ship,the
its associated Palestinian communities
V.
AND
PAUL
GENTILE
lost,
leader
CHRISTIANITY
already been mentioned, the persecution which brought about Stephen's martyrdom resulted in the planting of Christianity beyond the borders of Palestine. Missionaries, whose have perished,preached Christ to fellow Jews. names In Antioch a further extension of this propaganda took place. Antioch, the capitalof Syria,was a city of the first rank, a remarkably cosmopolitan meeting-placeof Greeks, Syrians, faith was and Jews. The There the new preached to Greeks. effect of this preaching was the spread of the Gospel among those of Gentile antecedents. By the populace they were title little used by the followers nicknamed Christians" a has
"
"
1
Gal. 212-18.
till well into the
themselves
of Jesus
the
earlier
prevalent among farthest goal of Christian tumults
among
second
heathen.
effort.
the Jews
UNIVERSAL
BE
CHRISTIANITY
SHOULD
26
By
Nor 51
Antioch
was
52, under Christian
or
consequent upon
the
Claudius, preaching
governmental attention itself. At this early period,however, Antioch in Rome was this of of effect conversion of the centre development. The had been heathen was antecedents those whose inevitablyto of the of these the relation raise to the Jew disciples question that rule be imposed upon Should ish law. Gentiles,Christi anity would be but a Jewish sect ; should Gentiles be free from universal religion, but at the it Christianity could become a this inevitable conflict Jewish sympathy. That cost of much decided in favor of the largerdoctrine was was primarilythe work of the Apostle Paul. by
missionaries
century, though
unknown
Paul, whose
V"
Hebrew
attracted
reminiscent of the hero
Saul, was
name,
Benjamin, of which he was a member, was born in the Cilician city of Tarsus, of Pharisaic parentage, but of a father citizenship.Tarsus was eminent possessedof Roman
"of the tribe of
in the educational a
of Stoic
seat
there is
no
world, and
teaching. Brought
reason
He
education.
of Philo
of Alexandria.
could not become
grew now
it
and
up,
unknown,
study
to
How
of Jesus
other
than
termine.
His
holy by his
less." faction not
mind was
even
with
give
a
when no
by
true
largerworld
future under
while his
as
a
own
a
city
his orthodox
tried
that
he
of the
ministry impossibleto de conceptionof a nation
report, it is
of the Jewish law
by
Pharisee, to
attainments
was
that standard, was
of the keenest
man
sense
scribe that he went, at an age the famous Gamaliel the elder,
common
careful observance
a
outside
in the rabbinical tradition
to the Pharisaic
devotion
Always
youth
in such
Hellenic ideas,and to and at least,with the political
much, if anything,he knew
conduct,
own
he came,
a
ever
was
strictJewish home, received a formal
receive many
of the
as
was
a
never
a
birth
Hellenizer in the
wide-awake
it was Still,
in Jerusalem.
and
A
fail,however, familiar,in a measure
home.
made
was
to
religious atmosphere Jewish
up
in
to believe that Paul
Hellenic
of Paul's
the time
at
extreme, "blame
however, insight, spiritual dissatis feel deep inward
in character.
The
law
did
his state of righteousness.Such was with Christianity.If Jesus brought into contact Messiah, He had justlysuffered,and His disciples
real inward
THE
PAUL
28
point of
focal
MISSIONARY
Christian activity;and
it in
from
obedience,as
congregation believed, to divine guidance, set forth for a missionary journey that Paul and Barnabas of Pisidia, took them to Cyprus and thence to Perga, Antioch the so-called first missionary Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe journey described in Acts 13 and 14. Apparently the most thus far in the history of the endeavor fruitful evangelistic Antiochian
the
"
church, it resulted in the establishment of a group of congre gationsin southern Asia Minor, which Paul afterward addressed scholars would find the those of Galatia, though many as Asia
Minor,
growth
mixed
churches
of Gentile
Moses
"
:
cannot
ye
Taking
vert,
as
went
with
a
among
Galatia on
turmoiled
and
the
plantingof
raised the
now
great scale.
a
regions of
The
visitors from
by
question congre
Jerusalem
of Except ye be circumcised after the custom be saved."1 Paul determined to make test a him
Barnabas
uncircumcised
Titus, an
example
concrete
a
and
central
is recorded.
in Antioch
the law
was
with
privately. The was
Cyprus
relation to
asserted
case.
in
and
visit of Paul
no
of the church
in Antioch
gation
northern
more
which
to
The
who
in
churches
Galatian
to
of
con
he non-legalistic Christianity,
Jerusalem
result reached
Gentile
and
with
met
the
leaders
there
James, Peter, and
John
cordial recognitionof the genuineness of Paul's work the Gentiles,and an agreement that the field should be leaders to continue
divided,the Jerusalem
the mission
to
Jews,
of the law, wThile Paul and Barna course It was bas should go with their free message to the Gentiles.2 a decision honorable to both sides;but it was impossibleof full with maintenance
of
What
execution.
to be the relations in
were
mixed
a
church ?
law-keeping Jews and law-free Gentiles eat together? with a raised in connection That further question was soon visit of Peter to Antioch.3 It led to a publicdiscussion in the Jerusalem congregation, probably in the year 49 the so-called Could
"
Council
of Jerusalem
"
and
the
formulation
of certain rules
governing mixed eating.4 To Paul, anything but the freest equalityof Jew and Gentile seemed impossible. To Peter and Barnabas the question of terms of common eating seemed of both. them He must prime importance. Paul withstood held to have fightthe battle largelyalone, for Antioch seems with 1
Jerusalem
Acts
151.
in this matter z
Gal
21-10.
of intercourse 3
Gal.
211-16.
at
table. 4
Acts
158-29.
Longitude
LANDS
ABOUT
EASTERN IN
East
THE
MEDITERRANEAN THE
FIRST
CENTURY
Scales .Roman
9
'"*".
English 00
50
O
L
I
B
Y
A
from
Greenwich
PAUL
MISSIONARY
THE
29
followed the brief years of Paul's greatest missionary all his epistles. activity,and the period to which we owe Then
citizenship, Taking with him a Jerusalem Christian,of Roman of dis from Barnabas Silas by name, he separated by reason agreement regardingeating,and also by dissension regarding A journey through the conduct of 'Barnabas's cousin, Mark.1 the region of Galatia brought him Timothy as an assistant. Unable to labor in western Asia Minor, Paul and his companions entered Macedonia, founding churches in Philippiand now Thessalonica, being coldly received in Athens, and spending
eighteenmonths 53). Meanwhile
in successful work the
Judaizers
in Corinth
had
(probably51-
undermining his
been
apostolicauthorityin Galatia, and from Corinth he wrote to these churches his great epistlevindicatingnot merely his from all obliga own ministry,but the freedom of Christianity tion
to
the
Jewish
It
law.
was
the
of
charter
universal
a
Christianity.To the Thessalonians he also wrote, meeting their peculiardifficultiesregarding persecutionand the ex pectedcoming of Christ. his fellow la who had become Taking Aquila and Priscilla, borers in Corinth, with him to Ephesus, Paul left them there and made
a
hurried visit to Jerusalem
and
Antioch.
On
his return
Ephesus, where Christianityhad already been planted,he began a ministry there of three years' duration (53?-56?). also full of oppositionand of such peril it was Largelysuccessful, of life"2 and ultimatelyhad to flee. that Paul "despaired even but increased during this stay at The Apostles'burdens were and consequent Ephesus by moral delinquencies, party strife, rejectionof his authority in Corinth. These led not merely letters to the Corinthiam, but on to his significant departure in Corinth itself. His from Ephesus, to a stay of three months restored. In this Corinthian sojourn he wrote authoritywas the greatestof his epistles, that to the Romans. Paul had never ceased to hope that the breach Meanwhile to
between
him
and
of the Jerusalem for what
his Gentile Christians and
church
to
and
file
thank-oft'ering the parent community, he had
could be healed.
the Gentiles owed
the rank
As
a
collectinga contribution from his Gentile converts. he determined to take to Jeru This, in spiteof obvious peril, salem. of this giftand of the course Of the reception of Paul's
been
1
Acts
1536-40.
2
2 Cor.
I8.
negotiationsnothing is known speedily arrested in Jerusalem ing.
;
but
the Apostle himself
and
sent
a
Two
was
prisoner of
Csesarea,doubtless as an years'imprisonment (57?-59?) led
Government
Roman
DEATH
AND
IMPRISONMENT
PAUL'S
30
the
inciter of riot
to
to
decisive
no
result,since Paul exercised his rightof appeal to the imperial followed by his adventurous tribunal at Rome, and were jour ney
to the
capitalas
part of the
time
prisoner. At
a
at
least in his
Rome
he lived in
hired
own
custody, lodging,for two
wrote to his beloved churches (60?-62?). Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and briefer letters
he
Here
years
our
to
Timothy (thesecond epistle).Whether he was further journeys is a released from imprisonment and made problem which still divides the opinion of scholars,but the weight of such slightevidence as there is appears to be against and
Philemon
it.
to
is
There
beheaded
on
no
the Ostian
doubt
to
reason
the
; but
outside of Rome
way
that
tradition
places his martyrdom in with the great Neronian persecutionof 64. It was joined in place with that savage attack, and may occurred a little earlier without being dissociated in Tradition
uncertain.
from
heroic
anity has
been
considered
in
remaker
nestlyhave tion
was
the year is connection not
well
con
have
later view
that event.
Paul's
the
he
battle
for
a
Christi universal,non-legalistic
indicated. sufficiently another
connection.1
His Was
Christologywill he
the
theology? He would repudiated these imputations. Yet
trained
founder himself
of Christian
an
be or
ear
interpreta
to present the simple faith of sure altered form. somewhat Though
mind
was by a primitive Christianityin that came from his Paul wrought into Christian theologymuch rabbinic learningand Hellenic experience,his profound own Christian feelingled him into a deeper insightinto the mind of Christ than was possessedby any other of the earlydisciples. with the picture of Paul the theologianis often at variance Christ presentedby the Gospels. Paul the Christian is pro foundly at one. far from the Jewish law was Paul's conceptionof freedom as undervaluation of morality. possiblefrom any antinomian as "the the Christian is under If the old law had passed away, has the Spiritdwellingin law of the Spiritof life." He who and will "mortify him, will mind "the things of the Spirit," 1
Section
VII.
TEACHING
PAUL'S
32 it is
in the
is confidence
Nor
"slave."
of Christ's
crowning proof
is the
Christ
epitome of his faith.
an
"Lord/' himself the
resurrection
less necessary,
divine
Sonship.1 one Spirit. All graces from Him, all giftsand guidance. Man having the Spirit are is a new creature. Living the life of the Spirit,he no longer But that all-transformingand in lives that of the "flesh." "The Lord is the Spirit."2 dwelling Spiritis Christ Himself. If Christ thus stands in such relation to the individual disciple the
as
is in
He
is necessary less vital association
lievers
"
no
designatingthe
as
"the
church
body body
of
Paul
church.
the
all true
with
the
whole
church
the word
uses
Christian
life, of
body in two
be
senses,
congregation,Philippi,Corinth, Rome, their house," and as indicatingthe whole
local is in
that
the
for
Him
with
union
that
filled with
life is
Christian
The
believers,the true of Christ, of which
In the
Israel.
latter
it is the
sense
local
each
congregation is a part.3 all officers and Christ come From helpers,all spiritualgifts.4 of the life of the church, and these giftsare is the source He evidence of His glorified lordship.5 Like the early disciplesgenerally,Paul thought the. coming of Christ and the end of the existingworld-order though near; modification. In his earlier epistles his views underwent some it would he evidently believed happen in his lifetime.6 As he felt it likelythat he the close of his work toward he came die before the Lord's would coming.7 Regarding the resur had
rection, Paul Hebrew
tion the
of the
great
in
1
all,8and
Tbe great differences.9 Christ, to God all,even 1
I22-
*Eph. 5 Eph. 47-10. 7 Philippians 9
1 Cor.
of all
123"
310-15.
; 2
posi
thought; the
to
saved
Greek.
there
A
things is the subjectionof
2 Cor.
*Eph.
Tim'.46-8.
but
will be
the Father.10
I18.
24
con
his
make
Hebrew
the
Hebrew
Greek, the im
The
points
2
2S; Col
The
always
not
among
I4.
Romans
flesh.
1535'54
even
Here, however,
variance.
like the
Cor.
end
confidence.
does
811 looks
Romans
is for
judgment
of the
Paul
soul.
passage
at
were
livingagain
a
clear.
greatest
ideas
Greek
and
ception was mortality
the
317.
411; 1 Cor.
6
1 These.
8
2 Cor.
510.
10
1 Cor.
1520-28.
413-18.
124-11.
SECTION
historyand
The
Peter
Though
OF
CLOSE
THE
VI.
of the
have
in
cannot
been
a
shprt time
at
least,and
and
such especially
the
Roman
a
A
Nero
great fire in Rome,
in Rome
was
for
martyrdom
in
stay,
a
of John
residence
a
it
ikjce as
as
sur
permanently with
link him
was
was
have
as
Such persecutions.1
death, would
persecutionunder
The
he
On
Ephesus is much
in
intimations
the other hand, less assured.
Church.
Paul
while
his stay ended
that
Neronian
in the
by crucifixion
show
probable that
the conclusion
vived make
unknown.
scholars of weight still there that he was ever
force of such
all,the cumulative
at
AGE
Apostlesis
Rome
some
insufficient to
the evidence
33
APOSTOLIC
THE
fate of most
writing his epistlesthence, and hold
GROWTH
AND
PERSECUTION
local.
was
followedby charges un Christians,probably at Nero's instigation, in
July,64, was
justlyinvolvingthe suffered death Numbers from himself. to turn popular rumor by horrible torture in the Vatican gardens,where Nero made he lived in Chris Thenceforth their martyrdom a spectacle.2 tian tradition survived
in
as
a
of the church.
heathen
of Jerusalem an
of
event
at
more
the per
already waning in Palestinian congregationsin the largerconcerns and the rapid influx of converts This collapse,
fluence of the
from
rebellion,in 70, was
significance.It
manent
destruction
strength. The
close of the Jewish
Church
type of antichrist ; but the Roman
ended
almost
antecedents
soon
the
Paul's
made
battle for freedom
longera livingquestion. Antioch, Rome, and be the chief cen fore the end of the century, Ephesus, were now tres of Christian development. The converts were mostly from of better position, the lower social classes,3 no though some them. Such were to be found Lydia were tably women, among of Philippi,4 and, in much higher station,probably the consul,
from
law
no
Flavius
Clemens, and
the
death
one
under 1
2118-
19
; 1
Against Heresies,3:1:1;
tory, 2:25: 2
513 ; John
To
95.
of banishment
sentence
Domitilla, the
Clement, 5, Caius
suffered
Domitilla, who
wife, Flavia
the other
Domitian, in
1 Peter
naeus,
and
his
6 ;
of Rome
in Rome
Church
Roman
Ignatius,Romans, 43 in Eusebius, Church
; IreHis
5-7.
Tacitus, Annals
p. 6. 31 Cor. I26-2*.
1544; Ayer, A Source-Book
for Ancient
Church *
Acts
History,
1614.
CHANGES
RAPID
34
owed
Of
of its oldest catacombs.
one
details
(81-96) few
Domitian
this
but
known,
are
under persecution it must
have
and in Asia Minor.1 severityin Rome be recovered from this period, Yet though some can gleanings the fortyyears from 70 to 110 remain one of the obscurest por tions of church history. This is the more to be regrettedbe an cause they were epoch of rapid change in the church itself. be clearly the characteristics of the church can When once more shows surprisingly traced its generalconceptionof Christianity Not only must little of the distinctive stamp of Paul. many been
of
unknown
now
labored in addition to the great other than Christian of ideas from
missionaries have
Apostle, but an inrush brought undoubtedly by sources,
of heathen
converts
ante
practices,especially regarding the sacraments, fastings,and the rise of liturgical forms. The old conviction of the immediacy of the guidance of the Spiritfaded, without becoming wholly extinguished. The constitution of the church itself underwent, in this period, will be account a far-reachingdevelopment,of which some given (p.44). An illustration of this non-Pauline though Christianity, cedents, modified
without
evidence
beliefs and
Christian
of the
infiltration of heathen
ideas,is
to be
Written late in the first cen Epistleof James. tury or early in the second, it is singularly poor in theological in Its directions are content. largelyethical. Christianity, the conceptionof the writer,is a body of rightprinciples duly practised. Faith is not, as with Paul, a new, vital,personal relationship.It is intellectual conviction which must be sup and simple plemented by appropriateaction. It is a new in the
seen
moral To
law.2
this obscure
periodis
due
the
the Gos difficult. It would
compositionof
subjectin church historyis more definitely however, that at an early period,not now appear, in circula to be fixed,a collection of the sayingsof Christ was tion. Probably not far from 75-80, and according to early into Mark's .and credible tradition at Rome, Gospel came pels.
No
existence.
Its
arrangement
tion of the materials
portance which 1
attached
to
was
not
purelyhistoric,the
being determined the doctrines
they illustrated. With
1 Clement, 1; Rev. 2l"- 13; 713- 14.
and
large use
selec
evidentlyby the im ecclesiastical usages of the collection of 2
James
I26; 214-26.
GOSPELS
THE
35
into sayings and of Mark, Matthew and Luke's Gospels came being,probablybetween 80 and 95 ; the former probablyhaving Palestine as its place of writing,and the latter coming, there The Johannine Gos believe,from Antioch. not unfairlybe ascribed individual,and may pel is distinctly is
to
reason
some
Ephesus, and
to
to
of which circulation,
canoriical. There
as
fragments survive, but
with the four which
in value
pare
Other
the period 95-110.
seems
which
none
the church
to have
in
gospelswere to
came
com
regard
littleof recollections
been
at the close of the first century which extant was That this was the gathered into the familiar Gospels.
of Jesus
be ascribed to the great Jewish war Palestinian Hebrew congregations. To
and
may
the
owes
priceless heritageof
Master, and
a
case
the decline of the
the
Gospels the church its knowledge of the life of its
perpetualcorrective
which, like interpretation, pays littleattention to His
not
to
the
even
the one-sidedness
of
an
of Paul,
great message
earthlyministry. r
VII.
SECTION
inevitable
An with
the
THE
INTERPRETATION
questionof
proclamation of
the
OF
JESUS
highestimportancewhich
and Christianity,
arose
always de
must
in every is age of the church, is: What of be the Founder? The earliest Christology,as to thought has been pointed out, was Messianic. Jesus was the Messiah mand
consideration
hope, only in a vastlymore hope commonly implied. He had
of Jewish
time.1 of His
He
was
now
death,
but
was
shadowed Jewish
exaltation,yet what
earthlylife,that had
that term?
use
in
the
little of
for be
must
"
than a
that brief
thought
"
so glory in it,as men That life of humiliation,ending in a slave's the fulfilment of prophecy. God had fore
things that "His
Christian
sense spiritual but only gone,
Christ should
thought recurred
suffer.2
Early
to the
of sufferingservant for our "wounded Isaiah,who was transgressions."3Christ is the "servant" or "child," (TTCUS"eoO), in the early Petrine addresses.4 The glorification He is at the resurrection. was now "by the right hand of God exalted." 5 This primitive conception of the sufferingservant exalted, persisted. It is in of that, spite a good deal of Pauline admixture,of the epistle 1
Acts 321.
4
Acts
313.
26
; 427- 30.
2
Acts 318.
6
Acts
232-
3 33
:
4l".l2.
Isaiah
536.
known
Clement, writingfrom
1 Peter 318"22.
as
CHRISTOLOGIES
EARLIEST
THE
36
Corinthians, 93-97, also shares
imply
It does pre-existence.
Christ
by
Christ
known
in His
not
soon
necessarily
not
that
problem
earth.
They
out.
The
apparent.
was
life on
does
to the
clear the relationship of
make
thought
not
distinction
obvious
An had
It had
to God.
it.1 It
Rome
disciples knew
now
Him
Him after giftsin His exaltation. They had known knew Him after the spirit2 that is as flesh; they now Jesus of historyand the Christ of experience. To super
His
the
"
the
ficial consideration,at
adjustment. The
least,these of
Jesus
two
aspects
history lived
in
were a
not
easy
of
definite land,
of space and time. under human conditions The Christ of the as experienceis Lord of all His servants, is manifested in
placesthe most diverse,is om Paul regardsit as a mark of Chris Him everywhere.3 He prays to Him solemn asseveration that his apostleorigin,Paul classes God and Christ
moment Spiritat the same nipresentand omniscient. call upon tianitythat men
himself.4
In
his most
ship is not of any human These attributes and powers of the together as its source.5 is Christ of experienceare very like divine,it evident ; and they inevitablyraised the questionof Christ's relation to the Father it had
as
powers
been
not
and
far,and in
raised thus
greater trainingand
education
a
mind
of far subtler
than that of any
of
that of Paul. the earlier disciples, Hebrew Paul knew theology well,with its conceptionof the divine "wisdom" as present with God before the foundation of the world.6
something of Stoicism, with its doctrine of the universal,omnipresent,fashioningdivine in resembled the He the Logos, that in many telligence, ways the Isaian conception of the suffer brew wisdom. He knew To Paul, therefore, the identification of the ing servant. exalted Christ with the divine wisdom not only Logos was wisdom be but and that natural; Logos must preeasy, existent and always with God. He is "the Spiritof God,"7 He
also knew
"
"
"
"
the
"wisdom
"In
of God."8
Him
dwelleth
all the fulness of
bodily." Even more, as in the Stoic conception of the Logos, He is the divine agent in creation; "all things have been created through Him and unto Him." 10 Though Paul
the Godhead
1
1
Clement,
9
2
16.
4
2 Cor. 128- 9.
7
1 Cor. 210- ".
5 s
Romans Gal.
I3- 4.
I1.
Ibid.,I24.
9
Col. 29.
3
1 Cor. I2.
6
Prov. 822- 23. 10
Col. I16.
CHRISTOLOGY
PAUL'S
God,1 he taught
called Christ
in set terms
probably never
37
He "knew Christ's unity in character with God. sin";2 He no is the full manifestation of the love of God, which is greater than any human love, and the motive springof the Christian
plain,therefore,that though Paul often calls and he gives Him an absolutelyunique position,
life in us.3 Christ
It is
man,
classes Him
with God.
If the Christ of
existent in glory for Paul, how He the sufferingservant.4 was in the
followed, as reward.
explain the
Jesus
conception,by highly exalted Him
also God
is above
great
and
gave
that
Him
every
tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord."
looks
upon
tion.
It
earthly life of Jesus indeed significant."God was
the whole was
world
cilingthe
resurrection"
unto
that He
Himself." was
it
Yet
5
name
every
"declared
to
as
.
.
.
Paul
of humilia
one
in Christ
recon
the
only "by
was
of God
the Son
be
was
the
unto
name
which
history?
obedience
humble
His
of
earlier Petrine
"Wherefore the
and postpre-existent
thus
experiencewas
Christology combines, therefore,in a Hebrew and Gentile conceptions. In it remarkable manner, the sufferingand exalted servant, the pre-existent appear
with
power."
Paul's
6
divine wisdom, the divine agent in creation,and the redeemer down who for man's sake came from heaven, died, and power
again.
rose
Within
half
a
generationof
Paul's
death, however,
a
ing interpretationappeared, probably representingan
differ inde
that of the Gospel of Mark. thought. It was The writer knew nothing of Paul's view of Christ's pre-existence. In his thought, Christ was from His baptism the Son of God the Son of God thenceforth, in by adoption.7 That He was all His earthly lot, is the evangelist'sendeavor to show. There was humiliation,indeed, but there was a glory also in His earthlylife, of which Paul gives no hint. He had not to
pendent line
wait from with
for
of
the
heaven an
demonstration
of
declared
the
unclean
"the Holy One 1
The
various 2
6
to
Son
spiritsaluted Him of God" (I24). The
which translations, reasons
Him
the resurrection.
2 Cor. 521.
3
2 Cor. 519.
6
Romans
Romans
baptism. The man His first preaching as
at
of spirits
those
95 and
possessed
Titus 213,are
for
Pauline.
839,57I4.
voice
at
imply that, in Romans
be rejected as
The
8
; Gal. 220.
4
Philippians
7
Mark
I9-11.
26-11.
CHRISTOLOGIES
38
cried,"Thou
art
OF
the Son
of God"
Peter, James, and
before
THE
(312). He
John, while
only
is my beloved Son" explainthe lack of universal
time
on
"This
claims:
earth by the declaration
not disciples
that
evident
to
make
Him
this is
a
GOSPELS
very
heavenly voice
a
(92'8).The
pro
evangelistcan
recognitionin Christ's life that
known
transfigured
was
He
(e.g.
different
and charged spirits I34,312,543,99). It is
from interpretation
that
of Paul.
view
Mark's It had
back in
no
to evidentlyunsatisfactory
was
real theory
of the incarnation.
It does
own
not
age. trace
the sonship far enough. If that sonship was manifested portionof Christ's life, why not in all His life? That im
a
pressedthe writers of the Like Mark, they have no ence
his
"
their authors
osophicalrealm.
next trace
did not
But
two
move
they make
and Luke.
Gospels,Matthew
of Paul's
doctrine
in Paul's
of
pre-existor phil theological of Christ's
the manifestation
inceptionof
His
earthly of supernaturalbirth. existence. He was Like Mark, both regard His life as other than one of humiliation only. these Yet for minds steeped in the thoughts of Paul even could not be satisfying interpretations.A fourth Gospel ap peared about 95-110, probably in Ephesus, which sprang into inter of its profoundly spiritual favor, not only on account pretationof the meaning of Christ, but because it combined in one harmonious presentationthe divided elements of the In the Gospel which had thus far been current. Christologies of John, the pre-existence and creative which bears the name Christ is the activityof Christ is as fullytaught as by Paul. with God, and the Word who "was was Logos, the Word made God"; "All things were (I1-3). There is no by Him" and Luke, but a real,though hint of virginbirth,as in Matthew unexplained,incarnation is taught: "The Word became flesh and dwelt among us" (I14). The tendency of the earlier Gos pels to behold glory,as well as humiliation,in Christ's earthly divine
sonship
life is carried which to
the
He woman
date
much
from
the very
further.
That
life is
one
primarilyin
His glory" (211, see I14). He declares of Samaria that He is the Messiah (426). He is
"manifested
(518). He re "making Himself equal with God" members the glory of His pre-existence (175). He walks through life triumphantly conscious of His high divine mis regarded as
sion. In the account
of the Garden
of Gethsemane
no
note
NATURE
THE
40
its rise in
probably had worked. tion
of
much
a
the
about
region,Ephesus, where Paul long Pauline, but developed in the direc mysticism. This mysticism centres a
positionis
Its
intenser
thoughts
SALVATION
OF
of life and
union
with
Christ, both
of
Pauline, and
unlike that of yet treated in a way Life is the great word of the Johannine literature. Paul. This He who knows the Christ of present experiencehas life. which
are
"
is life eternal,that Him
and
whom
they
know
didst send,
Thou
writer,the world
the
should
Thee, the only true
is divisible into two
simple classes
For "
:
He
life,he that hath not the Son of hath not the life." God By life,the author does not mean simple existence. To him it is blessed,purifiedimmortality. children of God, and it is not yet made mani "Now are we hath
that
hath
Christ.3'1
Jesus
even
God,
the Son
the
2
fest what
shall be.
we
We
shall be like Him."
we
and
this union
is
know
that if He
This lifeisbased
3
on
union
with
Christ,
participation.One
real sacramental
a
shall be manifested
can
but feel that there is here the influence of ideas similar to those of the mystery religions.Paul had valued the Lord's Supper. of the body and blood of Christ, To him it was a "communion" "remembrance"
a
the goes
till He
death
Lord's
Christ,through which:
of
come."4
The
"Ye
Johannine
further: "Except ye eat the flesh of the Son
drink
His
blood
is
Supper
have
ye
already a
not
life in
mystical
proclaim literature
yourselves." The
sacrament
is to procure literature stands on which
and
of Man
5
necessary
Lord's
for
blessed
that
immortality. a spiritual plane of ut loftiness. It is instructive to see how some of these prob most of the same lems looked to a contemporary general school, elevation. an equallyearnest Christian,but of far less spiritual Condemned Such a man is Ignatiusof Antioch. as a Christian in his home city,in the last years of Trajan, 110-117, he was Of sent a prisonerto Rome to be thrown to the wild beasts. his historylittleis known, but from his pen seven brief letters exist,six of them written to the churches of Ephesus, Magnesia, and Smyrna ; and one Tralles,Rome, Philadelphia, a personal full of of note to Polycarp,bishop gratitude Smyrna. They are of for kindnesses shown his journey, on warnings againstspiriunion
The
with Christ Johannine
1
John
2
1 John
4
1 Cor.
173 ;
see
also 316- 36,647,1027. 28,etc. John 336.
512 ; compare 1016, II24- 26.
a
3
6
1 John John
32. 653.
IGNATIUS tual
of exhortations
and perils,
41
unity. Their significance
to
for the
history of Christian institutions will be considered
Section
IX.
Ignatius has
the
same
God."1
the
blood
of
in "Jesus
greets the Romans
He
loftyChristologyas
sacrifice is
literature. Christ's
Johannine
in
"the
Christ
our
God."
"He he did nojt identifyChrist wholly with the Father. of David accordingto the flesh,but Son of is trulyof the race As in the Johannine God by the divine will and power."
Yet
for life: Ignatiusheld union with Christ necessary literature, and have not true life" 3 "Christ Jesus, apart from whom we "
His concep magical. He says well-nigh
that life is ministered through the Lord's
Supper was, however, Breaking one bread which
tion of the of it :
"
the antidote that
talityand
Christ."
in Jesus
the incarnation tion of
a
death.
the devil and
In the Johannine
life,in the
was
should not
die but live forever
originalthought
the manifestation
was
humanity.
new
we
of immor
is the medicine
Ignatius'smost
4
Supper.
of God
for the
Christ the world
Before
that
was
was
revela
under
Christ brought life and immortality.5 and the Ignatianwritingsalike,salvation of the transformation
sense
of sinful
mortality
into blessed immortality. This thought had roots in Paul's this teaching. Through the school of Syria and Asia Minor
became, in the Greek-speaking church, the conception of sal vation.
was
one
of Christ and
son
will be of
It
seen,
was
rightrelations
that lays necessary emphasis on the per Latin conception,as The the incarnation.
that with
its Pauline
too, had
salvation consists in the establishment God
and
the
sins.
forgivenessof
antecedents.
It
This,
lays prime n^fcarily
the atonement. weight on divine grace, the death of ChrisflBKd These conceptions are not mutually exclusive ; but to these differences of emphasis is ultimatelydue much of the contrast in the later theological development of East and West.
VIII.
SECTION
GENTILE
CHRISTIANITY
OF
THE
SECOND
CENTURY
By the Asia
bly
year
100
Christianitywas
stronglyrepresentedin
Minor, Syria,Macedonia, Greece, and also in .
Eph.
20.
Egypt, though
and
Rome,
regardingits introduction 2Smyrn.,\. *Eph. 19, 20.
8
proba
into that
Tral,
9.
land
is
there
Asia Minor
**
FATHERS
certain knowledge.
no
all,to the
if at slightly,
i
APOSTOLIC
THE
42
extended
portion of
western
more
It had
the
very
empire.
extensivelyChristianized than any other About land. of Bithynia,could 111-113 Pliny,the governor the older temple worship.1 affecting report to Trajan that it was and constantlyextending, It was stronglymissionaryin spirit, Common far from Christianity,however, was representing, of Paul the of the understanding, loftytheology or even or Johannine
was
more
literature.
in
It moved
a
much
thought. Profoundly loyal to Christ, it
primarilyas
the divine revealer of the
God, and the proclaimerof
a
"new
simplerrange conceived
of
knowledge of
law"
of
of
Him
the true
simple,lofty,and
morality. This is the attitude of the so-called "ApostolicFathers," with the exceptionof Ignatius,whose thought has already been discussed. strenuous
These
Christian
writers
were
thus
named
because
it
was
believed that they were long,though erroneously, personaldis ciplesof the Apostles. They include Clement of Rome (c.93-
97); Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110-117); Polycarp of Smyrna of Rome (c.115-140); the author who (c.110-117); Hermas of Barnabas, possibly in Alexandria under the name wrote called Second Clement sermon (c. 131) ; and the anonymous (c.160-170). To this literature should be added the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles(c. 130-160, but presentinga survival
primitiveconditions). The anonymous Epistleto Dithe writingsof the Apostolic Fa ognetus,often included among thers,is probably later than their period. themselves Christians looked upon as a separated people, the whose true Israel, new was a no longer citizenship race, for its in the Roman and welfare Empire, though they prayed that of its ruler,but in the heavenly Jerusalem.2 They are created before the sun and the church "which was moon," framed."3 "and for her sake the world was The conceptionof the church was not primarilythat of the aggregate of Chris tians on earth, but of a heavenly citizenship reaching down the scattered embrace to earth, and gathering into its own this church To Christian communities.4 the discipleis ad mitted waters."5 That by baptism. It is "builded upon of very
1 3
5
Letters,1096 ; Ayer, p. 20. Hermas, Vis.,24; 2 Clem., 14. Hermas, Vis.,33.
2 4
Clem., 61 ; Hermas, Teaching, 9. 1
Sim., 1.
CHRISTIAN
live the Christian
to
engagement
43
belief in the truth of the Christian
baptism impliedantecedent message,
WORSHIP
AND
LIFE
and repentance.1 life,
probably on other days.2 kinds: had consisted from the Apostles'time of two These preaching, song and meetings for reading the Scriptures, evening meal with which the Lord's prayer;3and A common conjoined. By the time Justin Martyr wrote his Supper was meal had disappeared, (153), the common Apology in Rome and the Supper was joinedwith the assembly for preaching, the occasion for The Supper was as a concludingsacrament.4 forms offeringsfor the needy.5 The beginnings of liturgical Services
to
are
held
were
on
Sunday,
and
be found
before the close of the first century.6 life was ascetic and legalistic. Wednesday
Christian
Friday
fasts,which
were
called
were
and
"stations,"as of soldiers
guard.7 The Lord's Prayer was repeated thrice daily.8 "Fasting is better than prayer, but almsgivingthan both."9 Second marriage was discouraged.10Simple repent is not sufficientfor forgiveness, there must be satisfaction.11 ance of Christ
A
on
Christian
can
even
do
than
more
God
demands
"
works
of
supererogation and will receive a corresponding reward.12 Great generositywas exercised toward the poor, widows, and going so far as to sell themselves into slavery orphans, some felt to be rewarded and rich were to supply the needy.13 The helped by the prayers of the poor.14 Wealthy congregations redeemed and sent relief to a distance,and in these prisoners "
works
none
was
more
eminent
other hand, though slaves their manumission fall into evil
was
For
is
3 4 6 7 8 11 13 16
On
evidence, also,that the
higher stationed found maintain in practice.16
the
of heathen
more
the ideal of brotherhood
antecedents
deny the existence of the old gods. They 1
of Rome.
regarded as Christian brethren, discouragedlest,lackingsupport, they
ways.15 There
Christians
that
were
well-to-do and difficult to
than
it
was
were
difficult to very
real to
2 Justin,Apology, 61 ; Ayer, p. 33. Justin,ibid.,67 ; Ayer, p. 35. Justin,ibid.,67 ; see also Pliny,Letters,1096; Ayer, pp. 21, 35. 8 Justin,ibid.,67. 65, 67 ; Ayer, pp. 33-35. 1 Clem., 59-61, see also Teaching, 9, 10; Ayer, pp. 38, 39. Teaching, 8 ; Hermas, Sim., 51 ; Ayer, p. 38. 10 92 Clem., 16. Teaching, 8; Ayer, p. 38. Hermas, Hand.. 44. 12 7. Ibid.,Sim., Ibid.,Sim., 52- 3; Ayer, p. 48. 14 1 Clem., 55. Hermas, Sim., 2. 16 Ignatius to Polycarp,4. Hermas, Sim., 920.
LEADERS
SPIRIT-FILLED
44
them, but
looked
were
their
between of which
own
they
were
in the
of exorcism
use
be
to
as
aware,
influence
of demon
thus
century explainedthe resemblance rites and those of the mystery religions,
of the second
Christians
The
demons, hostile to Christianity.1
as
upon
a
of Christ.3
resurrection of the flesh,and
a
SECTION
led to much all men there is
For final
a
judgment.4
ORGANIZATION
CHRISTIAN
IX.
Fear,
and characteristic,
was
name
demons.2
parody by
darkened by historyhas been more controversy than that of the originand development of church is more difficult, owing to the scantiness of officers,and none It is probable that the de that has survived. the evidence all early diverse in different localities. Not velopment was Christian congregationshad identical institutions at the same reached by the middle time. Yet a substantial similarity was of the second century. Something has already been said of the constitution of the Jewish Christian congregations.5The
questionin
No
present discussion
churches
mention
make
no
could
hardly have
isted.
Their
held office. you
avoided
that
some
in 1
allusion
in the Lord"
epistlesshow
on
Gentile soil. strict
officers in the
no
Those
Thess.
o12 to
Corinthians
such officers
allusion,had
is,at best, very
all ministries
the
to
approach6 is only an as Stephanas,and does
such
The
had
of local officers.
nearest
subjectionto
those
Galatians,Corinthians,and Romans
Paul's letters to the
sense.
over
has to do with
earliest Gentile
The
in
church
exhortation not
imply
to
Paul's
be
that he
those that
obscure.
ex
"are
earlier
church, of whatever
in the
who in the direct giftof the Spirit, looked upon as sort, were spireseach severallyfor the service of the congregation.7 It is fair to conclude that these bearers of the giftsof the Spirit
in the church might be different at different times, and many vehicles of the charismatic inspiration. might equally become three classes of leaders as in particular Paul, however, specifies the giftof the Spirit Apostles,prophets,teachers.8 He him If the Apostles' self regarded his Apostolate as charismatic.9 work was primarilythat of founding Christian churches, those "
1 " 7
Justin,Apology, 5. 2 Clem., 9, 16. 1 Cor. 124-11- 28-30, 1426-33.
J *
8
Ibid.,62. Ante, p. 23. 1 Cor. 1228.
8
Ibid.,Dialogue, 85.
6
1 Cor. 1618- 1S.
OF
RISE
OFFICERS
PERMANENT
45
the proclamation or interpre prophet and teacher were The exact shade of tation of the divinelyinspiredmessage. difference between prophet and teacher is impossibleto dis of charismatic men. The worst All, however, were cover. sins was to refuse to hear the Spiritspeaking through them.1 Yet Paul undoubtedly exercised a real im^sionarysuperinten the churches founded dence over by him, and employed his in the work.2 It is difficult this to distinguish youngerassistants from ordinarysupervisionsuch as any founder might employ. It was that such unlimited confidence inevitable,however, the earliest congregationspossessed in charismatic gifts as should be abused. The Teachingof the Twelve Apostlesshows that self-seeking and fraudulent claimants to divine guidance soon were preying on the churches.3 Tests had to be found to discriminate the true from the false. In the Teaching,and of the
the touchstone
in Herman*
orthodoxy
of
teaching. The
to be found
are
140), to
say
is character.
in Rome
as
prophets long late
Miletus
unmodified. the "elders"
exhortingthem in which
flock
eWcr/eo7rot
"take
the
and
41*4 it is
1 John
continued.
They
of Hermas
of those whom
(115-
the church
his followers
even
later.
of things, not, in the nature Paul called to his farewell message
of the (Trpeo-pvrepoi,)
heed
unto
These
are
church
of
yourselvesand
hath
Holy Ghost
overseers.5
"
matic
to
For
the time
as
nothing of the claims
judged heretical,like Montanus Such uncertain leadershipcould continue
In
made
in
you
certain
a
Ephesus, to
all the
bishops"sense
charis
They have been made bishopsby the Holy Spirit. But they are recipients of a charism which makes them a defi nite group having particularduties to the congregation. In of his latest letters Paul speaksof the one bishopsand deacons of the church in Philippi(I1). Even if this be held to mean the dischargeof functions only "those who oversee and those who serve" the advance beyond the conditions of the Corin men.
"
"
"
"
thian the
is apparent. epistles
The
giftsmay
be charismatic,but holders of a permanent
recipientsare
beginning to be official relation. Why these local officers developed is un known worship, and the ; but the interests of good order and example of the synagogue are probable suggestions. Absence 1
Teaching,11; Ayer,
2
E. g., Timothy in 1 Cor. 11 ; Ayer, p. 40.
3
p. 40.
417,1610. 4 Mand.,
11.
6
Acts 2017-29.
AND
BISHOPS
46
PRESBYTERS
by whom worship could be con ducted and the congregationled was in some certainlya cause places. The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles directs: "Ap point for yourselves,therefore,bishops and deacons worthy of
prophets
of the
Lord,
teachers
and
who
men
meek
are
and
lovers of money,
not
and
and
approved ; for unto you they also perform the service of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise them not; for they are your honorable men along with the prophets and teachers" (15). At Philippi,Ephesus, and in the Teaching, these "bishops" are spoken of in the plural. This is also true true
and
of Rome 93-97.
l
of Corinth
Clement
when
Clement
speaks, also, of
of Rome
in
wrote
those
the against whom rebelled as Corinth church its "appointed presby ters" (54); and of "those who have offered the giftsof the bishop's office" as presbyters (44). Polycarp of Smyrna, writing to Philippiin 110-117, mentions only presbytersand in
deacons
and
imply that Rome.
church."
had
their duties.
as
late
his time there
as
It is "the 2
He
Hernias, 115-140, would
elders
this
was
(presbyters)that
speaks only
of the
"bishops."3 Ancient such interpretation,
as
duties
to
seem
office at collegiate the preside over
of "deacons"
that of Jerome,
saw
and
in these
the names collegiate bishops and presbytersthe same persons, is the opinion of most being used interchangeably. That modern the probable conclusion. The scholars, and seems view of the late Edwin Hatch, as developed by Harnack, the older brethren in the holds,however, that presbyterswere the collegiate taken. congregation,from whom bishops were but a presbyternot necessarily A bishop would be a presbyter, the the more a as bishop. The subjectis one of difficulty, so word "presbyter,"like the English "elder" is used in early Christian literature both as a generaldesignationof the aged, and as a technical expression. Its particular meaning is hard always to distinguish.It is evident, however, that till some time
after the year the head of each or ers.
4
had
at
congregationa group of collegiate bishops, with number their of deacons a as presbyter-bishops, help chosen the These were church,4 or at least "with the by
consent 1
Greece, and Macedonia
100, Rome,
of the whole
Clem., 42, 44. Teaching, 15; Ayer,
1
church." 2
5
Vis., 24.
p. 41.
3 5
Sim., 926. 1
27.
Clem., 44; Ayer,
p. 37.
APOSTOLICAL
48
the monarchical
How
that
Reasons
ture.
SUCCESSION is a matter
arose bishopric
have
been
leadershipin worship
advanced
conjec scholars
modern
financial
the
and
by
of
oversightof the in the care of the poor and other obligations of congregation charity.These are probable,the first-named perhaps the more probable. It is sufficient to observe,however, that leadership for of a congregation by a committee of equals is unworkable protractedtime. Some one is sure to be given headship. any One further observation of great importance is to be made.
are
(93-97), writingwhen
of Rome
Clement
monarchical
the
bishop,traces
It is
succession.1 apostolical
Rome
had
as
existence of church
impeachment
no
yet
no
officers to
of the firmness
conviction,though it militates againstthe historic ac of his view, that he apparentlybases it on a misunder
of his curacy
in 1 Cor. 1615" 16. On the other standing of Paul's statement hand, Ignatius,though urgingin the strongest terms the value of the monarchical episcopateas the bond of unity, knows the union of these succession. It was nothing of an apostolical monarchical bishop in apostolical two succession, a principles, occurred
which
before
the middle
of the
century, that
second
immensely enhanced the dignityand power of the bishopric^ bishops By the sixth decade of the second century monarchical universal. The institution was had become to gain well-nigh further strengthin the Gnostic and Montanist struggles;but whether be doubted it may anything less rigidcould have car ried the church through the crises of the second century. X.
SECTION
a
of
branch
ROMAN
GOVERNMENT
Judaism, which
of hostility
The
OF
CHRISTIANITY
TO
THE
at first regardedby the Roman
was Christianity as
RELATIONS
the Jews
stood
themselves
under
authorities
legalprotection.2 have
must
made
a
dis
evident,and by the time of the Neronian persecu victims tion in Rome The Roman (64) it was plainlydrawn. then charged,however, primarilywith Christianity, not were
tinction
soon
with
but made
1 Peter
them was
sion had 1
arson
1 Cor.
with though their unpopularity ready objects of suspicion. By
the multitude
"
written become
(c.90), the a
42, 44; Ayer,
for
cause
pp.
36,
37.
mere
fact of
punishment
a
the
time
Christian
(416). How 2
Acts
that
profes much
1814-18.
49
PERSECUTIONS earlier "the
had
name"
become
sufficient criminal
a
charge it
of impossibleto say. Trajan'sreply to Pliny,the governor that was already Christianity Bithynia (111-113), presupposes the viewed as criminal. That recognized, already Emperor mild procedure from his point of orders what must be deemed view. Christians are not to be hunted out, and, if willingto of per to be acquitted. Only in case are abjure by sacrifice, the standpointof a sistence are they to be punished.1 From could only be this was faithful Christian profession a test which Hadrian immediate met by martyrdom. Trajan's successors, Pius (138-161) pursued the same (117-138), and Antoninus Marcus mob accusations. generalpolicy,though discouraging Aurelius (161-180) gave renewed force to the law againststrange religions(176), and initiated a sharper periodof persecution which extended into the beginningof the reign of Commodus the on however, treated Christianity, (180-192). Commodus, and with indifference. the toleration of whole, Always illegal, with extreme Christian the it, penaltieshanging over profession of involved constant perilfor its adherents; yet the number actual martyrs in this period appears been relatively to have .small compared with those of the third and fourth centuries. No generalpersecutionoccurred before 250. atheism The charges brought against the Christians were and anarchy.2 Their rejection of the old gods seemed atheism ; their refusal to joinin emperor-wrorship appeared treasonable.3 made Popular credulity, possibleby the degree to which the Christians held aloof from ordinary civil society, charged them with crimes as revoltingas they were preposterous. A mis is
V
understandingof in the
Supper
accusation
of
the
must
Christian be
doctrine
of Christ's presence the occasion of the common
deemed
cannibalism; and
its celebration
secretlyin the
of the govern evening of that of gross licentiousness.4 Much mental persecutionof Christianity in this period had its incite ment
in mob
attacks
when
Smyrna boycott,on
upon
Polycarp
Christians.
suffered
That
was
the
in 156
at
case
; wThile
a martyrdom the charges of immoral actions,was immediate occasion of the fierce persecution in Lyons and Vienne in 177. 5 It is not surprising, that the majortherefore,
Pliny's 3 6
the basis of
Letters 1097;
Martyrdom
Ayer,
p. 22.
of Polycarp, 3, 8-10. Eusebius, Church History, 51.
2
Justin,Apology, 5, 6; 11,
4
Justin, Dialogue, 10.
12.
y
APOLOGISTS
THE
50
proceedingsagainst Christians in this period ity of judicial been under the generalpolicepower rather to have of seem disturbance than formal trial the on magistratesto repress by criminal charge of Christianity.Both procedures are specific be found.
to
Christians their
about
all these
To
their heroic constancy
was
superiormorality as
answer
of the
in
loyaltyto Christ,and judged by the standards of society
them. XI.
SECTION
These
THE
APOLOGISTS
charges againstChristians,and the hostile attitude
the Roman who
the best
accusations
are
government, aroused known
as
a
number
Apologists. Their
the
of
of
defenders, literary appearance
shows
in making some conquest of the more tellectual elements of society. Their appeal is distinctly to first was Quadratus, intelligence.Of these Apologists the probably of Athens, who about 125 presenteda defense of Chris tianity,now preserved only in fragments, to the Emperor Hadrian. Aristides,an Athenian Christian philosopher,made similar appeal,about 140, to Antoninus Pius. Justin wrote a of these defenses,probably in Home, about famous the most the four Gospels His disciple, combined 153. Tatian, who into his famous Diatessaron,also belonged to the Apologists. With them to be reckoned Melito, bishop of Sardis, who are little between wrote 169 and 180 ; and Athenagoras, of whom that
Christianitywas
is known
whose personally,
defense,which
survives,was
made
belongsthe Epistleto Diognetus, the writingsof the ApostolicFathers. among evidence that any of these Apologistsgreatly There is no influenced heathen seriously opinion,or that their appeal was it was their desire to persuade. considered by the rulers whom Their work was however, deservedlyvalued in Christian circles, of the and undoubtedly strengthened Christian conviction Several of the so nobilityof the cause earnestlydefended. and their from the ranks of the philosophers, Apologistswere aided in the development of the philosophical interpretation Justin,and he may well stand was ology. The most significant about
the year often reckoned
as
typicalof
177.
Here
the whole
also
movement.
Justin,called the Martyr, from his heroic witness unto death born in in Rome under the prefect Rusticus, about 165, was
Shechem,
in the
ancient
Samaria,
of heathen
ancestry.
He
v
JUSTIN
lived,for
a
time
probablythat
MARTYR
51
least,in Ephesus,and it was
at
the conversion of which
in its vicinity
he
givesa vivid account philosophy,he acceptedsuc
place.1 An eager student of and Stoicism,Aristotelianism, cessively Pythagoreanism, took
While
tonism.
Platonist
a
his attention
was
Pla-
directed to the all those who are
ancient than prophets,"men more esteemed philosophers." Theirs is the oldest and truest ex planation"of the beginningand end of things and of those which the philosopher matters ought to know," since they were "filled with the holy Spirit." "They glorified the Creator, the God and Father of all things, and proclaimedHis Son, the Christ." By his newly acquired conviction of the truth of their ancient propheticmessage, Justin says : straightwaya flame was kindled in my soul ; and a love of the prophetsand Hebrew
"
of those
who
men
philosophyalone
are
friends of Christ.
I found
this
...
be safe and
profitable."These quotations show the character of Justin's religious experience. It was not a profound and mystical union with a risen Lord, as with Paul. It was of forgiveness of sin. It was not a sense a con in viction that Christianityis the oldest,truest, and most to
divine of
continued
as
his home
a
wrote,
Justin philosophies. philosopher.He made about
Antoninus
look upon himself in Rome and there
to
153, his Apology, addressed
Pius
and
to
the
that
Emperor
sovereign's adopted sons, defend from governmental antagonism and heathen ing Christianity criticisms. A littlelater,perhaps on visit to Ephesus, he a composed his Dialogue with Trypho, similarlypresentingthe Christian case againstJewish objections.A second sojourn in Rome broughthim to a martyr'sdeath. Justin's Apology (often called two Apologies,though the second is only an appendix)is a manly, dignified, and effec tive defense. Christians, if condemned at all,should be pun ished for definite proved crimes,not for the mere without name of their real character. They are atheists only investigation in that they count the popular gods demons unworthy of worship,not in respect to the true God. They are anarchists only to those who do not understand the nature of the kingdom that they seek. Justin then argues the truth of Christianity, from the fulfilment of Old Testament especially prophecy,and "
"
Christian sacraments briefly explains 1
Dialogue,2-8.
and
worship.
As
theologian, Justin's
a
His
own
the the .
MARTYR
JUSTIN
52
.
.
convictions
central
the
were
belief
and
ham,
became
conviction
that
in
of
that
those
to
of
great
advance
Christ,
best
that
so
in
is less Justin
knowledge
"
ascetic
somewhat
divine His
and
agent,
definite, of Jesus
instance
on
vealed.
He
those
was,
who
Stoi
on
Logos is the
Him
in terms
heathen
common
law, teaching is
Father, the
really at
as
save
the
Son, in
rather
the
of
expense
identified, the
for Justin
the
on
His
yet
true, though
some
are
non-
emphasis
incarnation
believe
on
of
Him"
the
the
life
earthly
great
historic
and
;3 but
such
was
thoughts
faithful
of
Justin, theology essentially rationalizing, with
Hence
primary.
same
therefore the Logos, the which divine most fully re philosophy was Christ's of does, indeed, speak "cleansing by His
the
of
occasion
the
is
both
little interest
has
in
emphasis
Jesus, for though
historic
blood
This
sense.
Him
with
one
Justin's
God
to
the
phi hope of immortality,
life.
subordinate
Logos,
Abra
as
conceives
contemporary
God,
moral
cites
distinctly seen.
morality, the and future and rewards Like punishments. Pauline Christianity, he views the Gospel as a new
losophy
of
such
all-illuminating divine
message
the
he
obeyed
elsewhere
Christian
of the
similar
which
everywhere
as
whom
time
any
His
this
definitely incarnate
content
very
at
really Christians.2
full revelation The
all who
these, and
were
is his
cism
fashion,
teaching the Greeks, of Heraclitus, and the "barbarians,"
that
guidance
Stoic
true
work,
at
and
so
conceives, in
he
Logos always
Socrates
he
of his
experience. was Christianity was because of truest philosophies, taught by the prophets of and Old Teacher Testament, by the divine Logos "our * is both Son and who the Father." This Apostle of God
divine
a
result
that
in
martyr
little of
not
are
though the
pro
Johannine
the
Paul, conspicuous foundly religiouscontent so in It ^literature, or even marks, however, a conscious Ignatius. \union of Christian thought with the Gentile philosophy, and
Itherefore 1
Apology,
the 12.
beginnings 2
of
75^
a
"scientific" 46 ;
Ayer,
p.
theology. 72.
3
Ibid.,32.
PERIOD,
FROM
II.
SECTION
later New
in
Asia
had
He
conception It is
of
between than
ence,
was
glory,
problem
may
the
with
seemed
earthly life altogether. taught His disciples; but all of flesh and
one
160, though
It threatened
since the
height
Pauline
Gnostic
the
Christ
Docetic
teaching.
the
Christologicai
denial
of the
did, indeed,
Christ the
of experi
That
of the
time
as
a
reality appear.
heavenly being,
upon
battle
force
a
the the
something
was
its influence
of
overwhelm
doing brought
this
blood.
it continued
to
that
as
earthly life pre-existent and post-
His
some
properly speaking, The
regarded
early teachings were explain a seeming contra
solution
to
death.
ghost-like, Docetic
speculations.
simplest
century.
actual
these to
His
far-reaching.
so
that
in
of history and
contrasted
of the
one
second His
of much
that
Gnostic
so
and
is true
It
attempt
an
the
generally been
feature
a
Jesus
well have
Gnosticism,
to
on
purely
on
existent
not
was
the
of humiliation
He
have
Gnosticism.
of Christ
of
flesh," but
opinions
These
largely based
diction
the
probable, however,
more
more
of
"in
beginnings
been
least
at
conceptions of Christ widely prevalent, especially
opening years real humanity
His
come
appearance.1 the
the
denied
not
combat
have
must
in
Minor, views
These
literature, and
strongly
it is evident
which
GNOSTICISM
I.
Testament
Fathers,
Apostolic
CRISIS
CONSTANTINE
TO
THE
GNOSTIC
THE
long
historic
Christian
for freedom
from
was
the
after
Christian
Church from
much
more
about
latter date.
faith, and
its gravest
law.
135
by
crisis
Its
spread and relativelyweakly
made peril were possible by the of the church organized, and doctrinally .undefined state at its The church the danger ; but at the cost beginning. overcame
consequent
of
the
development
government 1
1 John
which I1-3,222,
of
a
rigidity of organization, creed, and
rendered 42-
the
condition
of
3; Ignatius, Trallians, 9-11; 53
the
church
Smyrn.,
1-6.
at
GNOSTICISM
54
the close of the second
century
to that of
contrast striking
a
its beginning.1 Gnosticism
professedto
be based
"knowledge" (yvwans)
on
,
is now
that word
Its knowl commonly understood. edge was always a mystical,supernaturalwisdom, by which the initiates were brought to a true understandingof the universe,
but not
and
as
saved
were
doctrine of salvation.
damental the
to
mystery
however, from
this evil world
from
Its religions.
its syncretism.
was
sources,
many
and
of matter.
In these respects it
was
a
fun
akin
prominent characteristic,
most
It took unto
assumed
It had
many
itselfmany
forms.
It
elements
is,therefore,
It was impossibleto speak of a singletype of Gnosticism. mystical,magical,or philosophicalaccordingto prevailingly
in its syncretism. Gnosticism was in its origin, and was in existence before Chris pre-Christian the
dominant
tianitycame types.
It is
admixture
into the world.
representedin
It had astral elements
which
There
were
the Hermetic may
Jewish
and
heathen
literature of Egypt.
be traced back
Babylonian the universe,Per to
religiousconceptions,a dualistic view of from God in the sian in origin,and a doctrine of emanations which was probably Egyptian. "pleroma" or realm of spirit, fundamental its most conception, the wholly evil Perhaps due to a combination character of the phenomenal world, was the real spiritual of the Platonic theory of the contrast between sphere of ideas," and this visible world of phenomena, inter the one good and that to preted in terms of Persian dualism which man strives to return, the other wholly bad and the place of his imprisonment. The world of matter is evil. Its creator and ruler is not, therefore,the high,good God, but an inferior and imperfectbeing,the demiurge. Man, to be saved, be freed from this bondage to the visible world, and its must of his freedom is the means rulers,the planetary spirits ; and a mystical, spiritual enlightenment for "knowledge" (7i"a"oY?), with the true the initiated which brings him into communion realities. realm of spiritual in Strongly syncretistic already, Gnosticism found much In particular, the figureof Christianitywhich it could use. Christ was adapted to givea definite and concrete cen especially the retre to its theory of a higher savingknowledge. He was "
"
1
Useful
76-102.
selections
regarding Gnosticism
may
be
found
in
Ayer,
pp.
MARCION
56
Gnosticism
to
be Simon More
little is known.
Antioch, who
of
labored
about
Alexandria
in Rome
active
garded
as
130 ; and, above from about 135 to
all,Valentinus, who 165, and
who
was
be
must
re
of the most
one
Gnosticism
giftedthinkers of the age. immense an perilfor the church. foundations of Christianity.Its God
was
out
the
historic
the
God
of the
ferior
Magus,1 but of his real relations to it clearlydefined leaders are Satornilus before 150; Basilides,who taught in
Old
Testament, which
is the
work
It cut is not
of
in
an
evil being. Its Christ had no real incarnation, resurrection. Its salvation is for the few capable of
or
even
death, or
spiritualenlightenment. The perilwas Gnosticism of was representedby some of the
the church
second
the
greater because
the keenest
The
minds
in
syncretistic, and in some respects Gnosticism was but the fullest accomplish of that amalgamation of Hellenic and Oriental philosophi ment cal speculationwith primitiveChristian beliefs which was in greater or less degree in process in all Christian thinking. century.
SECTION
specialinterest
A
first church
reformer.2
Born
was
MARCION
II.
attaches
age
to
Marcion
in
Sinope, in
as
who
one
Asia
the
was
Minor, where
about 139, and to Rome wealthy ship-owner,he came joinedthe Roman congregation, making it a giftfor its benevo lent work came equivalentto ten thousand dollars. He soon of under the to feel that Christianity was bondage legalism, the under of the Gnostic of and, light teaching Cerdo, he saw he
was
a
of this evil in acceptance of the Old Testament and than partially Never more Gnostic, his prime in a
the root its God. terest
in church
was
faith rather
than
only Apostle who fallen into the ment
is
tooth
for
a
ish law.
a
in the He
Christ, who
law 1 2
unknown
done
of "an
created was
a
good away,
God
Docetic God
the
was
of the Old for
eye
the world
by right
all the rest had
Gospel ;
The
sense
opposed Him; was
the
of Judaism.
errors
tooth."
Testament
the Jewish
had understood
just God,
the heretofore Old
Salvation,with him, was by knowledge. To Marcion, Paul reform.
and
an
eye,
gave
Testa and
a
the Jew
manifestation,revealed
of mercy. but in Christ
The the
God
of the
authorityof
and the "justGod"
Acts 89-24;Irenseus,Heresies,I23; Ayer, p. 79. See selections, Ayer, pp. 102-105.
became
un-
MARCION
MONTANISM
AND
57
to the revealer of the hostility justbecause of this unwarranted and its God are therefore to The Old Testament "good God." Christ proclaimeda Gospel of love be rejectedby Christians. and of righteousness by faith,though,curiouslyenough, Marcion was extremely ascetic in his conception of the Christian life. *
Marcion's
endeavor the
deemed
he
to
of Christ
Gospel
Church
call the Roman
of Paul
and
back
to
what in his
resulted
gathered followers he compiled a canon For their use into a separated church. of Paul (omittingthe of sacred books, composed of the epistles which and the Gospel of Luke, shorn of all passages "Pastorals), implied that Christ regarded the God of the Old Testament excommunication
own
His
Father, or is known, this was as
collection of New Marcion's those from
about
in any way As far as related to Him. the first attempt to form an authoritative Testament writings.
condemned
the
more
Gnosticism.
background
speculativeGnostic and
probably the
was
with
its historic
now
was
movement
associated
He
144.
He
theories.
He
denied
the Old Testament
and
done
plausible because
sundered
completely as
as
its
the
in
dangerous of Christianity
most
had
real
a
Crocf
the
more
incarnation, Atl this of
name
a
againstgrowing legalism. For such a protest there was His churches justification. spread extensively,in the and survived into the fifth century. His own especially, historyis wholly unknown.
was
protest much Orient later
\s^ SECTION
III.
MONTANISM
of Gnosticism, Montanism was a movement distinctly of the second cen Christian origin. In mostfof the churches
Unlike
tury the earlyhope of the speedy dim.
The
consciousness
return
of the
of Christ
constant
growing of the inspiration was
characteristic of the ApostolicChurches, had also largely Spirit, faded. of the immediacy of the Spirit's With this declining sense an increasingemphasis on His significance present work came the agent of revelation. Paul had identified the Spiritand as half a century later. Christ.1 That was not the generalfeeling The Spirithad been the inspiration of prophecy in the Old Testament.2 1
2 Cor. 317.
2
E. g., 1 Clem. 1 Clem., 47.
3
He
guided
the
8, 13, 16; "the
New
Testament
writers.3
propheticSpirit,"Justin,Apology,
To
13.
MONTANISM
58
Christian thought at the beginning of the second differentiated
Holy Spiritwas
This
with God.
like
Him, formula,1which
from
Christ, but
century the
appears
displacingthe
classed,
was
in the Trinitarian
baptismal
baptism in the name formula of Christ.2 Trinitarian were frequentlyin use by the close of the first and beginning of the second century.3 Johannine The Gospel represented Christ as promising the the Com "When coming of the Holy Spiritto the disciples: was
whom I will send forter is come, the Spiritof Truth, which even
shall bear
He
of
Witness
Me,"
older
unto
from
you
proceedeth from (1526).
The
the Father, the
second
Father, century
convinced, therefore,not only that the Holy Spiritwas
was
association with God the Father and Christ peculiar Christ had promised the Spirit's coming in more
;
in
but that
abundant
in the future.
measure
of the Holy this thought of the specialdispensation Spirit,combined with a fresh outburst of the earlyprophetic It
was
enthusiasm, and a belief that the end of the world-age was To close at hand, that were a representedin Montanism. considerable extent Montanism also,a reaction from the was, secular tendencies already at work in the church. Montanus, of Ardabau, near the movement from whom named, was was
long noted for A tradition, recorded by Jerome, its ecstatic type of religion.4 affirmed that, before conversion, he had been a priestof CyAbout bele. 156 Montanus proclaimed himself the passive the Holy Spiritspoke. In this new instrument through whom declared the promise of Christ fulfilled, revelation Montanus and the dispensationof the Holy Spiritbegun. To him were They soon joined two prophetesses,Prisca and Maximilla. that the end of the affirmed,as mouthpieces of the Spirit, now about world was at hand, and that the heavenly Jerusalem was believers should betake to be established in Phrygia, whither In preparationfor the fast-approaching consum themselves.
the
region of
mation
the
Minor
Asia
most
ness
won
response
abstinence
of the church
feature
at
as
a
as
Phrygia "
asceticism
strenuous
and celibacy,fastings, attitude
known
from
should meat.
be
practised,
This
vigorous
protest againstthe growing worldli-
large,and
to many
was
the most
attractive
of Montanism. 2
Acts
238.
1
Matt.
4
See selections, Ayer, pp.
2819.
3
E. g., 1 Clem.
106-109.
46, 58
;
Ignatius,Eph., 9.
MONTANISM The
bishopsof
ened, one
more
or
the distinction of
in which
considerable
speedilyattained
movement
the
By
59
Minor, who
Asia
held soon after 160, which have synods were and beingthe earliest synods of church history,
Montanism
condemned.
was
and for years the Roman by it. In Carthage it
Rome,
authoritythreat
felt their
Its progress not was of the last of its original
by the death easilycheckefl,even prophets,Maximilla, in 179. Soon after 17Q in
proportions.
it was
church
was
represented more
less
or
Tertullian,about 207, attracted chieflyby its ascetic demands, who thenceforth was
turmoiled
won
gradually driven out continued to be represented of the dominant church, Montanism in the Orient tilllong after the acceptance of Christianity by In Carthage the followers of Ter the imperialgovernment. tullian persistedtill the time of Augustine. In its ascetic de mands Montanism an a wide-spreadtendency,and represented asceticism as strict as anything Montanism taught was later to find a place in the great church in monasticism. the
eminent
most
Montanist.
SECTION
Neither ous,
IV.
Gnosticism
THE
remained
large church
by
CatHoTic^ChurcEI
the church technical
The
of
Church
Polycarp (156),where tive
or
word
church
tanist crises is
Christians.
The
is first used
"Catholic"
in the
employed it It is next
to
wholly
be found
it is difficultto decide whether
employment
graduallybecame adjective
consolidated
majorityof
of un-
in the
Smyrna, describingthe martyrdom
Its
not.
though extremelyperil
historic Christianity.By callingitselfthe century it was
of "universal."
letter of the
is technical
a
who by Ignatius,1
sense
CHURCH
faithful to
the latter third of the second "
CATHOLIC
Montanism,
nor
embraced
ever
were
Though
that
as
a
common, out
came
of the
the
of use
technically descrip that the so strongly Gnostic
and
Mon
usuallydescribed as the "Old Catholic." Church This Old Catholic char developed its distinguishing The acteristics between 160 and 190. hitherto relatively in knit into an effective union. now dependent congregationswere The power of the bishopswas a collection greatlystrengthened, of authoritative New Testament Scripturerecognized,and a creed formulated. Comparativelyloosely organizedChristianity now
1
Smyrn., 8
;
Ayer,
p. 42.
CATHOLIC
THE
60
rigidcorporate body, having recognizedofficial capable not merely of definingits faith,but of
became
now
a
and
leaders
its communion
from
shutting out creed
its officers. As
or
CHURCH
a
all who German
recent
did
accept its
not
writer has
epitomized
"
change : About 50, he was of the church who had received baptism and the Holy Spiritand called Jesus,Lord ; about 180, he who acknowledged the rule of faith (creed),the New Testa and the authorityof the bishops."1 ment canon, the beginnings of this great change may In a measure, be the
before the Gnostic
seen
and
Montanist
crises ; but
into being. that brought it effectively struggles istic answer
of the Catholic
in the argument
Church
it was
The
to the Gnostics
those
character be
may
seen
of Irenseus of
Lyons.2 Against Gnostic claims Irenseus,writing about 185, held that the Apostles did not preach before they had "perfect knowledge" of the Gospel. in the Gospels Matthew and That preaching they recorded written by Apostles themselves; while Mark re John, were of and of Paul. Luke that Peter produced the message Nothing "
But the Gnostic, Irenseus declares,is found in any of them. Gnostic may objectthat, besides this publicapostolicteaching in the Gospels, there was viva wee a instruction,a speaking "wisdom
heir.
This
perfect,"3
the
among
Irenseus
of which
Gnosticism
the
was
He
denied.
argued that, had there been have such private teaching,the Apostles would intrusted it all others, whom to those, above they selected as their suc in the government of the churches. In these churches of apostolicfoundation the apostolicteaching had been fully cessors
preserved,and its transmission had been guaranteed by the orderly succession of their bishops. Go therefore to Rome, is there taught,and to Smyrna, or Ephesus, and learn what or nothing Gnostic will be found. Every church must agree with that of Rome, for there apostolical tradition has been faithfully preservedas in other ApostolicChurches. It is difficult to could
advanced
have
fronted
him
; but
of significance
foundation, and further. 1 2
see
The
of
church
more
in the
it was
the
what
effective
argument
peculiarsituation
Irenseus
which
con
greatlyincreased the churches of real or reputed apostolical their heads, the bishops. Irenseus went itselfis the depositoryof Christian teachan
answer
which
der Kirchengeschichte,p. Heussi, Kompendium Heresies,3:1-4; Ayer, pp. 112-114.
44. 3
1 Cor. 2".
APOSTOLICAL
ing: "Since
the
like a Apostles,
CREED
AND
TRADITION rich
in
man
a
61
bank, lodged in
copiouslyall thingspertainingto the truth." those who, togetherwith This depositis especially intrusted to the succession of the episcopate, have received the certain gift her hands
most
"
To agree with of truth,"2 i.e. to the heads of the churches. the bishopsis therefore a necessity. This argument was not peculiarto Irenaeus,it was that of the leaders of Old Catholic
teachinggenerally. While
the
churches
of the
power
of the significance
episcopateand
foundation thus greatlyenhanced, was apostolical /the Gnostic crisis saw a correspondingdevelopment of creed, ^ Some form of instruction before baptism at least in the West. was common by the middle of the second century.3 At Rome this developed,apparently,between 150 and 175, and probably of in oppositionto Marcionite Gnosticism, into an explication form the baptismal formula of Matt. 2819 the earliest known of the so-called Apostles'Creed. in Asia antecedents What Minor, if any, it may have had is stilla question in scholarly dispute. Without symbolic authority in the Orient, all the of
"
churches
Western
received this creed
Rome, and it was least,as having apostolic from
regarded,by the time of Tertullian at of apostolic authority,that is as a summary teaching.4In its form it read : original I believe in God the Father Almighty ; and in Christ Jesus, His only begotten Son, our born of the Holy Lord, who was Spiritand the VirginMary, crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried ; the third day He rose into the from the dead, ascended heavens, being seated at the righthand of the Father, whence He shall come and the dead ; and in the Holy to judge the living Spirit,holy church, forgivenessof sins, resurrection of the "
flesh."
sj
The
development of
also,the work
ning the pels and they did Rome
of this
Old Testament
of
the
canon
of New
period. By the was
reckoned
books
Testament church
from
the
was,
begin
Scripture. The Gos Pdujrwere highly valued, but ha^e "Scriptural not, at first, authority. Clement of (93-97), though constantlyquoting the Old Testament the letters of
the utterance
as
a
as
doubtless
of the words God, was very free in his use divine. Testament, and nowhere styled them
New
1
Heresies,3
8
Justin,Apology,
:
of
41.
2
61.
4
7^., 4 26*. Prescription,13, 36. .
THE
62
The
earliest
designationof
"Scripture" was a quotation from time
of Justin
CANON
TESTAMENT
NEW
about
a
131, by
Paul
about
from
passage
the so-called
the
Gospels
Barnabas,1
and
as
of
110-117, by Polycarp.2 By the
(153),the Gospels were
read
services in
in the
Rome, togetherwith the Old Testament
prophets.3 The proc to Scriptural ess writingscame by which the New Testament of analogy. The Old Testa to have been one authorityseems ment was everywhere regarded as divinely authoritative. Christians could think
less of their
no
The
an questionwas open canonical writings. Works
read
An
in churches.
one,
fundamental
own
however,
like Hernias
which
to
as
and
authoritative list was
books. the
were
Barnabas
were
desirable.
for his followers.
Mar-
similar a canon prepared in was Rome, by the graduallyformed, probably the first to gain Catholic party. Apparently the Gospels were then the letters of Paul. complete recognition, By about 200, accordingto the witness of the Muratorian fragment,Western had a New Christendom Testament canon embracing Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, 1 and 2 Corinthians,Ephesians,Philippians,Colossians,Galatians,1 and 2 Thessalonians,Romans, Philemon, Titus,1 and 2 Timothy,Jude, 1 and 2 John, Revela tion,and the so-called Apocalypseof Peter.4 In the Orient the not quiteso rapid. Certain books, was development of a canon like Hebrews and Revelation were disputed. The whole process into its of canonical development precisepresent form was not later. completed in the West till400, and in the East tilleven portion of the By the year 200 the church of the western empire had, therefore, an authoritative collection of New Testament books, in the main like our own, to which to appeal. cion had
such
A
enumeration
The
East
was
a essentially
Christian
was
accepted were resent
Thus
The
formation
of selection from
process
by originally
opinion the "
no
criterion
the
of the whole
to
canon
of
mass
council,but by the the books
being that
of eitta^ie^work HStlejand thus discipleof^fl
believed
of the immediate
or
behind.
made literature,
force of Christian
be
an
apostolicteaching. of the strugglewith Gnosticism out
and
Apostle to
rep
Montanism
itsferong Church, episcopalorganAuthoritative It differed and ization^redal canon. standard, came
V
much
not
1 8
the Old
Catholic
Barn., 4. Apology, 66, 67.
with
Phil.
12.
4Ayer,
pp.
2
117-120.
THE
64
EASTER door
the wide-spread,
for
open
late in
Rather
authority.
was
CONTROVERSY
largerassertion of
a
developingthe
Roman
monarchical
episco
pate, since Anicetus
the first to have been (154-165) seems of the Roman Church, the prominence of its bishop
singlehead rapidly in grew
the
Gnostic
struggle,and with this growth the firstextensive assertion of the authorityof the Roman \Jcame bishop in the affairs of the church at large. thus gaining in strengthAsia Minor While Rome was was At the of the second relatively declining. beginning century and the adjacent portion of Syria had been the Asia Minor most extensivelyChristianized sections of the empire. That was probably,also,true at the century'sclose. Ephesus and had
Antioch
Asia Minor
had
Montanism
and
tanists had
been
that
still,great Christian resisted Gnosticism, but it had been
been, and
of controversy, though the Monsources to think, however, rejected. There is reason
disputeshad borne hard on its Christianity.The quarrelbetween is
the time
over
to
reason
of the observance
that Easter had
suppose
in Christian
the united Asia
with
a
visit of
to Anicetus, bishop of
strengthof
Minor
and
of Easter. been
fourteenth
with
of the
the month
Polycarp,bishop
of
Smyrna,
At that time
Supper
day
of the week
Roman
and
that of
custom,
the Easter
on
evening
the
Nisan, like the Jewish
gardlessof the feast
on
early
of its celebration
in 154
Lord's
there
from
155. Rome, or of Asia the Minor, probably more ancient,was practice Easter
Rome
While
honored
history,the first definite record
is in connection
serve
by
torn
other
these
arose
centres.
were
which
it
the
to ob
of the
Passover,
might
fall.
re
The
to hold some parts of the East, was Sunday. The questionwas, there
always on be the day of the week or that of the month norm. Polycarp and Anicetus could not agree, but parted with mutual good-will,each adhering to his own practice.1 The problem was further complicatedby a dispute,about 167, fore,should the
in
Laodicea, in Asia Minor
of the cele to the nature itself, as bration on the fourteenth of Nisan, some holding that Christ the fourteenth, as the fourth Gospel intimates, and died on others placingHis death, as do the other Gospels,on the fif
teenth. teenth
Hebrew
The of
latter treated
commemoration
the
Nisan, therefore, as
a
of the
Christian continuation
Passover. 1
Eusebius, Church
History, 5
:
2416-
17
;
Ayer,
p. 164.
four of the
EASTER
THE
About held in
the
190
Rome,
problem
CONTROVERSY became
65
that synods were elsewhere which decided in favor
Palestine,and
so
acute
practice. The churches of Asia Minor, led by Polycrates,bishop of Ephesus, refused conformity. There the Victor, bishop of Rome (189-198), excommunicated upon recalcitrant congregations. This high-handed action met with much a protest, notably from Irenseus of Lyons, but it was assertion of Roman marked authority.1 These embittered controversies were costly to Asia Minor, and any possiblerivalryon equal terms of Ephesus and Rome out of the question. The was collapseof Jewish Christian of the Roman
the apparent leadership,
lack at Antioch
of
men
of eminence
in the second
century, and the decline of the influence of Asia left Rome, by 200, the most and influential eminent
Minor
of
Christianity a positionof which the Roman bishops had the will and the abilityto make full use. The rise of and of Carthage to importance in the Christian Alexandria of thought and life of the third century could not rob Rome its leadership. Their attainment of Christian significance was of the empire. far younger than that of the capital centre
"
SECTION
VI.
IREN^US
The Old
earliest theologicalleader of distinction in the rising Catholic Church His argument in defense Irenseus. was
of traditional outlined.2 where
he
Christianity againstGnosticism has alreadybeen Born in Asia Minor, he was brought up in Smyrna,
saw
been
most
able
mission
and
heard
Polycarp.
The
date
of his birth has
scholars from about variouslyplaced by modern 115 to about 142, chieflyin the lightof its possiblebearing on traditions as to the authorship of the fourth Gospel. The later part of the periodindicated has more probabilitythan the earlier. From Asia Minor he removed is to Lyons in what now France, where he became a presbyter. The great perse cution of 177, at Lyons, found him, fortunately, honor on an
bishop
of
to
Rome;
and,
in
succession
Lyons,
That
post he continued
from
185
he
wrote
to hold
his return, he was chosen the martyred Pothinus. to
on
tillhis death
(c.200). Not far his chief work, Against Heresies,primarily
1
Eusebius, Church
2
Ante, p. 60.
History, 5
:
23,
24 ;
Ayer,
pp.
161-165.
IREN^EUS
66
refute the various Gnostic
to
ing his own Brought
reveal schools,but incidentally
theology. in the tradition of Asia Minor
and
spending his later life in Gaul, Irenseus was not merely a connecting-link distant the but between the older between portionsof empire, and theology of the Johannine Ignatian literature and the which the Apologistsand the "Catholic'' newer 'presentations of his own of deeply movement day were introducing. A man in salvation. his interest was In its explica spirit, religious tion he developed the Pauline and Ignatian conceptionsof of humanity, the second the renewer Christ as the new man, Adam. God created the first Adam, He made him good and lost by immortal; but both goodness and immortality were up
disobedience.
Adam's
What
Christ,the incarnate Logos, who "
work.
[i.e. at beginning; but man,
He
us, in
that what
so
the
image
Jesus."
l
we
and
The
acterizes in
a
that the Son
Jesus'
birth],being
with
when
He
a
He
now
became
the Father and
incarnate
brief,comprehensive manner, had
lost in Adam
likeness of God
"
Christ, thus
of
noble
phrase. We
through His transcendent might bring us to be even
of
God,
is also the full revelation of God.3
made
beings,and
with
salvation ;
described, Irenseus char
follow "the Lord
our
love become
what
the
namely to be accordingto in Christ we might recover
"
that
work
from was
afresh the long line of human
steadfast Teacher, the Word did
in
shown
commenced
furnished
is restored
completesthe interrupted of God did not then begin
I have
to exist
lost in Adam
man
He
only
and
Christ,who
Jesus what
true
we
is Himself."
are, 2
that
Christ
with Him, fol of Justin,Irenseus views
Our
union
lowing the teachingof Asia Minor and in some as sense physical,through the Supper.4 Irenseus's theory of Christ's new headship of humanity had added to it "The knot a suggestionof His mother as the second Eve. of Eve's disobedience was of Mary. loosened by the obedience For what the Virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the Virgin Mary set free through faith." 5 In this is one of the earliestevidences of that exalta curious ascription tion of the Virginwhich was to play so largea part in Christian for his time, Irenseus was an even history. In some ways, old-fashioned man. The belief in Christ's speedy second com1 3
Heresies,3
181 ; Ayer, pp. 137, 138. 4 4 207. Ibid.,4 : 185 ; Ayer, p. 138. : Ibid., :
2 5
Heresies,5 ; Preface. Ibid.,3 : 224.
ing had
WRITINGS
AND
LIFE
TERTULLIAN'S
67
the contest with Montanism entirely With Irenseus it still
growing faint,and
been
extinguishit almost and he looked eagerlyfor the time when the burned brightly, For Irenseus the New earth would be marvellouslyrenewed.1 is as fullysacred Scriptureas the Old. Testament to
was
1 VII.
SECTION
Tertullian
was
well-to-do
the
ancient
CYPRIAN
AND
individual and
of the most
one
of personalities
TERTULLIAN
church.
Born
remarkable
(c. 150-155) of
parentage in Carthage, he studied law and
heathen
He was exceedinglywell practisedhis professionin Rome. he had thoroughly read in philosophyand history. Greek
mastered.
About
190 to 195, he
converted
was
to
Christianity,
devoted himself with equaleager probably in Rome, and now orthodox and heretical. to the study of Christian literature, ness a Shortly after he returned to Carthage where he became presbyter,and remained till his death (c.222-225). At first of persecution in fellowship with the Roman Church, a wave North Africa in 202 under the Emperor Septhat broke over timius Severus (193-211), strengthenedhis native Puritanism and brought him into sympathy with Montanism. Its ascetic and unworldly aspects most About 207 he appealedto him.
Church, which he thenceforth bit died in continuing protest,apparently,as
with the "Catholic"
broke
and terlycriticised, the founder In
a
little sect of his
197 Tertullian
and
fense He
of
was
began
the first ecclesiasticalwriter of His
frequentlyunfair
sistent with himself.
to
But
an
advocate
opponents. he
prominence to
Church
wrote
use
Latin.
in Greek
was
of
a
in the court-room. He
de
lasted till 220.
readable. vivid, satirical,
stylewas
often that of
was
that makes
activityin literary
of Christianitywhich explication
after his time.
method
of
career
the leaders of the Roman
Even
was
a
own-
till HisHe
always con fieryearnestness of spirit was
not
what
he wrote always impressive.He well deserves the title of father of Latin theology. Tertullian own
to
and
was,
based
thoughtwas some
extent
quite as
no primarily,
on
that
speculativetheologian.His of the Apologists, and Irenseus,
other bearers of the tradition of Asia Minor, much Stoic teachingand legalconceptions. on on
*.,5: 33'; Ayer,
p. 26.
TERTULLIAN'S
68
had the Roman
He
THEOLOGY and
of order
sense
authority. All that he
touched, however, he formulated with the clearness of defini tion of a trained judicialmind, and hence he gave precision, had before him, to many as none theological conceptionsthat heretofore
had
been
vaguely apprehended. a Christianitywas great divine foolishness, wisdom wiser than the highestphilosophical of men, and in to be squared with no existingphilosophicalsystems.1 way it largelythrough Stoic spectacles. In realityhe looked upon It is based on Christianityis primarilyknowledge of God. soul by nature Christian" 2 and "the reason authority. That authorityis seated in the church, and only in the ortho dox church, which alone has the truth, expressedin the creed, and alone has a rightto use the Scriptures.3As with Irenseus, Tertullian
For
"
"
those that agree in faith with those founded by the Apostles,wherein the apostolictradition has been maintained by the succession of bishops.4 These are these
valid churches
of the still "Catholic"
utterances
and
are
Gentile
common
Christianityof
Christianityfor Tertullian is law and the preached the new heaven."5
Admission
previous sins are that by washing
Tertullian.
to
removed.
a
free into eternal life."
with Justin
second
"Jesus
century,
Christ .
.
.
promises of the kingdom of the church is by baptism, by which new
It is "our
Those
6
law.
new
the sins of
away
the
As
of water, in
earlyblindness
our
who
sacrament
we
have received it are
are
set
thence
forth "competitorsfor salvation in earning the favor of God."7 of sin than Tertullian had a deeper sense Christian any writer since Paul, and
his
teachingsgreatlyaided the developconceptionsof sin and grace. Though not
,/ment of the Latin clearlyworked out, and inconsistent sions,Tertullian possesseda doctrine is,then, besides the evil which
with of
supervenes
occasional expres
originalsin.
"There
the soul from
on
the
intervention of the evil spirit, an antecedent, and in a certain 8 But natural evil,which arises from its corrupt origin." sense "the
power
nature." It
9
of the grace of God The of grace nature
evidentlyincluded,however, not 1 4
7 10
Prescription,7. Ibid.,32. Repentance, 6.
Baptism,
10.
2
Apology, 17. 5Ibid., 13. 8 Anima, 41.
is he
more
potent indeed
than
nowhere
fully explains. of sins,"10 only "forgiveness 3 6 9
Prescription,13-19. Baptism, 1. Ibid.,21.
TERTULLIAN'S but also "the
of divine
grace
shown
has
this latter
that
origin.2But much
has
man
to
feeble,but
to
power
free,will.1
conception,of the
utmost
Christendom, is of theology though salvation is thus based on grace, do. Though God forgivesprevioussins at
baptism, satisfaction must
for those committed
be made
The
voluntary sacrifices, chieflyascetic.
after
which
of Western
for the significance
Stoic
69
by inspiration/'
give force to man's
do rightis infused to
Loofs
CHRISTOLOGY
by punisheshimself,the less God Tertullian's most
will
more
a
man
him.3
punish
influential work
there
the definition of the
was
Logos Christology,though he preferredto use the designa tion Son lit rather than Logos. If he advanced its content tle beyond what had already been presented by the theolo his legal gians of Asia Minor, and especially by the Apologists, mind gave a clearness to its explanationsuch as had not be fore existed. tanist
Here
his chief work
was
written in his Mon-
one
He defines the Godhead in period Against Praxeas. which almost anticipatethe Nicene result of more than terms of one, by unity of substance; a century later. "All are while the mystery of the dispensationis still guarded which distributes the unity into a Trinity,placing in their order the three, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; three, "
however .
.
not
in
in appearance,
but
and
essence
whom der
.
these the
one
for
they
degrees and
forms
in
of
are
inasmuch
power,
of the
name
but
substance
form
not
substance
one
is
He
as
;
in power and
God
one
one
from
and
Father, and
aspects are reckoned un of the Son, and of the Holy
Spirit."4 He describes these distinctions of the Godhead as the in word not the our "persons,"5meaning by sense usage of personalities, but forms of manifestation. This unity of ^ubstancein Tertullian's thought is material,for he was suffi for spirit has cientlya Stoic to hold that God is a body 6 of its own kind." With similar precision, a bodilysubstance a Tertullian and divine in distinguishedbetween the human "
...
Christ.
joinedin and 1 2 3 6
"We one
Spirit
are
see
His
person,
derived
Patience, 1. Studium Leitfaden zum Repentance, 2, 9. Ibid.,7.
double
Jesus, God from
der
state, not and
the Father
intermixed
man."
7
con
Since both Son
by emanation, both
Dogrnengeschichte,p. 164. * Praxeas, 2. Ibid.,27. '
but
5
are
Ibid.,12.
DOCTRINE
CYPRIAN'S
70
subordinate
to
Him.1
OF
This
far
the
more
work
CHURCH
doctrine of subordination,already
taught in the Apologists,was Logos Christologytillthe time were
THE
of
remain
to
characteristic
of the
of
Augustine. These definitions lawyer-like, judicialinterpreta
a
As the first, also, philosophicalconsideration. subto such expressionsas to give technical usage trinitas, meritum, Tertullian left his stantia,sacramentwn, satisfacere, permanent impress on Latin theology. the intellectual heir of Tertul Cyprian was, in many ways, he called master. Born lian, whom probably in Carthage, of wealth about 200, he spent all his life in that city. A man
tion, than
of
education, he
and
246 he
About
distinction
won
converted
was
later
of rhetoric.
teacher
a
Christian
to the
chosen
as
faith,and
two
or
the
bishopricof Carthage. and much Here he showed high executive ability, practical good without the touch of genius that and kindliness of spirit sense characterized Tertullian. The persecutionof 250 he escaped by flight ; but in that of 258 he stood boldly forth and suffered as a martyr by beheading. Few leaders of the ancient church have been more highlyregarded by subsequent ages. In Cyprian'steaching the tendencies illustrated in the de velopment of the "Catholic" Church received their full expres church is the one visible orthodox community of sion. The
three
years
Christians. is
by
not
who
a
has not
vation out of its
3
"
He
the
and
2
is not no
5
ye
the church
ought
there the
upon
he may be and in the church of Christ is
longerhave
The
and
"Whoever
for his mother."
the church
bishops,"whence
with
can
of the church."
in the church not
Christ is one, chair (episcopate) founded
be, he who
he may
Christian."
God, and
one
one
to
of the Lord."
the word
whatever
is
"There
church, and
one
rock
was
church to
in the
for his
God
4
"There
is based
know
bishop;
on
is
Father, sal
no
the unity
the bishop is
that and
if any
one 6
he is not in the church." part of which is held by each
bishop,that
be
"The
in one episcopateis one, each 7 its entirety." This last quotation has its bearing on a con troversy stillalive as to whether Cyprian regarded all bishops as equal sharers in a common episcopalauthority,the posses of the bishop sion of each and of all; or held to the superiority 1 4
7
2 Praxeas, 7, 9. Letters,39-435. 5 Unity of the Church, 6. Letters,72-7321. Unity of the Church,5 ; Ayer, p. 242.
3 6
Ibid.,51-5524. Ibid.,G8-668.
its
from and
MONARCHIANS
DYNAMIC
THE
72
teachings,went
its doctrine of the
far
so
rejectthe fourth Gospel these "Alogoi," as Epiph-
to
as
Of
Logos.
later,nicknamed them, little is (?-403), writing much but some of the criticsof the Logos Christology in detail,
anius known
into
prominence were apparentlyinfluenced by To these opponents in generalthe name Monarchians them. is usuallygiven a title coined by Tertullian1 since they as fell into two very The Monarchians serted the unity of God. who
came
now
"
unlike
"
classes,those who so-called
by adoption,the who
held that Christ
tion of the
was
that Jesus
held
Dynamic but
the Son
was
Monarchians;
temporary form
a
of God
and
those
of manifesta
the Modalistic Mo God, the party known as Thus, with the supporters of the Logos view, three
one
narchians.
contestingin
were Christologies
third century. The first Dynamic Monarchian
Rome of
at
the
beginningof
prominencewas
called the currier, or tanner, from and is said to have been learning,
the
Theodotus,
wa's a man of Byzantium. of the Alogoi,though, a disciple the fourth Gospel. unlike them, he accepted in some sense About there taught that Jesus was 190 he came to Rome, and born of the Virgin,of holy life, whom the divine a man, upon Christ (or the Holy Spirit)descended at His baptism. Some followers denied to Jesus any title to divinity of Theodotus's ; but
others held that He
resurrection.2
He
in
became
is reminded
One
some
divine at His
sense
of the
Christologyof Hermas excommunicated was (Ante, p. 39). Theodotus by Bishop Vic continued by tor of Rome (189-198) ; but his work there was like their Theodotus, "the money-changer," and Asclepiodorus, master, probably from the Orient ; but their effort to found a rival communion
little. The was
that
outside the "Catholic"
Church
amounted
to
last attempt to present a similar theology in Rome of a certain Artemon (230-40-270), but Dynamic
Monarchianism
in the
West
undoubtedly representeda
already moribund. type of Christologythat
Yet
was
was
it one
of the oldest in the Christian Church. The
Monarchian
Dynamic
in the East. persistent
tative in Paul
bishop of
of
Antioch
party
There
it had
was
its most
Samosata, the able from
c.
260
to
stronger and
272.
famous
and
more
represen
politically gifted He representedthe
1
Praxeas, 3,
2
Hippolytus, Refutation,723,1019; Ayer,
10. p. 172.
THE
MONARCHIANS
MODALISTIC
Logos, which
he also described
sonal attribute of the Father.
of
the Son
as
This
the prophets. Jesus was a man, of the Virgin,who was filled with and
73
God,
as
an
imper
Logos had inspiredMoses unique in that He was born of God, i. e., by the power
God's
united Jesus was Logos. By this indwelling inspiration in in will by lovte to God, but did not become substance one with God. That union is moral, but inseparable.By reason of it Christ was raised from the dead, and given a kind of dele gated divinity. Between 264 and 269 three synods considered Paul of Samosata's views, by the last of which he was excom municated ; but he kept his place tilldriven out by the Em peror Aurelian (p. 106). Much than the Dynamic Monarchians more numerous were the Modalistic Monarchians, who made an appeal to the many for the reason alreadyquoted from Tertullian (ante,p. 71), that in the presence of heathen polytheism,the unity of God seemed a prime article of the Christian faith,and any Logos concep tion or Dynamic Monarchianism seemed denial of to them a that unity. Cyprian coined for these Modalistic Monarchians the nickname Patripassians.1The leader of Modalistic Mo like that of Dynamic narchianism Monarchianism, an was, Oriental Christian,Noetus, probably of Smyrna. The same controversies in Asia Minor
may
called forth both in
well have
that he taught terpretations.Of N-oetus littleis known save in his native regionin the period-180 to 200, "that Christ was
the Father
Himself, and that the Father
suffered and about
190, by
opponent a
died."
said
"
:
a
always
did two
a
born and
follower of Noetus
defender
works
was
transplantedto Rome,
were
of the
and
an
Tertullian,then
Montanists, regardingwhom
and
Praxeas
views
certain Praxeas,
a
of the
Montanist
These
Himself
Logos Christology,
of the devil in Rome.
He drove
prophecy and introduced heresy. He put to flightthe Holy Spiritand crucified the Father." 3 A littlelater two other of Noetus, Epigonus and Cleomenes, came to Rome disciples and won, in largemeasure, the sympathy of Bishop Zephyrinus (198-217) for the Modalistic Monarchian position. out
The became
noted
most
leader of the Modalistic
permanently associated with 1 2
3
Letters,72-7S4. Hippolytus, Against Noetus, Praxeas, 1 ; Ayer, p. 179.
this
1 ;
Ay
school,whose was Christology,
or, p.
177.
name
Sa-
74
AND
SABELLIUS
HIPPOLYTUS
of whose bellius,
earlylifelittleis known, but who was teaching about 215. His theologywas that of Noein Rome essentially in that more carefullywrought out, especially tus, but much it gave a definite place to the Holy Spiritas well as to the Son. Father, Son, and Holy Spiritare all one and the same. is a prosopon Each TrpdswTrov(a word of largelater ortho "
"
use),that is a character or form of manifestation,of the God, who showed Himself in His character of creator as one the Father, in that of redeemer as the Son, and now the as at Rome, Holy Spirit. Sabellius, though soon excommunicated found for in the his views East, especiallyin largefollowing dox
and
Libya. Nor was the development of what
Egypt
he without
considerable influence
became
the orthodox
of the Logos
at Christology
Christology. His absolute identification of Father, Son, and Holy Spiritwas rejected;but it implied an equalitywhich ultimately,as in Augustine,triumphed over the subordination of Son and Spirit characteristic of the Logos Christologyboth of Tertullian and on
Athanasius. The
in Rome
great advocate
this
juncture
Hippolytus (160-170 c. 235), the most learned Christian writer then in the city,and the last considerable theologianthere to use Greek rather than Latin as his vehicle of expression. As a commentator, chronicler,calculator of Easter
was
"
and dates,Apologist,
opponent
of
heretics,he
was
held
in such
high repute that his followers erected after his death the earliest Christian portrait statue known. He opposed of both schools. The vigorously the Monarchians fight in waxed Rome hot. Bishop Zephyrinus (198-217) hardly knew side. what to do, though he leaned toward the Monarchian On his death he was succeeded 217-222), by Kallistos (Calixtus, had yet and that the most assertive Rome energetic bishop who had been born a slave,had engaged unsuc man seen a in banking, and had, for a time, been a sufferer for his cessfully Christian faith in the mines of Sardinia. Over Zephyrinus he of the attainment acquired great influence,and on his own issued in his own certain regulations to the as bishopric, name "
readmission
to the
church
of those
repentant of sins of licen
tiousness,which show higherecclesiasticalclaims than any here tofore advanced by a Roman bishop (seep. 101). Kallistos saw He there that these disputeswere Church. hurtingthe Roman Sabellius (c.217),and charged Hippolytus fore excommunicated
OF
VICTORY
LOGOS
THE
with
beinga worshipperof
with
Kallistos,on
and cipline,
this
became
g" ds.1
two
ground
the head
CHRISTOLOGY
and of
on a
75
Hippolytusnow broke questionsregardingdis
rival communion
in Rome
"counter-pope" a positionwhich he maintained tillhis banishment in the persecutionof 235. Kallistos tried to find a compromise formula in this Chrisconfusion. Father, Son and Logos, he held, are all tological ;of "one indivisible spirit."Yet Son is also the proper names Jesus ; while the Father designationof that which was visible, the spirit in Him. This presence of the Father in Jesus was is"the Logos. Kallistos was positivethat the Father did not suffer on the cross, but suffered with the sufferings of the Son, "the
first
"
Jesus; yet the Father "after He had taken unto Himself our flesh,raised it to the nature of deity,by bringingit into union with Himself, and made it one, so that Father and Son must be styledone This is,indeed, far from logical God."5 clear. or One
blame
Hippolytus or Sabellius for not likingit. Yet it was a compromise which recognizeda pre-existent Logos if it identified that Logos with the Father; in Christ, even it insisted on the identityof that which indwelt Jesus with God ; and it claimed a human Jesus, raised to divinity by the Father, and made one with Him, thus reallyshowing a distinc cannot
tion between that
the Father
and
the
Son, while denying in words exists. This compromise won the majority in Rome,
one
and
opened the door for the full victoryof the Logos Chris determined tology there. That victory was by the able ex positionof that Christologywhich came at the turning-point in this conflict
(213-218) from the pen of Tertullian of Car Against Praxeas (see ante, p. 69), with its clear defini
thage "
tions of
a
Trinityin three
the divine and
human
persons
and of
a
distinction between
in Christ.
How
its way in Western completely this Christologywon Christendom is shown by the treatise on the Trinity, written by the Roman presbyter,Novatian, between 240 and 250. That eminent to
scholar
Latin
was
the first in the local Roman
rather than Greek.
His
communion
quarrelwith the dominant party in the church will be described later (p. 102). Novatian did littlemore than reproduceand expand Tertullian's views. But it is important that he treated this exposition the only as normal and legitimate of the "rule of truth"" the interpretation use
1
Hippolytus,Refutation,96.
VICTORY
76
OF
THE
CHRISTOLOGY
/LOGOS
That syubol had been silent regardingthe "Apostles'Creed." the Logos Christologyis its Logos Christology. To No^atian Father and Son a "communion only proper meaning. Between of substance" exists.1 The Latin equivalentof the later famous
Homoousion
Nicene before
o^oovcriov
"
has
Novatian
250.
social
a
even
in Rome
therefore current
was
"
Trinity.
Comment
1030,"I and the Father are one," he declares that Christ "said one thing (unum). Let the heretics understand John
ing on
did not
that He
the
intimates
valuable
most
say
social
one
placed in the neuter the personalunity." The is that he emphasized what
For
person.
concord,
thing in
not
Novatian
one
in all this involved
the heart of the conviction of the church
was
and fully God Christological controversy, that Christ was bishop, Finally,about 262, the Roman equally fullyman.3 Dionysius (259-268), writingagainstthe Sabellians,expressed the Logos Christologyin terms more nearly approximatingto what
other third-
decision of 325 than any theologian.4Thus the West had reached to be the Nicene
was
century with the result readily harmonizable sixtyyears before that great council. such uniformity. no SECTION
Alexandria
was,
of the ancient
IX.
for
THE
Nicsea,
The
ALEXANDRIAN
had
East
than
more
attained
SCHOOL
six centuries,the second
than
more
at
conclusions
world, surpassedonly by Rome,
and
later
by
city Con
in importance. Founded by Alexander the Great stantinople, in B. C. 332, it was primarilya trading community, and as
such, attracted numbers life was
less remarkable.
no
and
of Greeks Its
Its intellectual
Jews.
librarywas
famous
the most
There Greek empire. In its streets East and West met. philosophy entered into association,or competed in rivalry, in the
with Judaism
and
many
cults,while the influence
other Oriental
Egyptian thought persisted. It There cosmopolitancityof the ancient world. ancient
of
ment
was
Judaism to
was
translated in terms
into
Greek, and
of Hellenic
our
1
Trinity,31. Ibid.,11, 24.
2 4
era.
into
Ibid.,27. Athanasius,
In
most
Testa
reinterpreted
Neo-Platonism
philosophy. There
arise in the third century of
the
the Old
there Philo
tion of Christianity into Alexandria, or 3
was
Of the introduc
Egypt generally, De
Decretis,26.
ALEXANDRIAN
THE
nothing is known, veil of silence rooted there.
77
early,since when the lifted Christianity was evidentlystrongly Gnostic, Basilides,taught in Alexandria in
hut
was
The
reignof Hadrian
the
SCHOOL
it must
have
been
(117-138). There
the various
philosoph
ical systems had their "schools/'where instruction could be and it was but natural that Christian obtained by all inquirers, teachers
imitate this
should
good example, though
appear that the beginningsof this work authorities. the Alexandrian Church
By about
185
andria, then
a
famous
under
the
independentof
were
catechetical school of leadership
existed in Alex
converted
a
it would
Stoic
phi
Whether it originatedwith him, or what losopher,Pantsenus. his own have been, it is impossible theologicalpositionmay to
determine.
With
Clement
of Alexandria
it pupil and successor, of religious development
tsenus's course
differed from
regions the
that in Asia Minor with
contest
philosophysuch
(?-c. 215), Pan-
into the
comes
in Alexandria and
Gnosticism
light. The had evidently
the West. had
In the latter
bred
distrust of
a
that Tertullian could declare that there
was
it and Christianity.That possibleconnection between contest had, also,immensely strengthenedthe appeal to apos tolical tradition and consolidated organization. In Alexandria no
these characteristics of the "Old
while [developed, jfully
philosophywas
"/sistent but with Christianity, of what
was
best in ancient
as
of Alexandria
Church
had
regarded not
its handmaid.
not
incon-
as
Here
so
a
union
philosophy,chieflyPlatonism and else realized in degree nowhere
effected to a Stoicism, was orthodox circles,and the result Clement
Catholic"
was
a
Christian
Gnosticism.
At the typicalof this movement. time he was same a presbyterin the Alexandrian Church, thus between the church and the school. servingas a connecting-link The more important of the works of Clement which have survived are three : his Exhortation to the Heathen, an apologetic treatise,giving incidentallyno little information as to the mystery religions;his Instructor,the first treatise on Chris tian
conduct, and
customs
tion of
an
was
invaluable mine
of the age ; and
his
of information
as
to
the
Stromata, or Miscellanies, a collec
profound thoughts on religionand theology,arranged without much regard to system. Throughout he shows the mind of a highly trained and widely read thinker. Clement would interpretChristianityas Philo did Judaism, by phi-
losophy,into
ALEXANDRIA
OF
CLEMENT
78
scientificdogmatics. To
him, as
Justin,whom
to
surpassed in clearness of intellectual grasp, the divine and of all the intelligence Logos has always been the source the teacher of mankind race morality of the human every who where. Our instructor is the holy God, Jesus, the Word l of all true He was the source is the guide of all humanity." of all good things; but of some philosophy. God is the cause he
far
"
"
"
of the Old
as primarily,
and
the New
Testament
of others
; and
of
philosophy. Perchance, too, philosophy directlyand primarily,tillthe Lord was given For this was should call the Greeks. schoolmaster to bring a by
as
consequence,
to the
Greeks
the Hellenic mind, as the law the Hebrews, to Christ." This trainingof humanity by the Logos has been, therefore, education. So it is,also,in the church. Faith," a progressive "
is enough simple,traditional Christianity,
that is the
but
who
man
possession.3He hath and
shall be to
for salvation ;
his faith "knowledge," has a higher is the true, Christian Gnostic. him that "To adds
given ;
to
to
love, the inheritance."
knowledge leads a good it necessarilyinvolves "
knowledge, love highest good to which
faith,knowledge ; 4
The
to
;
greater than the salvation which
even
"Could knowledge of God. then suppose proposing to the Gnostic whether he we any one would choose the knowledge of God or everlasting salvation; and if these, which are entirelyidentical,were separable,he would without the least hesitation choose the knowledge of God." 5 That highest good brings with it an almost Stoic absence of feeling, either of pleasureor of pain a condition of "
is the
"
in which
blessedness
believes
Clement
Christ
stood, and
to
Apostles attained through His teaching.6 One can readilycomprehend that Clement, like Justin, had no real The interest in the earthlylifeof Jesus. Logos then became
which
the
incarnate,indeed, but Clement's view of Christ's life is almost than that of any teacher of orthodox Docetic, certainly more so
standing in the church of Clement wrought out That and
to
was successor
school
"
be
the
task
in the
Origen.
no
own
day. complete theologicalsystem.
of his
headship of
Born
Alexandria, between
his
of
1
Instructor,I7.
2
4
Ibid.,710.
5
celebrated
the Alexandrian
Christian
182 and
more
even
parentage,
185, Origen grew
Stromata, I5; Ayer, Ibid.,422.
p. 190.
up
pupil
catechetical
probably
in
there into 3
6
Ibid.,I6. Ibid.,69.
a
ORIGEN'S
80
THEOLOGY
Tyre, probably in 251 (254?) as a consequence of purer spirit of the cruelties he had undergone. No man or the historyof the ancient church. nobler aims ornaments of many-sided scholarship.The field to man a Origen was in Csesarea
which
or
devoted
he
most
attention
that
was
of Biblical text-
his exegesis. Here his chief productions were and four parallel monumental Hexapla, giving the Hebrew Greek translations of the Old Testament; and a long series of and briefer notes commentaries treating nearly the entire the most valuable work that had of Scripture. It was range yet been done by any Christian scholar. In the field of thewritten before 231, was not merely the \/)logyhis De Principiis, but its first great systematic presentationof Christianity, thenceforth controlled Greek dogmatic thoughts and methods 246 and development. His Against Celsus, written between that heathen 248, in replyto the ablest criticism of Christianity ism had produced that of the Platonist Celsus (c.177) was the keenest and most convincingdefense of the Christian faith that the ancient world brought forth,and one fullyworthy of
criticism and
"
"
the
v
greatness of the controversy.
Besides
these
monumental
undertakings he found time for the discussion of practical Christian themes, such as prayer and martyrdom, and for the His was indeed a life of un sermons. preparationof many wearied industry. In Origen the process was complete which had long been of Hellenic thinking. interpretingChristian truths in terms He gave to the Christian system the fullest scientific standing, almost entirely tested by the science of that age, which was as comprised in philosophy and ethics. His philosophicstand Platonic and Stoic,with a decided leaning pointwas essentially toward positionssimilar to those of the risingNeo-Platonism, the lectures of whose founder, Ammonius Saccas, he is said to he sought to bring have heard.1 These philosophicprinciples fellow into harmony with the Scriptures, his great Hebrew as of Philo, had done, by allegorical interpretation townsman, All normal the Bible. Scripture,he held, has a threefold be edified by the 'flesh' as meaning. "The simple man may of the Scriptures, the obvious sense it were for so we name' ; edified while he who be has ascended certain way a by may the soul as it were receive edifithe man perfect ; may '
'
.
iEusebius, Church
.
.
History, 6: 196.
THEOLOGY
OUIGEX'S
the spiritual law, which
cation from
things to so spirit,
For
come.
in the
same
way
system enabled
Origen to Scriptures.
the
As
a
"which
posited that
for his
differs in
tradition." apostolical
and
tional
of
Lord
our
ecclesiastical
respect from
no
These
"in
tradi
of
fundamentals
the
God
one
.
Christ, [who] Himself
Jesus
good
soul and
and
theological system, Origen
Christianityinclude belief (1)
Father
of
shadow
a
body does Scripture."1 This allegorical read practically what he wished into
foundation
necessary
has
consists of
man
as
81
.
.
the
gave
law
of the the prophets and the Gospels,being also the God Apostlesand of the Old and New Testaments" ; (2) "that Jesus and
Christ Himself .
.
became .
a
.
while made born of
a
.
a
.
wards and
and and
incarnate
was
remained
man
.
Father
and
man,
Virgin did trulydie the Holy Spiritwas .
born of the Father
was
.
.
.
.
.
which
truly born and did trulyrise from
associated in honor
the Son"
although God, and He
did
was
.
.
the God
before all creatures
was
.
.
truly suffer
the dead"
and
.
;
was
and
(3) "that
dignitywith the
(4) in the resurrection and in future re punishments ; (5) in free will ; (6) in the existence
of opposition
;
angels; (7) that the world in time and will "be destroyed on made of its account was wickedness" written by the Spirit were ; (8) "that the Scriptures of God that there are certain angels of God, and cer ; (9) tain good influences which are His servants in accomplishingthe "
the devil and
his
"
salvation
of men."
tians,learned
3
These
essential beliefs for all Chris
are
unlearned, as taught by the church; and
and
on
them
Origen proceeded to erect his mighty fabric of systematic for him who would theology that explanationof Christianity add to his faith knowledge. Origen'sconception of the universe was strongly Platonic. The real world is the spiritual realitybehind this temporary, In that world great transactions phenomenal, visible world. have had their place. There, as with Plato, our existed. spirits "
There
sin firstentered.
will return. all. From
Him
the sun."
1
De
3
All ibid.
we
and thither the redeemed fell,
is the God, the uncreated,perfectSpirit,
the Son is eternally generated.
is as eternal and from
There
as everlasting 4
Principiis,4 4
Yet
Christ
the
111 ;
His
which brilliancy
is "a
Ayer, pp. 200, 201. De Principiis,1 : 24.
:
"
second
God."
2
De
5
Celsus,539.
source
of
generation is
produced
5
a
"crea-
Principiis,Preface.
ORIGEN'S
82
ture."
Christ's
Loofs has
as position,
the
by Origen as
THEOLOGY
same
the Neo-Platonic
that of the
as
"
"
is the "mediator''
He
system.
pointed out, was viewed nous mind, thought in between
God
His world
and
of creatures, the being through whom they were of these is the creatures Highest Holy Spirit,whom
made.
reckons
Origen
the
to
tion,but for whom
Godhead, by
he has
of
reason
churchly tradi
necessityin his system. All spiritual of men, made beings,includingthe spirits were world. "He by God, through the Son, in the true spiritual than had no other reason for creatingthem of account on 1 Himself, i. e. His own goodness." All were good,though their "an accidental and perisha goodness,unlike that of God, was ble quality."2 All had free will. Hence fell by sin in some the invisible spiritual It was world. as a placeof punishment and of reform that God created this visible universe,placing fallen spirits therein in proportionto the heinousness of their sins. The least sinful are angelsand have as bodies the stars. of greater sinfulness
Those
animal
souls,also,and
kind.
The
worst
Salvation
unitingwith existence and
a
at the
was
given
the
but
divine.3
resurrection and
glory of His
sinned in
here
Christ
divinity,and
there
Him
not
by its previous man,
God
was
and
ascension Christ's
transformation
That
"From
3. disciple
Logos-Son becoming
While
body.
pure
; but
man
the
soul that had
human
a
on
demons, led by the devil himself.
wrought by
was
the face of the earth, with bodies. They constitute man
are
mortal the
are
real
no
Christ
began the
is
no
humanity longer human
effects for all His union
of the divine
with the human
nature, in order that the human, by commu nion with the divine,might rise to be divine,not in Jesus alone, but in all those who which since
very
good ple.5 He a
4
6
with
of the human was
He
sacrificialcharacter
it in interpreted
consistent
ransom
demons.7 1
only believe but enter upon the life than Origen, more theologian any
taught." Paul, emphasized the
the
was
4
Jesus
death ; but he not
not
many
ways,
of which
Christ suffered what
others.
were "
was
for
and an exam representative in some He to God. sense a propitiatory offering paid to the powers of evil.6 He conquered the frustrated their expectation that they could hold race"
as
a
2 Ibid.,1 : 62. Principtis,2 : 96. 5 Ibid,,717 ; Ayer, Ibid.,32". Com. on Matt., 1228,168; Ayer, p. 197,
De
some
Christ's
of
3
Celsus, 341.
p. 197. 7
Com.
on
John,
637.
THEOLOGY
ORIGEN'S
by the bonds
Him end.1
Those
death
into
and
of death
of mankind
who
with
brought their kingdom His
are
to
an
received
are disciples
at
Paradise; the evil find their place in hell. Yet,
not only all men, ultimately,
him
83
will be
saved.2
but
the devil and
even
all
spirits
will be the restoration of all
This
will be all in all.
things,when God r structure Origen's theological of the
achievement
ante-Nicene
Church.
in the Orient. foundly all after-thinking how he could be quoted on either side in and controversies,
thodoxy, how
he
to came
greatest intellectual
is the
It influenced
pro
it is easy to see the later Christological Yet
understand, in the lightof a later rigid or whose views to be regarded as a heretic,
by a synod in his native Alexandria in 399 or 400, by the Emperor Justinian in 443, and by the Fifth General His work was Council in 553. professedlyfor the learned,not condemned
were
for the
it
ence
Christian.
common
strange to
seems
scientific
Clement
its science is not
Because
it gave
But
us.
as
Christianityfull the particular,
In standingin that age. and Origen greatlyadvanced
as
sci
to
the
in the Orient, though Sabell Logos Christology there,and an adoptionistChristoload wide-spread in the bishopof Antioch,Paul nent representative
late
our
an
of
emi
Samosata,
272.
Yet
Origen was
which
he lived.
without
not
Of
serious criticsin the century in
these the
important, theologically, in Lycia, who died about
most
Methodius, bishop of CMfcws, 311. of Asia Minor, Metho Taking his stand on t^padition dius denied Origen'sdoctrines of the soul's pre-existence and imprisonment in this world, and affirmed the resurrection of
was
the
body.
In
SECTION
The
X.
the death
back
much
1
AND
STATE
army
and
empire,and Com.
on
180
FROM
Empire
with
TO
Origen.
260
is usuallyreckoned
Aurelius (180),though its causes Population was diminishing. Trade
fettered
was
compared
of Marcus
further.
industry were passed more the
CHURCH
to be
not
was
visible decline of the Roman
from
The
he ability
more
by heavy
from the hands
largelyrecruited even
Matt., 139.
taxation.
from
The
De
classes.
outlyingprovincesof
from tribes beyond its borders. 2
leadership
of the cultivated the
go
and
Principiis,1
:
From
6l-";Ayer,
p.
the 198.
DECLINE
84
death
OF
GROWTH
OF
CHURCH
(192),it dictated the choice of Emperors,
of Commodus
who, in general,were type of Grseco-Roman whole
EMPIRE,
administrative
very
far from
had
culture,as
machinery
representingthe higher the
Antonines.
The
of the
empire was increasingly and the defense of its borders inadequate. From inefficient, tillthe a military point of view, conditions grew steadilyworse time of Aurelian (270-275), and were hardly securelybettered
tillthat of Diocletian erable pause
(284-305). In other respects no
achieved
in the decline.
Yet
consid
this
periodwas of increasingfeelingof popular unity in the empire. also one the races The lines of distinction between were breakingdown. extended In 212 the Roman was citizenship by Caracalla,not wholly from disinterested motives, to all free inhabitants of the all,from a religious point of view, the close empire. Above of the second
was
and
the whole
of the third centuries
were
an
age
in which syncretism,a period of deepening religious feeling, of the Orient and the mystery religions Christianityalso of their adrapid increase in the number ma^^^xceedingly of
"
the church ^(PPgro^Mpf To
near
beyond
the^KTseof those whose
was
"
extensive
as
well
as
intensive.
the second
century it had penetrated little ordinarytongue was Greek. By the dawn
of the third century the church was rapidlyadvancing in Latinslowly,in Spain and speaking North Africa and, though more
reaching toward, if it had not already arrived in, Britain. In Egypt Christiai^k was now penetrating the while by 19(JBBas well represented native population, in SyriacThe church also reaching more exten was speaking Edessa. into the higher classes of society. It was sivelythan earlier being better understood ; and though Tertullian shows that and gross immorality the old popular slanders of cannibalism stillprevalentin 197,1as the third century went on were they much doubtless have to decreased, seem through growing ac with the real of significance Christianity. quaintance The relations of the state to the church during the period most from 180 to 260 were various,depending on the will of the several Emperors, but, on the whole, such as to aid rather hinder its growth till the last decade of this period. condemned. It had no Christianitywas right to it enjoyed a considerable degree of toleraexiM2 Practically, Gaul, and
Apology,7.
2
Tertullian, Apology, 4.
THE
tion
OF
ATTITUDE
during most
of this
THE
epoch. The
EMPERORS
persecutionwhich
85 had
into the reignof Aurelius continued begun under Marcus Commodus, but he soon neglectedthe church as he did afoul ev pleasures. This rest erythingelse not connected with his own continued tillwell into the reignof SeptimiusSeverus (193-211); of considerable severity, broken in 202 by a persecution but was in Carthage and Egypt. Under Caracalla (211-217), especially persecutionagain raged in North Africa. Elagabalus (218222), though an ardent supporter of sun-worship,was disposed not to a syncretismwhich was openly hostile to Christianity. Alexander favorable. A synSeverus (222-235) was distinctly cretist who would unite many he placed a bust of religions, Christ in his privatechapel along with images of leaders of other faiths; while his mother, Julia Mamsea, under whose in fluence he stood, heard lectures by Origen. He even decided should a dispute as to whether a piece of property in Rome be used by its Christian claimants, doubtless as a place of worship, or by their opponents as a cook-shop, in favor of the Christians. A change of policy came under Maximinus edict against the Christians was is an (235-238), by whom sued, which, though not extensivelyenforced, thrust both the "Catholic" bishop, Pontianus, and his schismatic rival Hipinto the cruel slaveryof the mines, where polytus from Rome they soon lost their lives. In eastern Asia Minor and Palestine this persecutionmade Gordian itself felt. Under (238-244) and till near the end of the reign of Philipthe Arabian (244outbreak 249) the church had rest. For that new Philipwas in no declared rumor responsible.Indeed, an erroneous way him to be secretlya Christian. The number of martyrs in these persecutionswas not large,as Origen testified, writing between and and 246 these outbreaks 248,1 local,if at were times of considerably extent. Though Christians were deprived of all legalprotecting, the average believer must have thought that the conditioi^^f the church was approaching practical safety. This growing feelingof securitywas rudely dispelled.The the celebration of the^thousandth / anniversaryof year 248 saw the founding of Rome. It was time of revival of ancient ^ a traditions and of the memories of former splendors. The em attack or torn threatened by barbarian never pire was more been
1
Celsus,38.
THE
86
PERSECUTION
DECIAN
by internal disputes. The populace attributed these troubles attack broke to the cessation of persecution.1A fierce mob before the death of Philipthe Arabian. To out in Alexandria observant the more heathens the growth of a rigidly organized within the church well that of a state seem might state, the more dangerous that Christians stilllargelyrefused army ser vice or the duties of publicoffice.2 Nearer at hand lay the had grown plausible, though fallacious, argument that as Rome their worshipped by all,so now great when the old gods were their rejectionby a portion of the populationhad cost Rome aid, and This
had
caused
calamities evident
apparently the feelingof the
was
(249-251), and of Decius
whom
the
a
conservative
new
Decius
Emperor, The
result
initiated the first universal and
edict of 250, which
hand.
every
noble,Valerian, with
Roman
intimatelyassociated.
was
on
was
the
systematic
persecutionof Christianity. Decian The persecutionwas by far the worst trial that the because it church as a whole had undergone the more severe had principle and determination behind it. The aim was not and cruel numerous primarilyto take life,though there were martyrdoms, but rather to compel Christians by torture, im prisonment,or fear to sacrifice to the old gods. Bishops Fa and Babylas of Antioch died as martyrs. bian of Rome Origen "
and
hosts of others
tortured.
were
The
number
of these "con
of the the number So, also, was "lapsed" that is,of those who, through fear or torture, sac rificed,burned incense,or procured certificates from friendly
fessors"
was
very
great.
"
they had prescribedby the state.3 Many venal
or
secution mission a
officialsthat
was
over,
returned
to the church.
The
long,enduring schism
(see p. 101). Fierce Valerian
and
what
milder
was
form
as
soon
to
duly worshippedin the form of these lapsed,when the per seek in bitter penitence read-
questionof
caused
their treatment
trouble elsewhere in Rome, and much under Decius it was, the persecution over;
but
only to be renewed
in
some
Gallus
(251-253). In 253 Decius's old associate in persecution, Valerian,obtained possessionof the empire (253-260). Though he at first left the Christians undisturbed, in 257 and 258 he renewed the at tack 1 3
with greater
by
Decius's
successor,
ferocity.Christian assemblies
Origen, Celsus, 316 ; Ayer, p. 206, Ayer, p. 210, for specimens,
2
were
forbid-
Origen, Celsus,873- 76.
a
rather
tradition
Montanism,
which
and
apostolicages, now
POWER
GROWING
88
than
other
among
might a
BISHOPS
THE
OF
possessedby vital reality.The be
causes,
led such
had
any
one,
contest
claims
to
were
with be
re
tradition,however, remained, suspicion. The but it was rapidlychanging into a theory of officialendowment. the official possessionof the clergy, These now "gifts" were the divinelyap of the bishops. The bishops were especially pointed guardians of the deposit of the faith,and therefore the could determine what those who was heresy. They were of constantlyincreasingimpor leaders of worship a matter with the growing conviction,wide-spreadby the beginning tance of the third century, that the ministry is a priesthood. They officers of the congregation though their the disciplinary were authorityin this respect was not firmlyfixed able to say when
garded
with
"
"
"
excommunication
the sinner needed
cient repentance for restoration. Cyprian of Carthage, about 250 of the church
and As
when
given
he showed full
suffi
expressionby
(ante,p. 70), the foundation
is the
unity of the bishops. Christians of a particular The city had been regarded,cer tainlyfrom the beginningof the second century, as constituting a singlecommunity, whether meeting in one congregationor As such they were under the guidance of a single bishop. many. consti civilization was Ancient stronglyurban in its political The tution. adjacent country district looked to its neighbor ing city. Christianityhad been planted in the cities. By in the formed efforts going out from them, congregationswere which came at first into the cityfor their surroundingvillages, have met worship j1but as they grew largermust increasingly Planted by Christians from the cities,they by themselves. immediate under the oversightof the citybishop,whose were thus growing,by the third century, field of superintendence was rural portionsof the East, notably into a diocese. In some weak, Syria and Asia Minor, where cityinfluence was relatively of congregationsdeveloped before the end of country groups the third century, headed by a rural bishop,a chorepiskopos but this system was not of largegrowth,nor XwpeTrio-KOTros the equalsin dignityof their these country bishopsdeemed were The system did not spread to the West at this citybrethren. time, though introduced there in the Middle Ages,only to prove unsatisfactory. "
"
1
Justin,Apology, 67
;
Ayer,
p.
35.
LAITY
AND
CLERGY
89
Cyprian, the episcopatewas a unit, and each bishop a of all its powers, an on equalitywith all other representative in his time this theory was becoming im bishops. Yet even influential practicable.The bishops of the great, politically in dignityover citiesof the epipire were attaininga superiority To
others,which
those of Rome
than
more
even
the rest
were
striv
superiorityof jurisdiction.Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and Ephesus, with Jerusalem of religious sentiment, had an outstandingeminence, by reason ing
to
translate into
a
Besides these greater posts, the bishop of the capitalcityof each province was beginningto be looked Rome
and
most
of all.
in certain superiority to those of lesser towns his region; but the full development of the metropolitandig tillthe fourth century, and earlier in the nity was not to come upon
as
having a
East than in the West.
sharply By the beginning of the third century clergy were the of words Imikis from laity.The technical use distinguished and Ider^s "X%""9 X**/ct5 a gradual development,as was the distinction which they implied. The earliest Christian was employment of the former was by Clement of Rome.1 The lat But /c\i)pos in 1 Peter 53,in wholly untechnical usage. ter occurs for the common and its Latin equivalent, expressions ordo,were of the Roman Em the "orders" of magistratesand dignitaries pire. It is probably from such popular usage that they come letter of the churches of into Christian employment. The Lyons and Vienne, giving a descriptionof the persecutionof Tertullian tc\r)pov.2 177, spoke of the "order" of the martyrs and of "clerical order" "ecclesiastical orders." 3 wrote By if fixed ; even his time the distinction had become practically "
"
"
"
"
Tertullian
himself could
recall,for
earlydoctrine of the priesthoodof laics priests ? 5 we
purposes
all
of argument,
"are believers,4
not
the even
"
by ordination,a rite which certainlygoes back to the earliest days of the church, at least of charismatic gifts, as or a sign of the bestowal separationfor a specialduty.6 The ordinary process of the choice of a nomination a bishop by the middle of the third century was Admission
1
93-97
to
; in 1
3
Monogamy,
5
Compare
6
Acts
clerical office was
Clem., 40. 12.
1 Peter
66, 133; also
25; Rev. 1 Tim.
2
Eusebius, Church
4
Chastity,7.
lfi.
414,522;
2 Tim.
I6.
History, 5
:
I10.
AND
MAJOR
90
MINOR
ORDERS
the presbyters,of the city; by the other clergy,especially the approval of neighboringbishops,and ratification or elec followed at the hands tion by the congregation.1Ordination of episcopalordainof at least one alreadya bishop a number fixed at a normal minimum which had become of three by ers "
of the third century. The control of the choice of the deacons, and lower clergylay in the hand of their presbyters, the end
local
bishop,by
whom
ordained.2
The
Bishop
Fabian
presbyters the bishop'sadvisers. With his consent were they adminis tered the sacraments.3 They preached. As congregations in a city,a presbyterwould be placed in more numerous grew immediate charge of each, and their importance thereby en hanced, from its relative depression, immediately after the rise of the monarchical fixed limit to no episcopate. There was their number. The deacons were immediately responsibleto the bishop,and were of the poor and his assistants in the care other financial concerns, in aidingin the worshipand discipline. They often stood in closer practicalrelations to him than the presbyters. At Rome, the number of the deacons was seven, in remembrance
adopted
the
they
of Acts
65.
were
When
civil division of the
city as
he appointed seven sub-deacons districts, deacons, that the primitivenumber seven Sub-deacons
also existed in
passed. Cyprian, and quitegenerallyat parts of the church there
was
a
no
its fourteen
charity
in addition
might
Carthage
littlelater fixed rule
(236-250)
sur
in the time
period.
as
be
not
the
to
of
In many
to the number
of
deacons.
Bishops, presbyters,and orders.
Below
them
century, the minor
deacons
there stood
constituted
the
major
in the first half of the third
generalabsence of all sta tistical information as to the early church, a letter of Bishop Cornelius of Rome, written about 251, is of high value as Under the single showingconditions in that important church. there were bishop in Rome forty-sixpresbyters and seven deacons. Below to be were soon them, constitutingwhat known the minor orders,were as sub-deacons, forty-two seven and More acolytes, exorcists, readers,and janitors.4 fifty-two orders.
In the
1
Cyprian, Letters,51-558, 66-6S2, 67*.
2
Ibid.,23-29, 33-S95, 34-40, Tertullian,Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Eusebius, Church History, 6 : 4311.
3 4
5.
THE
LESSER
CLERGY
91
than fifteenhundred dependentswere supportedby the church, have included thirtythousand which adherents. Some may of these offices
continued
Exorcists
be
to
so
viewed
officers. By prc/perly
there
er's office was
byter.*
ancient
origin. Those of readers originallybeen regarded as charismatic.
exorcists had
and not
of very
were
The
thought
a
in the
the time
of
Orient, and
were
Cyprian the
read
preparatory step toward
exorcist's task
to
was
that of pres evil spirits, in
drive out firmly believed.
Of the prevalent working the age duties of acolyteslittleis known that they were assistants save in service and aid. They were not to be found in the Orient. The janitorswere the important when it became especially but the baptized to the more sacred custom to admit none parts of the service. In the East, though not in the West,
whose
deaconesses sense
and
as was
women,
to be found
were
of the
reckoned
were
clergy. Their originwas
in
certain
a
probably charismatic
those of care high antiquity.2 Their tasks were the ill. Besides these deaconesses there especially of
to be found
in the
churches, both East and West,
"widows," whose
as
who
and
originwas
likewise ancient.3
a
for were
class known Their duties
aid to the
of their own sick,especially sex. held in high honor, though hardly to be reckoned They were properlyas of the clergy." All these were supported,in whole in part, by the gifts of the congregation, which were of large or both of eatables and of money.4 These amount, giftswere looked upon, by the time of Cyprian, as "tithes,"and were all of the bishop.5By the middle of the third cen at the disposal expected to give their whole time tury the higher clergywere of the ministry;6 to the work bishopssometimes shared yet even in secular business,not always of a commendable character. in trades. It is evident, The lower clergy could still engage however, that though the ancient doctrine of the priesthood of all believers might stilloccasionally be remembered, it had a Christian lifethe clergy, purely theoretical value. In practical a distinct,close-knit by the middle of the third century were the laitywere rank, on whom spiritual religiously dependent, and who were in turn supported by laymen's gifts. were
prayer
"
1 4
2 Romans 3 161. 1 Tim. 59- 10. Letters,335. 13 67 Justin,Apology, Teaching, Apology, 39 ; Tertullian, ;
;
Ayer,
35, 41. 6
Letters,65-11.
6
Cyprian, Lapsed,
6.
pp.
WORSHIP
PUBLIC
92
PUBLIC
XII.
SECTION
WORSHIP
AND
SACRED
SEASONS
Already,by the time of Justin (153),the primitivedivision for prayer and instruction of worship into two assemblies,one and the other for the Lord's Supper in connection with a com The Lord's Supper was meal had ceased. the crown now mon ing act of the service of worship and edification.1 Its separa meal was tion from the common of now complete. The course determined development during the succeeding century was by the prevalenceof ideas drawn from the mystery religions. is no There adequate ground to believe that there was inten Christians
tional imitation.
lived in
the third centuries influences
they
this direction church
atmosphere highlycharged with
an
these
and
faiths.
It
but
was
natural
that
look upon their own It is probable that
should
of view.
the
from
sprung
of the last half of the second
were
by
worship from the same point already existingtendencies in stronglyreinforced by the great growth of
conversion
the third century. The church came
to be
from
heathenism
and
in the first half of
regarded as possessed of life-giving mysteries,under the superintendenceand dis prepared for initiation pensationof the clergy. Inquirerswere Such preparation,in some by instruction the catechumens. now degree,had existed from the apostolicdays. It was sys in school in tematized. celebrated an Origen taught already in 203. Alexandria Cyprian shows that in Carthage,by about in charge of an officer designatedby 250, such instruction was followed by the great initiatory the bishop.2 Instruction was rite of baptism (seeSection XIII), which granted admission to sacrifice of the life-giving the propitiatory mystery of the Lord's Supper (seeSection XIV). As in the time of Justin,the other of worship consisted of Scripturereading,preaching, elements and hymns. These to all honest were inquirers. open prayers, all of the barred but those The analogy mystery religions initiate or about to be initiate from presence at baptism or the Lord's augmentation of the Supper, and led to a constant sacred elements of valuation placed on these rites as the most the custom had arisen by the third century worship. Whether in which of regardingthese sacraments secret as a discipline, more
more
"
the exact 1
words
of the Creed
Justin,Apology, 67
;
Ay
and
or, p. 35.
of the Lord's
Prayer 2
were
Letters,23-29.
for
93
SEASONS
SACRED
of which
the first time imparted to the baptized,and tion were
was
to
be made
wide-spread in
the third
the forces
the fourth and were
work
at
fifth centuries. which
were
no
Such
to the profane,is uncertain.
men
usages
Already
in
lead to the
to
practices. Sunday was the chief occasion of worship,yet services were beginning to be held on week-days as well. Wednesday and Friday,as earlier (ante,p. 43), were days of fasting. The great the Easter season. The period immedi of the year was event of Christ's of fastingin commemoration one ately before was differed in various parts of the empire. sufferings.Customs held in remembrance fast and vigilwas In Rome a fortyhours' This was of Christ's rest in the grave. extended, by the time All fasting of the Council of Nicsea (325) to a fortydays Lent. of Easter morning, and the Pentecostal ended with the dawn no period of rejoicingthen began. In that time there was fasting,or kneelingin prayer in public worship.1 Easter eve for baptism, that the newly initiate the favorite season was in the Easter joy. Beside these fixed seasons, might participate the martyrs
were
with
commemorated
celebration
of the Lord's
Prayers for the Supper annually on the days of their deaths.2 in general,and their remembrance dead by offeringson the in use anniversaries of their decease, were by the earlypart of the third century.3 Relics of martyrs had been held in high full of the second century.4 The since the middle veneration but the development of saint-worshiphad not yet come; of church was honoring with peculiardevotion the memory the
athletes of the Christian
lives dear unto
race
who
had
not
counted
their
themselves.
SECTION
XIII.
BAPTISM
Christianity.The rite gave to John, He the "Forerunner," his name. baptized Jesus. His dis ciplesand those of Jesus baptized,though Jesus Himself did not.5 The originof the rite is uncertain ; but it was probably Baptism is older
than
1
Tertullian,Corona, 3. Letter of the Church of Smyrna on Martyrdom Letters,33-393; 36-122. 3 10. Tertullian,Corona, 3 ; Monogamy, 4 Letter of Smyrna, as cited,18. 5 John 322,41- 2. -
of Polycarp,
18 ;
"
Cyprian,
REGARDING
DOCTRINE
94 .
BAPTISM
washings. Jewish teaching, traceable probably to a period as early as the time of Christ, faith not merely to be cir requiredproselytesto the Hebrew cumcised, but to be baptized.1It seems probable that John did not invent the rite, and simply used contemporary practice. It was that fol a fittingsymbol of the spiritual purification lowed the repentance that he preached. The mystery religions had equivalentrites (ante,p. 10) ; but so purely Jewish was that primitiveChristianity to which baptism belongs,that it is inconceivable that they should have had any effect on the originof the practice, though they were profoundlyto influence its development on Gentile soil. Peter represents baptism as the rite of admission to the church, and to the receptionof the of admission Holy Spirit.2 As the sacrament baptism al stood till the religiousdivisions of post-Reformation ways days. It so stands for the vast majority of Christians at a
of the spiritualization
old Levitical
present. With
Paul, baptism from sin,3it involved a tion in His did not that
death
think
of the
and
was
not
merely the symbol of cleansing
relation to Christ,4and resurrection.5 Though Paul new
baptism essential
to
a
participa apparently
salvation6 his view
approached
and his con religions almost magical conception
initiations of the mystery
in
Corinth, at least,held an of the rite,being baptized in behalf of their dead friends, that the departed might be benefited thereby.7 Baptism soon be regarded as to came indispensable.The writer of the fourth Gospel representedChrist as declaring : Verily,I say he and the Spirit, unto be born of water thee, except a man 8 The appendix to Mark cannot enter the Kingdom of God." picturedthe risen Christ as saying: He that believeth and is baptizedshall be saved."9 This conviction but deepened. To of the Hernias the very foundation (115-140), baptism was church, which "is builded upon waters." 10 Even to the phil osophicalJustin (153) baptism effected "regeneration" and verts
"
"
"illumination."
n
In Tertullian's estimate it conveyed eternal
lifeitself.12 1 2
See Schiirer,Geschichte des Judischen Acts 23" ; see also 2" ; 1 Cor. 1213.
6
Romans
8
John
11
64 ; Col. 212. 35.
Apology,
61 ;
Ayer,
p. 33.
Volkes,2569-573. 3
1 Cor. 611.
4
Gal
6
1 Cor. I14-17.
7
1 Cor. 1529.
9
Mark
12
1616.
Baptism,
1.
10
32". 27.
Vis., 33.
OF
MODE
96 ents
would
not
BAPTISM
their children fail of
have
enteringthe Kingdom
universal baptism did not, however, become tillthe sixth century, largelythrough the feeling alreadynoted should be in Tertullian,that so cleansinga sacrament not lightlyused. of baptism, it is probable that the original As to the method form was by immersion, complete or partial. That is implied Infant
of God.
in Romans would
seem
64 and to
The
Colossians
indicate fullest
that
212.
Pictures submersion
the
early evidence
"
in
cold, then
pour
water
of the Son
of the
recognizedform
a
Immersion
warm.
the head
upon
and
in
of
continued
But
always Teaching:
not
was
of the Son
and
; and
if thou
hast
of the
hast not
if thou
But
if thou
thrice in the
catacombs
is that of the
complete. of the Father and Baptize in the name Holy Spiritin living[running]water. livingwater, then baptize in other water able
in the
art
neither,then
of the Father
name
not
and
Holy Spirit."1 Affusion was, therefore, baptism. Cyprian cordiallyupheld it.2 late the prevailingpractice till the
The Ages in the West; in the East it so remains. Teaching and Justin show that fastingand an expressionof belief,together with an agreement to live the Christian life prerequisites.By the time of Tertullian an were necessary elaborate ritual had developed. The ceremony began with the formal renunciation by the candidate of the devil and all his On followed the threefold immersion. works. Then coming mixture of milk from the fount the newly baptized tasted a babe and honey, in symbolism of his condition as a new-born succeeded that in Christ. To anointing with oil and the layingon of the hands of the baptizerin token of the reception later known of the Holy Spirit.3Baptism and what as was Middle
confirmation earliest
now
were
thus
known
Tertullian
combined.
existence of Christian of
also shows
the
i. e.,
god
sponsors,
charac
fastingand
customs parents.4 The same sponsors terized the worship of Isis. administered doubtless In the apostolicage baptism was, not only by Apostles and other leaders,but widely by those eminent in the church. By 110-117 Ignatius, charismatically in the interest of unity, was urging, "it is not lawful apart /
1 3
2
7 ;
Ayer, p. 38. Tertullian,Baptism,
6-8
;
Corona,
3.
4
Letters,75-6912. Baptism, 18.
VALID from
the
bishop either
BAPTISM
97
baptize or to hold a love-feast."1 In Tertullian's time, of giving it,the chief priest, who is the bishop, has the right; in the next place the presbytersand deacons besides these even laymen have the right,for what is equallyreceived can be equallygiven."2 In the Greek and Roman Cfeurches baptism stillcontinues the only sacrament which any Christian,or indeed intendingperson, any seriously in administer of can case necessity. to
"
.
The
.
.
middle
of the third century saw discussion over a heated the validityof heretical baptism. Tertullian had regarded it
worthless;3and
as
of his time.
his
was
undoubtedlythe prevalentopinion
After the Novatian
schism
(see p. 102) Bishop Stephen of Rome (254-257) advanced the claim that baptism, effectual if done in even by heretics, was form. His proper motives seem to have been partly the growing feelingthat of value in themselves,irrespective sacraments are of the char of the administrant, and partly a desire to facilitatethe acter of the followers of Novatian.
return
resisted by Cyprian energetically
Stephen
Cappadocia,4and led authorityof the Roman
and
Cyprian
was interpretation Carthage,and Firmilian
of
of Caesarea in
tions of the
This
to
certain
important asser
bishop.
The
deaths
of
the dispute; but the Roman view grew into generalacceptance in the West. The East reached no such unanimity of judgment.
SECTION
Some the
XIV.
has been
account
doctrine of the Lord's
been mon
gave
seen
a
THE
to
pause
LORD'S
SUPPER
given of the early development of Supper (ante,pp. 23, 40). It has
that "breaking of bread," in connection
meal,
was
a
Christian
practicefrom
the
with
a
beginning.
com
From
the time of Paul, certainly, it was believed to be by command of Christ Himself, and in peculiarremembrance of Him and of His death. Outside the New Testament three writers refer to the Lord's Supper before the Of these the age of Irenseus. account
in the
conditions.
It
"didst bestow 1 3 5
Teaching? reflectsthe most primitiveChristian provides a simple liturgyof gratitude. Thou
upon
Smyrna,,8 ; Ayer, Baptism, 15. 9-11; Ayer,
p. 38.
us
food spiritual
p. 42.
and 2
"
drink
and
eternal life
Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Cyprian, Letters,09-76.
CHRIST'S
98
PRESENCE
IN
THE
SUPPER
From "life and knowledge." Christ come through Thy Son." A more mystical explanationof the Supper, however, began early. John 647'58teaches the necessityof eatingthe flesh and drinkingthe blood of Christ to have "life." To Ignatiusthe Supper "is the medicine of immortality,and the antidote that we
should
not
as
not
die but bread
common
l
live forever."
and
common
Christ
Justin
drink do
affirmed, "for
receive these ; Saviour, having been we
but
in like
made
of God, had both flesh and blood for flesh by the Word salvation,so likewise have we been taught that the food
our
which
manner
as
Jesus
our
is blessed
by the prayer of His Word, and from which blood and flesh by transmutation nourished, is the flesh our are made and blood of that Jesus who was flesh." 2 By Justin's time (153) the Lord's Supper was already separated from the meal. Irenseus continued and developed the thought common of the fourth Gospel and of Ignatiusthat the Supper confers "life." "For as the bread, which is produced from the earth, when it receives the invocation of God, is no longer common bread but the Eucharist,consisting of two realities, earthlyand heavenly ; so also our bodies,when they receive the Eucharist, are no longer corruptible, having the hope of the resurrec 3 tion to eternity." In how far these conceptions were due with their teaching that sharing a to the mystery religions, meal with the god is to become a partakerof the divine nature, is difficultto decide; but they undoubtedly grew of the out habit of thought. It may be said that, by the middle same of the second century, the conception of a real presence of Christ in the Supper was wide-spread. It was stronger in the West also there. than in the East, but ultimatelyit won its way In early Christian thought not only were believers them selves "a livingsacrifice, holy, acceptableto God," 4 but all sacrificial. The leaders of the church actions of worship were "offered the giftsof the bishop'soffice."5 All its membership could
good and communicate," "for with such sacrifices God is well pleased."6 In particular, the Lord's Supper was 7 and this feelingwas doubtless strengthenedby a sacrifice," the circumstance that it was the occasion of the giftsof the "do
"
1 3 5 7
Eph., 20. Heresies,4 : 185 ; Ayer, pp. 138, 139. 1 Clem., 44; Ayer, p. 37. Teaching, 14 ; Ayer, p. 41.
2
Apology,
4
Romans
6
Heb.
66 ; 121.
1316.
Ayer,
p. 34.
THE
A
SUPPER
congregation for those in need.1 while viewing the Lord's Supper all Christian
that
still held
SACRIFICE As
late
99
writer
a
Irenseus, "sacrifice,"
as
pre-eminently a
as
actions
also
are
of
a
sacrificial
in a world where sacri Christianity,however, was familiar definite nature ficialconceptions of a much were more hand. in the religionson Sacrifice demands a priest. every character.2
the
Tertullian
With
sacerdos
term
first
into full use.3
comes
developed doctrine of the Lord's Supper sacrifice offered to God by a priesthas been fullyreached. a as Lord and God, is Himself if Jesus Christ, our "For the chief priestof God the Father, and has first offered Himself a sacri this to be done in com fice to the Father, and has commanded of Himself, certainlythat priesttruly discharges memoration imitates that which Christ did ; and the office of Christ, who With
he then
offers
proceeds "to
a
offer it
to
4
the
serve
full sacrifice in the
and
true
offered."
have
to
the
Cyprian
according and
Already by
Tertullian's
commemoration
of
the
to
he the
Christian
celebrate
the
divine
the
time dead.6
Lord's
Supper shows
Cyprian
when
Christ
sees
of
business
The
altar
what
to
church
he
Himself
priest is
sacrifices."5 held
was
such
"sacri
of the life-giving martyrs.7 The sense quality the infant of the Supper led, also,to custom communion, in the doctrine which Cyprian is a witness.8 Here, as the conception of the Supper as Christ's physical presence,
fices"
for
sacrifice did
(a) that
a
God
was
earlier in the
West
than
in the
East.
of of of a
It
before 300. With general in the Orient much "Catholic" evident as conception of the Supper was in which Christ is reallypresent (the how of sacrament
not
it the
to
in
become
presence
was
not
to
be
much
discussed
till the
Middle
the believer partakes of Christ, being Ages), and in which and built up to the im thereby brought into union with Him life ; and mortal (b) a sacrifice offered to God by a priestand Much incliningGod to be gracious to the livingand the dead. stillleft obscure, but the essentials of the "Catholic" view was already at hand by 253. were 1 3 6 7
Justin, Apology, 67; Ayer, Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Ibid., 671.
Letters,33-S93.
p. 35.
2 * 6 8
Heresies, 4 : 175, Letters,62-6314. Chastity, 11.
Lapsed,
25.
IS3.
SECTION
fess
sins,He
our
sins."
l
there
But
BE
FORGIVEN
FORGIVENESS
XV.
generalview
The
CAN
SINS
WHAT
100
OF
SINS
"
of
if we earlyChristianitywas that is faithful and righteousto forgiveus sins so bad that they could not be were
con our
for
death."2 Just what "unto this "sin unto given,they were It was uncertain. death" one opinion that it might be, was was rejectionof the Holy Spirit. Mark represents Christ as shall blaspheme againstthe Holy Spirit Whosoever saying: but is guiltyof an eternal sin" (329). hath never forgiveness, The Teaching held that "any prophet speaking in the Spirit, "
given,but this sin ing was, however, denial
first-named
in the New
be found
can
of Hebrews
writer
sins"
were
No
severer
denunciations
those directed
than
of Hermas
tism.5
was
This
was
modification
some
world, one
tice
was
re
as
toward
the
the
after it, cleansingall previoussins,those committed class just described,were "deadly." But the tendency
garded was
by
as
fornication,false-witness and fraud." 4 While, by the time of Hermas (115-140), baptism of the
The
the "crucify to themselves (64'8,1026'31).To Tertullian the "deadly "idolatry,blasphemy, murder, adultery,
seven,
such
licentiousness.
gross
Testament
toward
afresh"
of God
Son
that
be
speciallyhopeless.
was
for
forgiven."3 The generalfeel the unforgivablesins were idolatryor
shall not
faith, murder, and
the
of
sin shall be
try neither discern; for every
shall not
ye
of this
The strictffc^s.
that, by exception,in view further
extended
elsewhere
repentance had to
even
been
end
near
of
granted after bap
adultery.6 Yet
milder, in the second
church
century, than
prac
church
of the
reclaiming of an whole time in the exercise of public adulteress,who confession." 7 In Tertullian's time the feelingwas that there was one repentance possiblefor deadly sins after baptism of aid against hell""now for all, "a second reserve once theory.
Irenaeus
of the
burden
gives an "spent her
account
"
-
because tion
was
sion,an to weep 1 4
6
1 John
now
to
for the second
time, but
be, if at all,only after
"exomologesis,""to and
make
I9.
Against Marcion, Ibid.,41.
feed
outcries unto 2
7
Heresies,1
:
135.
8
Restora
humiliatingpublicconfes to groan, on fastings, prayers
the Lord
5
49.
more."
a
3
Ibid.,516.
never
8
your
God
;
to
bow
Ayer, p. 40. Man., 43 ; Ayer, pp. 43, 44. Repentance, 7, 12. 11 ;
PEXAXCE
RESTORATION
AND
101
presbyters,and kneel to God's dear ones." l Yet practicewas far from universally as rigorousas would Tertullian imply. The questioninevitablyarose sinner had done to when as a enough to be restored. The feelingappeared early that the divinely lodged in the congregation.2 absolving pdwer was also regarded as directlycommitted This authority was to when such devel to church and, by implication, Peter,; officers, a double practiceprevailed. About to oped.3 But, curiously, the
before
be
feet of the
and
confessors,i. e,, those who deemed imprisonment for their faith,were martyrs
or
solve
because
filled with
the
Spirit.4This
endured
tortures
also able to ab twofold
authority were Many Cyprian, in had trouble on this score.5 Naturallybishopstried particular, to repress this rightof confessors ; but it remained a popular till cessation of Absolution the persecution. opinion ultimately the of scale of standard raised to when a as question a penance, but that develop enough had been done to justifyforgiveness, of is beyond the limits the present period. It is not to ment of the confessors
led to abuse.
be found
till about
These
lax.
300.
which restorations,
of the licentious,6 particularly
were
deemed
it came however common as exceptional, ; and ascetic like Tertullian, shock, at least to a rigidMontanist a when the aggressiveRoman bishop,Kallistos (217-222), (ante, were
75), who
p.
in his
own
had
himself been which
name,
is
papal authority,that he repentance.7 This proper list of "sins unto
tice may In
have
a
confessor,issued
a
landmark
would was
absolve
development
sins of the
breach official
an
death," whatever
actual
flesh
in the
breach
of
on
a
popular
earlier prac
made.
judgment, denial
common
in the
declaration
a
these offenses, and
of the faith
Kallistos
the worst
was
of
had
promised pardon raised on a tremendous scale by question was the Decian persecution. Thousands lapsed and sought res toration after the storm In Rome, was over. Bishop Fabian for that.
died
a
not
even
The
martyr
in 250.
The
Roman
Church
rent
was
on
the
A disputebeginning in personal questionof their treatment. not at first involvingthe lapsed,resulted in the antipathies, 1 4
6
Repentance, 9. Tertullian,Modesty, Tertullian,Modesty,
2
22. 22.
6 '
Matt. 1815-1S.
3
Ibid.,1G1*. Letters,17-20, 20-21, 21-22, 22-27. Tertullian,Modesty, 1.
19.
SINS
ALL
102
MAY
BE
FORGIVEN
by the majority of Cornelius,a comparative nobody, as Novatian, the most distinguishedtheologianin bishop over Rome The (ante,p. 75). The minoritysupported Novatian. of the lapsed, advocated the milder treatment majority soon advanced while Novatian to the rigorist position. Novatian that lasted till the seventh began a schism century, and founded protestingchurches wide-spread in the empire. He renewed the older practiceand denied restoration to all guilty of "sins unto death." His was a lost cause. Synods in Rome and Carthage in 251 and 253, representative of the majority, permitted the restoration of the lapsed,under strict conditions of penance. to arise again in the Though the questionwas persecutionunder Diocletian,which began in 303,1 and though varied practicelong continued in different parts of the church, in 251 was the decision in Rome ultimatelyregulative.All sins were therebyforgivable.The old distinction continued in name, but it was henceforth only between great sins and small. choice
SECTION
XVI.
THE
COMPOSITION
THE
HIGHER
AND
LOWER
the church
THE
AND
CHURCH
MORALITY
undoubtedly conceived composed exclusivelyof experientialChristians.2 There as who needed discipline in it,3 but Paul could paint bad men were ideal pictureof the church as "not having spot or wrinkle an such thing."4 It was natural that this should be so. or any faith. Those who embraced it as a new Christianitycame did so as a result of personalconviction,and at the cost of no little sacrifice. It was long the feelingthat the church is a and women. Even true then, it was community of saved men that many were unworthy. This is Hermas's complaint. The In
oldest "
apostolictimes
OF
outside the New
sermon
was
Testament
has
a
modern
sound.
they hear from our mouth the oracles of God, marvel at them for their beauty and greatness ; then, when they discover that our works are not worthy of the words which we speak,forthwith they betake themselves to blasphemy, saying that it is an idle story and a delusion." 5 Yet, in spite of the recognition But the of these facts the theory continued. For
the Gentiles
1
The
2
Romans
Melitian
3
E. g., I Cor. 51-13.
I7;
when
schism, Donatists. 1*; 2 Cor. I1; Col.
1 Cor.
4
Eph.
I2.
527.
6
2
Clem., 13.
MORALITY
LOWER
AND
HIGHER
104
kingdom of heaven's sake," and that, "in the resurrection they neither nor are given in marriage, but are as angels."1 Paul marry and to widows, it is good for them said "to the unmarried I." if they abide even as Voluntary poverty and voluntary advice impossibleof fulfil celibacywere, therefore,deemed ment by all Christians,indeed, but conferringspecialmerit About these two those who conceptions practisedthem. on to be the all earlyChristian asceticism centred, and they were that
also declared
He
foundation
some
"eunuchs
are
of monasticism
stones
when
for the
that system
arose
at
clergy should set a second marriage discour specially good example, not only was age;3but, by the beginning of the aged from the sub-apostolic deemed office was third century, marriage after entering on life of celibacy,poverty, and contempla The unallowable.4 third century.
close of the
the
tive retirement
from
As
the
the activities of the world
admired
was
though as yet widely practised, without separationfrom society. The road to full monasticism had been fairlyentered. as Probably the most unfortunate the that it tended to discourage pect of this double ideal was efforts of the ordinary Christian. the Christian
as
ideal,and
XVII.
SECTION
was
REST
AND
GROWTH,
260-303
affected by the edict of end of the period of persecution than forty years of followed by more Gallienus,in 260, was The
protection Legally,the church had no more than before,and the able Emperor Aurelian (270-275) is said renewal of persecutionwhen intended prevented by to have a it apparently did not to the death. Even with him come
practical peace.
proclamationof
a
new
hostile edict.
The
chief feature
of this
rapid growth of Christianity.By 300 Christirepresentedin all parts of the empire. effectively influential in the Its distribution was very unequal,but it was central provincesof political importance,in Asia Minor, Mace donia, Syria,Egypt, northern Africa, central Italy,southern in the social its upward progress Gaul and Spain. Nor was
epoch was anity was
1 3
Matt., 1912,2230. 1 Tim. 32, see also Hermas, in general. Hippolytus, Refutation,97.
Christians 4
the
2
Man.,
44, against second
1 Cor. 78.
marriage of
scale less significant. During this of
government and
^it began As
late
as
now
periodit won
246-248
the best that
on
Origen
a
105 many
considerable
could
thingby prayingfor the
success
of the
scale.
in
reply to their duty to the say
Celsus's criticism that Christians failed of that Christians state service,was by refusal of army better
officers
important of all,
Most
imperialservants.
penetrate the army
to
CHURCH
THE
OE
GROWTH
RAPID
did
a
Emperor.1 Origen
and defends Christian unwillingness also expresses to assume then Christians had the burdens of governmentaloffice.2 P"en
armies;3 but Origen undoubt long been found in the Roman edly voiced prevalent Christian feelingin the middle of the third century. By its end both Christian feelingand practice had largelychanged. of greatlyincreasing This period of rapid growth was one conformityto worldly influences also. How far this sometimes The Council of Elvira, show. went a singleillustration may Granada, in Spain (c.313), provided that Christians who now the garments of heathen priesthoodcould as magistrateswore be restored after two provided they had not years'penance, actuallysacrificed or paid for sacrifice.4 As compared with the first half of the third century, its latter portion was a period of little literaryproductivityor in Christian of the circles. No names theologicoriginality eminent was that of Dionysius, firstrank appeared. The most who held the bishopric of Alexandria (247-264),a pupilof Origen like him
and
for
a
time
head of the famous
catechetical
school.
extended, Through his writingsthe influence of Origen was in generaldominant and the great theologian's thoughts were the wide in that period in the East. Dionysius combated spread Eastern Sabellianism. He also began the practiceof sending letters to his clergy,notifyingthem of the date of Easter custom a soon largelydeveloped by the greater bish oprics,and made the vehicle of admonition, doctrinal defini "
tion, and controversy. Beside the Sabellianism,which Dio was vigorouslyrep nysius combated, Dynamic Monarchianism of Samosata resented in Antioch till272 (ante,p. 72). by Paul
administratively giftedbishop held a high executive posi Antioch be tion under Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to whom by the Emperor longed for a period before her overthrow
This
1
Celsus, S73.
3
E.g., Tertullian,Corona,
2
1.
7"4/.,875.
v/ NEO-PLATONISM
106
Paul's opponents, being unable
Aurelian.
to
deprive him
of
the church
building, appealed to Aurelian,who those to whom decided that it rightfully the belonged to should adjudge it." 1 bishopsof Italyand of the cityof Rome moved Doubtless Aurelian was considerations in by political but this Christian reference to imperialau this adjudication, and the Emperor's deference to the judgment of Rome thority, were significant. With Antioch of this periodis to be associated the foundation littleis known of of a school of theologyby Lucian, of whom that he was detail,save a biographical presbyter,held aloof Paul from the party in Antioch which opposed and overcame of Samosata, taught there from c. 275 to c. 303, and died a martyr'sdeath in 312. Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia were his pupils, and the supposition is probablethat his views were Like Origen,he busied himself largelyreproduced in them. with textual and exegetical labors on the Scriptures, but had little likingfor the allegorizing of the great Alexan methods drian. A simpler,more grammatical and historical method possessionof
"
of treatment
both of text and doctrine characterized his teach
ing. SECTION
XVIII.
RELIGIOUS
KIVAL
FORCES
latter half of the third century was the periodof the in the empire. As the Sol greatest influence of Mithraism Inoictus,Mithras was widely worshipped,and this cult was popular in the army and favored by the Emperors who rose The
its ranks.
from
other forces of
Two
world. The religious exandria by Ammonius
first was
in the
importance arose Founded
Neo-Platonism.
in Al
(?-c. 245),its real developerwas settled in Rome about 244. From him, Porphyry (233-304). Neo-Platonism
Saccas
/Plotinus (205-270),who the leadership passed to
of Platonic thoughts. pantheistic, mysticalinterpretation all perfect, from whom the God is simple,absolute existence, Him From lower existences come. the Nous (wO?) emanates like the Logos in the theologyof Origen. From the Nous the world-soul derives being,and from that individual souls. From was
a
the world-soul
inferiorin the
the realm amount 1
of
of matter
Yet
comes.
being it possesses
Eusebius,Church History,7
:
to 3019.
the
each one
stage is above
"
MANICH^EISM less of reality reaching in
has
"
to all-perfect,
morals
The
tive.
matter
107
gradations from God, who compared with Him, is nega
which, as of Neo-Platonism,
like those
ascetic, and philosophy generally,were that of a risingof the soul vation was
templation,the
end
Platonism
much
was
of which to
influence
to
with
that ;of
Far
otherwise Its
chseism.
began
his
276
277.
or
chseism
it with
was
second
a
founder, Mani,
born
was
in
not way
war.
the divine.
Neo-
theology, notably conspicuously or of thinking for the
association
of the many. that of Mani-
movement, in Persia in 215
in 242, and
or
216,
Babylon was preaching old based the Persian on Strongly dualism, Manialso exceedingly syncretistic. It received ele was
from
Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, tianity. Light and darkness, good and ments
conception of sal in mystic con God
Christian
Augustine. Its founders were a ganizers,however, and it remained relativelyfew rather than an inclusive
of later Greek
its
union
was
is
Its conception of the relations of
crucified in
and
Judaism, evil
are
spiritand
Chris
eternally at matter,
and
those of Gnosticism. resembled salvation,in many ways Man material prison house of the realm of evil, is essentially a in which Hence some portion of the realm of lightis confined. of this salvation is based on rightknowledge as to the nature bondage, and desire to return to the realm of light,coupled of all that belongs to the sphere with extreme ascetic rejection Its the physical appetites and desires. of darkness, especially strict. Its member worship was as simple as its asceticism was in two classes,the perfect,always relativelyfew, who ship was practised its full austerities ; and the hearers, who accepted its less strictness of practice a distinc teachings,but with much monks and tion not unlike that between ordinary Christians in the church. Its organizationwas fairlycentralized and rigid. In Manichseism Christianityhad a real rival. It^^rfead was in and the it the absorbed not empire, rapid ""nly^fl|w fol of
"
lowers
of Mithraism,
but
the
remnants
of 1
Ktian-Gnostic
gr^o^Hfwas
Its great to be in sects, and other early heresies. the fourth and fifth centuries, and its influencejwas to be felt till the
late Middle
Ages through
teachings,like the Cathari.
sects
which
were
heirs of its
V
STRENGTHENS
DIOCLETIAN
108
XIX.
SECTION
THE
In 284 Diocletian became
THE
FINAL
Roman
EMPIRE
STRUGGLE
A
Emperor.
of the
man
origin,probably of slave parentage, he had a dis in the army, and was raised to the imperial tinguishedcareer he dignityby his fellow soldiers. Though a soldier-emperor, was possessedof great abilitiesas a civil administrator,and to reorganizethe empire so to provide more determined as aiming at adequate militarydefense,prevent army conspiracies internal the of and render administration a change Emperors, efficient. To these ends he appointedan old companionmore humblest
in-arms,Maximian,
regent of the West, in 285, with
Augustus,which Diocletian himself bore. in 293, two he designated, militaryefficiency of
Constantius
Chlorus,
Galerius,on
that
Rhine
the
on
of the
Danube.
In further aid of
"Csesars"
frontier,and Each
the title
"
to succeed
was
one,
the other, ulti
mately to the higherpost of "Augustus." All was held in har monious working by the firm hand of Diocletian. less In internal affairs the changes of Diocletian were no sweeping. The survivingrelics of the old republicanempire, and of senatorial influence, set aside. The now were Emperor A new in the later Byzantine sense. divi became autocrat an aban sion of provinceswas effected;and Rome was practically Diocletian making the more doned as the capital, conveniently situated Nicomedia, in Asia In character Diocletian was of the cruder
heathenism such
To
a
man
ordered archically have
It must
Minor, his customary
camp
rude
a
but
firm
residence.
supporter of
type.
the closely knit,hier organizingabilities, church presenteda serious political problem.
of
seemed
state
a
within
the state
which
over
he
been a Christian up Though there had never had held aloof from risingagainstthe empire,and Christianity to a remarkable politics degree,the church was rapidlygrowing in numbers Two courses lay open for a vigorous anxLs.trength. had
control.
no
it into submission and break its power, ruler,either tjfforce to
enter
of the
into alliance with
growing organism.
Constantine course
The
could Eastern
it and The
thus
latter
secure
was
to
or
control political be the method
of
the attempt of Diocletian. No other be expected from a man outlook. of his religious
; the former
Caesar,Galerius,was
and had tianity,
much
influence
even over
more
hostile to Chris
Diocletian.
To
him
the
PERSECUTION
DIOCLETIAN
UNDER
of persecutionmay suggestions
been clue.
have
109 The
growth
of
was unitingall the forces of threatened Christianity, moreover, heathenism against it; while Diocletian and Galerius were disposedto emphasize emperor-worship and the service of the old gods. A cautious effort to rid Diocletian 'moved slowly,however. and the imperialpalace service of Christians was the army followed,beginning in February, 303, by three great edicts of de ordered Churches were persecutionin rapid succession. stroyed,sacred books confiscated,clergyimprisoned and forced In 304 sacrifice by torture. fourth edict requiredall to a
It
Christians to offer sacrifices. tion.
As
many
who
in the days of Decius
with
there
were
however,
far less
Christians had
be
severityof the persecutionvaried its penalties the magistratesby whom were Italy,North Africa,and the Orient, the
the attitude of Cruel
martyrs, and
many
The
better known.
enforced.
time of fearful persecu
a
"lapsed." Popular feelingwas, in previouspersecutions.The
hostile than come
was
in
friendly"Csesar," Constantius Chlorus, made apparent com pliance in Gaul and Britain by destroying church edifices, He but left the Christians themselves unharmed. thereby with those that redound thus to was gained a popularity spared of the his to son. advantage A The voluntary retirement of Diocletian,and the enforced abdication of his colleague,Maximian, in 305, removed the able to master the complex gov strong hand of the only man ernmental
Chlorus
Constantius situation.)?
and
Galerius
now
became, "Augusti," but in the appointment of "Caesars," the of the
claims
Daia.
Maximinus West.
Constantius claimed
his
this army
of Constantius
in favor
passed over the
sons
of two
Chlorus
and
Maximian
were
proteges of Galerius,Severus
Persecution
had
and
ceased in practically in increased severityin the East. It continued Chlorus died in 306, and the garrisonin York ac the On Constantine as Emperor. son strengthof
support, Constantine
now
forced
from
Galerius his
own
and Britain. "Caesar,"with charge of Gaul,_Spain, as recognition Soon after Maximian's "defeated Severus and son, Maxentiusr, of Italy and North himself master made Africa. The next trial of strengthin the strugglefor the empireTtcTvhich Con
stantine had come
would
set
himself must
determine
be with
the mastery oHhe
Maxentius. whole
West.
Its out Licin-
CHRISTIAN
A
CONSTANTINE
110
succeeded ius,a protege of Galerius,
possessionsof Before
to
a
portionof
the former
Severus.
the decisive contest
for the West
Galerius,in conjunctionwith Constantine
took
place,however,
and
Licinius,issued
April,311, an edict of toleration to Christians "on condi 1 tion that nothing is done by them contrary to discipline." This was, at best, a grudging concession,though why it was its main granted at all by the persecutingGalerius,who was is not wholly evident. con Perhaps he had become source, vinced of the futility of persecution. Perhaps the long and illness which to cost him his life a few days later severe was have led him to believe that some from help might come may the Christians' God. The latter suppositionis given added probabilitybecause the edict exhorts Christians to pray for in
its authors.
death of Galerius in May, 311, left four contestants the empire. Constantine and Licinius drew togetherby The
for mu
tual
Daia and Maxentius were interest;while Maximinus united by similar bonds. Daia promptly renewed persecution in Asia and Egypt. Maxentius, while not a persecutor, was a of Christian heathenism. pronounced partisan sympathy naturallyflowed toward Constantine and Licinius. Constan tine availed himself to the full of its advantages. To what to say. extent he was now a personalChristian it is impossible He had inherited a kindly feelingtoward Christians. He had joinedin the edict of 311. His forces seemed scarcelyadequate for the great strugglewith Maxentius. He doubtless desired the aid of the Christians' God
in the
none
equalcgpflict
too
"
though it is quiteprobable that he may not then have thought of Him Constan tine's later affirmation that the only God. as he saw "in this sign with the inscription, a vision of the cross conquer,"was a conscious or unconscious legend. But that he is a fact. A brilliant invaded Italy, as in some sense a Christian, march and several successful battles in northern Italybrought him
face to face with Maxentius at Saxa Rubra, a little to the north of Rome, with the Mulvian the Tiber be bridgeacross tween one
his foes and the city. There, on of the decisive
the battle and Christian
of history, in struggles
his life. The
West
God, he believed,had 1
October 28, 312, occurred
Eusebius, Church
was
given
History, 8
:
179 ;
which
Maxentius
Constantine's. him
the
Ayer, p.
lost The
victory,and
262.
III.
PERIOD
SECTION
^[thecompletion and
the
in the
ligion. Constantine Christians
were
the
one
It
men.
which
had
long
Emperor,
one
law,
should
slowly, however. unequally distributed
The
in the
than
East
the
when
population
equal rights.
them
unification
It had
all free
Christianity was
have
moved
in the
of
fraction
CHURCH
SITUATION
of
empire.
very
numerous
more
CHANGED
process
citizenship for
one
STATE
essentiallypoliticalmind
of
in progress
been
THE
I.
Constantine's
To
IMPERIAL
THE
church
had
and
the much
were
they of
but
were
a
Milan
granted great rapidity
with
grown
re
Though
West,
Edict
one
tinder in the last half of the third century, during the peace bounds. That by leaps and imperial favor its increase was showed. favor Constantine promptly By a law of 319 the exempted from the public obligations that weighed clergy were the well-to-do portion of the population.1 In heavily on so 321 the right to receive legacies was granted, and thereby the The corporation acknowledged.2 as a privilegesof the church same
In
cities.3 Gifts
made
but
which
was
of
t
the
sacrifices
were
elsewhere
and
world
Byzantium, has
formal which
named
motives,
its
its official
the
left the
its
in
the
erected
under
called
in
imperial
New
of the
Rome,
honor, Constantinople,
politicaland defensive far-reaching. were
religiousconsequences
foundation,
of
prohibited.4
transference he
in his
people
churches
great
high significance. Undoubtedly
empire in
rebuilt
the
and
clergy,
to
all,Constantine's
Above the
heathen
Bethlehem,
Jerusalem,
auspices. capital to
From
to
forbidden
was
private
319
were
Rome,
in
work
Sunday
year
330, it established
the
seat
of
traditions or influences, situated city of few heathen It most portion of the world. strongly Christianized the most conspicuous man bishop of Rome, moreover,
in
1
a
Codex
*Ibid.,
Theodosianus,
16
16
8
Codex
:24; Ayer, Justinianus,
4
Codex
Theodosianus,
p.
3
:
9
:
22 ;
Ayer, Source
283. 123 ; :
Ayer,
162 ; 112
p.
Ayer,
284. p.
286.
Book,
p.
283.
POLICY
CONSTANTINE'S in the ancient
with
looked
reverence
possibleof future
only for they were ized portion that "
be
threatened. had
led to
called
to
itself the
more
be
schism, somewhat
causes,
but resemblingthat of
earlier
(ante,p. 102). The
The
"Catholic." could
unitingfactor
a
Africa
than
stillmany,
were
Constantine
one.
In North a
was
political.Great which Constantine showed to the church, that strong, close-knit, hierarchically organ
was Christianity
must
still
the
wholly unintended
it was
rather spiritual
was
sects, and they boijntyfrom his hands..
church
West Latin-speaking
conspicuitywhich
a
heretical"
If
the
importance because
the favors
were
in
"
by Constantine, and as
which
to capital,
113
found
various
look for
no
in the
that
empire, the unity seriously
persecutionunder Diocletian complicated and personalin its Novatian in Rome, half a century the
church
there
was
divided.
The
strict
had re bishop of Carthage,Caecilian, party charged that the new ceived ordination in 311, from the hands of one in mortal sin, who
had
surrendered
secution.
That
copiesof
ordination
bishop,Majorinus. the Great, from whom atists.
In
313
the
Scripturesin the invalid,and chose
it held
recent a
per
counter-
His successor, in 316, was the able Donatus the schismatics received the name, Don
Constantine
made
grants of money
to
the
"Catholic"
v
clergyof North Africa.1 In these the Donatists did not share,and appealed to the Emperor. A synod held in Rome the same only year decided againstthem, but the quarrelwas the more Constantine embittered. what out thereupon mapped the imperialpolicyin ecclesiasticalquesto be henceforth was /tions. He summoned a synod of his portion of the empire to The church meet, at publicexpense, in Aries,in southern Gaul. itself should decide the controversy, but under imperialcon trol. Here a large council assembled in 314. The Donatist
I
contentions
condemned.
were
at the hands
of
Ordination
was
declared
valid
personallyunworthy cleric. Heretical date of Easter baptism was recognized,and the Roman ap proved.2 The Donatists appealed to the Emperor, who once decided againstthem, in 316; and as they refused to yield, more now proceeded to close their churches and banish their bishops. The unenviable spectacleof the persecutionof Christians by
even
Christians
was
a
exhibited.
North
Africa
was
^usebius, Church History, 10: 6; Ayer, 2 See Ay or, p. 291.
in turmoil. p. 281.
Con-
_,
ARIANISM
114
and in 321 however, dissatisfied with the results,
stantine was,
againstthese schismatics. They claimingto be the only true church possessedof grew rapidly, a clergyfree from "deadly sins" and of the only valid sacra abandoned
the
of force
tillthe Mohammedan
Not
ments.
use
conquest did the Donatists
disappear. SECTION
II.
THE
OF
A much
great Arian
TO
THE
DEATH
CONSTANTINE
serious danger to the unity of the church than which the Constantine encountered was
more
the Donatist
CONTROVERSY
ARIAN
schism
It has
controversy.
that while the
West, thanks
already been
pointed
of Tertullian
to the work
and
out
No-
^vatian,had
reached
practicalunanimity regardingthe unity
of substance
between
Christ and
the Father
(ante,pp. 69-76),
Origen,stillits most dominating the If he ologicalinfluence,could be quoted in opposing senses. had taught the eternal generationof the Son, he had also held Him God and a creature to be a second (ante,p. 81). Adoptionist tendencies persisted, also,about Antioch; while Sabellianism was in Egypt. The East, moreover, to be found was interested in speculative vastlymore theologythan the West,
the East
and
was
therefore
doubt
divided.
more
prone
discussion ; century, much
to
that, in the fourth
nor
can
more
there be any of intellectual
in the Greek-speaking than in the to be found abilitywas Latin-speakingportionof the empire. The real cause of the struggle these varyinginterpreta was tions;but the actual controversy began in Alexandria, about Arius and his bishop, Alexander 320, in a dispute between (312?-328). Arius,a pupilof Lucian of Antioch (ante,p. 106), Baucalis. was as presbyter in charge of the church known He was advanced in years and held in high repute as a preacher of learning,ability, and influences impiety. Monarchian in Antioch ^bibed led him selfto emphasize the unity and
contained existence of God.
In
so
far
as
he
was
a
follower of
Origen,he representedthe great Alexandrian's teachingthat created being. As such He was Christ was not of the sub a of God, but was of "nothing." stance made like other creatures Though the first-born of creatures, and the agent in fashion ingthe world,He was not eternal. "The Son has a beginning,
ARIANISM
115
indeed, beginning."x Christ was, God in a certain sense to Arius, but a lower God, in no way in Father In the with the essence or one incarnation, eternity. human the of entered this Logos a body, taking place the human reasoningspirit.To Arius's thinking,Christ was neither fully This is what God nor fullyman, but a tertium quid between. his view wholly unsatisfactory. makes Bishop Alexander was influenced by the other side of Origen's to the eternal,like in essence teaching.'To him the Son was His view was, perhaps, not Father, and wholly uncreated.2 perfectlyclear,but its unlikeness to that of Arius is apparent. between Arius and Alexander, apparently Controversy arose Arius's initiative. It soon bitter,and about 320 or on grew 321 Alexander held a synod in Alexandria by which Arius and of his sympathizerswere condemned. Arius appealed a number for help to his fellow pupil of the school of Lucian, the powerful bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and soon found a refuge with him. Alexander wrote widely to fellow bishops,and Arius defended his own aided by Eusebius. The Eastern position, ecclesiasticalworld was widely turmoiled. Such the situation when Constantine's was victory over but
.
.
.
God
is without
,
"
Licinius made The
him
master
quarrel threatened
deemed
essential.
of the East the
unity
Constantine
of
as
well
the
as
of the West.
church
which
he
therefore sent his chief ecclesi
astical
adviser,Bishop Hosius of Cordova, in Spain, to Alex andria with an imperialletter, counselling peace and describing the issue involved
"an
unprofitablequestion."3 The wellvain. meant, but bungling effort was Constantine,therefore, the device he had already made same proceeded to employ of at Aries in the Donatist use dispute. He called a council of the entire church. That of Aries had been representative of all the portion of the empire then ruled by Constantine. of all the empire, and therefore Constantine was master now summoned. The principle bishops of all the empire were was the same, but the extent of Constantine's enlargedjurisdiction made the gatheringin Nicsea the First General Council of the as
church. The
council,which
assembled
in Nicsea in May,
325, has
V 1 2
3
Arius to Eusebius, Theodoret, Church History,I4; Ayer, p. 302. Letter of Alexander, in Socrates, Church History, I6. Letter
in Eusebius,
264-72. Life of Constantine,
NIC/EA
OF
COUNCIL
THE
116
always lived in Christian tradition as the most importantin Tii it the bishopswere^-summo"ed the historyof the church. at government expense, accompanied by lower clerg}^who did not, however, have
nnly
sfy
from
wprp
in its decisions.
It included
theJWest.
small section, led by EusebTus Another
going Arians.
small
East
had
the
bishops present three
of Nicomedja.
parlies. A
werej:horough-
equally strenuous the large majority, of whpm
group
supporters of Alexander.^ The
were
church
historian t^Eusebius^Cgesarea,was
deeply
versed
in the
The
OLalxaiLthlgcJiundred
preponderance
vast
'*
votes
question at
a^eader, were Indeed, the majority,
issue.
by an unsympathetic writer as "simpletons."1 As far as they had any opinion,they stood the generalbasis of the teachingsof Origen. Conspicuous on in jJTp_a.sspTnhly the .EiDj^Tcu'_JiiiTisplfJ who, though not was of the baptized,and therefore not technicallya full member as
a
whole,
church,
described
were
far too
was
eminent
a
not
personage
to
be welcomed
enthusiastically. Almost
at.
of the thf^beginnijig
council
Fjispbiij^of tlia.Aj:iajnji_wa^rejected. of his
indefinite rean
of
the
offered
the
own
to
as
creed
prpqpnfpdby
Cflpsarea, then
cKufch. dating fromnBeTore the controversy, and creed
s\. crppH
was
the now
was,
therefore,wholly
particularproblems involved. amended most significantly by
not made," expressions, ""hfigoltfin,
"
of
This the one
Csesa-
insertion essence
"
(homoousion,opoovaLov)with^ JheJFather ; and by the specific He when was rejectionof Arian formulae such as "there was not." The later made of thingsthat were not" and "He was and hyposunlike words essence, substance (oiKr/a), technically here used tasis (uTToo-rao-t?) as were equivalent expressions. Loofs has shown that the influences which secured conclusively2 these changes were Western, doubtless above all that of Hosius the test of Cordova, supportedby the Emperor. In particular, word, homoousion, had long been orthodox in its Latin equiva lent,and had been in philosophicusage in the second century, in the proceedings though rejectedby a synod in Antioch used against Paul of Samosata (ante,p. 73). Indeed, it was himself in his earlier defense of sparinglyby Athanasius very the Nicene 1
2
faith.
Tj i^ ^asy
to
understand Constantine's
Socrates,Church
History, I8. Realencyklopcidiv fur prot. Theol
u.
Kirche, 214- 15.
atti-
OF
COUNCIL
THE
NIC.EA
117
t^ight .tilde. Essentially a politi44fHvJ^-Tmtwft41y
a.
forrrjuja,
oppositionin theJWestern half of the empirc,and would receive the support of a portion of the 44*^t, more acceptablethan one which, while having only a part of the East in its favb7"woulor be rejected by that would Jind _no
'
influence To. Cons_taaitin".'s tion is more faith he
thp
n^Qpfinn nf
the
Nirene
its shades
defini-
of
meaning of the than doubtful ; but he wanted a united expression of the church on the questionin dispute,and believed that
was
That
due.
found
had
it.
he
understood
ever
all but UiideF-his-supervisieft,
two
of the
bishopspresent signed4t. These, and Arius. Constantine sent 'Flic imperial politicshad into banishment. apparently se.-. had gtven-4twhat it had cured-tEe unity-ef^fee-eht^ebj^aRd before possessed,a^sJiatppient. whirh might,be assumed never to be a universally recognizedcreed. Besides this action in thus formulatingthe creed, the Coun issued a pnmh^r of important ran on s rpgmlfl.t.jn cilj)f_Nicgea church discipline^ paved the way for the return of thosejn Egypt who
had
joinedthe
lapsed,made a
uniform
date
the readmission
in the observation
strange, in view
It is not creed
easy
adopted, that
was
its
pppositiojn to
schism
Melitian
of
Novatians, and
it
were
in which
manner
after the
fewr. To
of the ordered
the Nicene
council ended
manifested was testjvojT[1Jtmy^7/.9?!onf if, w"-"j
They
the treatment
of Easter.
of the soon
over
the largemiddle
nf
party of
,great in the
ftbnoxnns. of Ongen disciples
coufs^f
for to them it seemed Sabelscarcelyless satisfactory, lian. Though Eusebius of Nicomedia and his Arian sympa thizer,Theognis of Nicsea, had signed,their evident hostility such that Constantine both bishops into exile. By sent was home 328, however, they were again, possiblythrough the favor of the Emperor's sister, Constantia. Eusebius. soon ac influence than other Constantine quired a greater over any was
ecclesiasticof the East, and used it to favor the cause of Arius. With such elements of oppositionto the Nicene result,the real battle was than half a cen not in the council but in the more
tury which followed its conclusion. Meanwhile the great defend^ nf thn Nirenp fa^^ had come born in Alexandria about Athanasiiis was fullyon the scene. 295.
In
the
deacon, and
the Arian rnntrnvprsy: hft wns n early stafgs^of served asfmTvjLte Alexander. secretaryto Bishop
ATHANASIUS
118
As such he
accompaniedhis bishop to Nicsea,and
death, in 328,
chosen
was
to hold, in
he was a post which ishments, till his own "
demise
theologian,Athanasius when
court
in turn
favor counted
for
Not
a
great speculative In
great character.
a
he stood
much,
like
a
an
age
rock for his
theologyultimatelyconquered Nicene West to him, possessedno of one theologian. Tp_Jiiiii"_JJie.._questioij._ at_jssuewas for the
primarilydue
was
five ban
and
that the Nicene
convictions,and able
bishopric
spiteof attack
in 373.
was
Alexander's
on
to the Alexandrian
salvation,and source
been,
that he made
main feel it to be so was a conception of salvation had
men
of his power. The Greek since the beginningsof the tradition
of Asia
Minor, the
mortalityinto divine and blessed im mortality the impartation of "life" (ante,p. 40). Only by in Christ real Godhead coming into union with full manhood transformation
of sinful
"
could the transformation
complishedin
Him
mediated
be
ac
to His
disciples. by made that we : man [Christ]was of might be made divine."1 Tojiis thinkingthe__gi"at. error, mTbasis for a real salvation. Well Ariam'.sm was that-Jt-gaYe. it for the Nicene party that~so ^ moderately eTttetefmined, was a champion stood for it, since the two other prominent de fenders of the Nicene faith,Bishops Marcellus of Ancyra and Eustathius of Antioch, were certainlyfar from theologically of opinions accused, not wholly rightly, impeccable,and were decidedlySabellian. Athanasius
As
/
Him,
into the divine be
of the human
Eusebius
"
He
of Nicomedia
soon
Constahtine would
emy.
the
by
or
said
same
strikingits defenders. cleverlyused
were
330.
to
Eusebians
The
Athanasius returned
not
practicalresult could
and
from
secure
in Athanasius
saw
desert be
the
secure
of Eustathius the discomfiture
in of
latter,who had before Eusebius, now presented
the restoration of Arius. even
thought,
differences and'theological
the condemnation to
en
decision,but
achieved, Eusebius
Political
determined
banishment
Nicene
the real
The
indefinite on the questionat is carefully mind this seemed sue.2 To Constantine's untheological a satis his and an expressionof willingness to make factoryretraction, He directed Athanasius to restore Arius to his place peace. in Alexandria. Athanasius refused. Charges of overbearing to
Constantine
a
creed
1
Incarnation, 543.
2
Socrates,Church
History,I26 ; Ayer, p. 307.
REACTION
ARIAN
THE
120
questionsthan their father had partisanin religious A joint edict of 346 ordered temples closed, and for been. law was, however, but The bade sacrifice on pain of death.1 Donatist The Africa slightlyenforced. controversy in North had greatlyextended, and that land, in consequence, the was of much scene agrarian and social agitation. The Donatists therefore,attacked in force by Constans, and though were, not wholly crushed, were largelyrooted out. of the sons The most of Constantine important relationship to the continuing to the religious questions of the age was first,more
Nicene
controversy.
Under
their
rule it extended
from
a
involvingonly the East, as under Constan-i disputepractically At the beginning of their1' tine, to an empire-wide contest. jointreignsthe Emperors permitted the exiled bishops to re Athanasius
turn.
was,
fore the close of 337.
therefore,once Eusebius
more
in Alexandria
however, still the
was,
be most
influential party leader in the East, and his authoritywas but strengthenedwhen he was promoted, in 339, from the bishopric where he died about of Nicomedia to that of Constantinople,
Through
341.
the influence of Eusebius
bly driven from bishop,Gregory
Athanasius
power. soon
was
forci
in the
springof 339, and an Arian Cappadocia, put in his place by military fled to Rome, where Marcellus of Ancyra
Alexandria of
Athanasius
joined him.
East
and
West
were
now
under
different
held to the Nicene
Emperors, and subjects. Not
sympathies of his the empire divided, but Bishop Julius of Rome merely was interfere from could now beyond the reach of Constantius. the fugitives and summoned their opponents to He welcomed in 340, though tfyeEusebians did not appear. a synod in Rome, The synod declared Athanasius and Marcellus unjustlydeposed. leaders repliednot merely with protests against The Eastern Constans
with the action,but with an attempt to do away Nicene formula in wrhich they had the support of Con itself, stantius. Two synods in Antioch, in 341, adopted creeds, Arian in \expression, but from which far,indeed,from positively
the Roman
all that
Nicene (knitted. In some was definitely respects death of Eu The they representeda pre-Nicene orthoooxy. of Constantinople, at thi^ sebius,now juncturecost the oppo decision his able leadership.The of the Nicene two nents was
1
Codex
Theodosianus,
16
:
104 ;
Ayer,
p. 323.
COUNCIL
THE
SARDICA
OF'
121
Emperors thought that the bitter quarrelcould best General Council, and accordinglysuch a be adjustedby a new of Sofia,in the autumn body gatheredin Sardica, the modern 343.'General Council it was not to be. The Eastern bishops, by those of the West, and findingthemselves outnumbered with them, with seeingAthanasius and Marcellus in company Athanasius and Marcellus drew. were By the Westerners once more approved,though the latter was a considerable bur of his dubious orthodoxy. East den to their cause by reason brother
and
Council
The of
pointof ecclesiasticalseparation.^ of Sardica had completelyfailed in its object there assembled quarrel,but the Westerners
seemed
West
healing the
on
the
leadershipof Hosius of Cor dova, that are of great importance in the development of the What they did was authorityof the bishop of Rome. judicial
passedseveral
to
Athanasius that in
actual
the
enact
under
canons,
proceedingsregarding decided rule. It was a general deposed,as these had been, he might
recent
Marcellus
and
the
into
bishop was appealto Bishop Julius of Rome, be retried by new judges,and no case
a
till the
decision of Rome
Western
rules and
in
Rome, The
to
seem
time, but
at the
who
could
successor
was
known.1
have
aroused
cause
were
the
should be
They
to
case
appointed,/
were
purely
little attention,even
important for
were
imperialbrothers
two
of
course
convinced
the future.
that the contro
serious aspects. At all events, Constans favored Athanasius, and the rival bishop,Gregory, having died,Constantius permittedAthanasius to return to Alexandria versy
was
assuming
too
in October, 347, where
he
was
most
welcomed cordially
by the always
which had overwhelming majority of the population, The situation seemed favorable for heartilysupported him. events than Athanasius, but political suddenly made it worse been. A rival Emperor arose it had ever in the West in the of Magnentius, and in 350 Constans murdered. was person Three the usurper to years of strugglebrought victoryover Constantius, and left him sole ruler of the empire (353).
Constantius,
at
last in full
control,determined
to
end
the
thinkingAthanasius was the chief enemy. The in the hands of leadershipagainst Athanasius was now At Bishops Ursacius of Singidunum, and Valens of Mursa. synods held in Aries in 353, and in Milan in 355, Constantius controversy.
To
his
1
See Ayer, pp.
364-366.
bishops to abandon
forced the Western
Athanasius, and For
opponents.
to
resis
Liberius,bishop of Rome, Hilary of Poi learned bishop of Gaul, and the aged Hosius of sent into banishment. Athanasius, driven from
these demands
to
tance
his Eastern
with
communion
resume
FORMULA
HOMOION
THE
122
the tiers, Cordova
most were
by militaryforce in February, 356, began his third the exile,findingrefugefor the next six years largelyamong At a synod held in Sirmium, the Emperor's Egyptian monks. Alexandria
residence,in 357, ousia (substance)in any of its combinations forbidden as unscriptural.1 This, so far as the influence of was
synod went, was an abolition of the Nicene formula. Hosius Athanasius. signedit,though he absolutelyrefused to condemn The declaration of Sirmium was strengthenedby an agreement of Nice, in secured by Constantius at the little Thracian town the
359, in which
it
call the Son
"we
affirmed
was
the holy scripturescall Him
as
and
teach."
like the Father, 2
The
Emperor
episcopalfavorites,notably Valens of Mursa,
and
his
cured
its acceptance by synods purporting to represent East West, held in Rimini, Seleucia,and Constantinople.The
and
Old-Nicene
formula
set
was
accepted the theoretically, only
new
result.
the whole The
"
as
church
proper
se
had,
term, the is like the
in court circles, "the Son was hence those who homoios supported its use were the Homoion ("like")party. Apparently colorless,
allowed
one
Father" known
aside,and
now
"
historyof its adoption made it a rejectionof the Nicene faith,and opened the door to Arian assertions. The Arians had was largelyaided triumphed for the time being,and that success who formula appealedto many by the fact that its Homoion were heartilytired of the long controversy. Really, however, the Arian victory had prepared the way immedi not for the ruin of Arianism,though that result was ately apparent. The oppositionto the Nicene formula had always been composed of two elements: a small Arian sec tion,arid a much largerconservative body, which stood mainly ob was on positionsreached by Origen, to which Arianism noxious,but which looked upon homoousios,the Nicene phrase, in Antioch, unwarranted as an expressionalready condemned Both elements had worked and of Sabellian ill-repute. together
the
resist the
to
further. 1
Nicene
Extreme
their agreement went no their heads in Alexandria raising
formula, but
Arians
were
De Synodis, Hilary of Poitiers,
11 ;
Ayer, p. 317.
2
Ayer, p. 319.
A
than
them "
"
of
ning "
of
were
party. They would
to "
and
not
say
to
homoousios
"
sense
draw
hostile
more
even
be, but of equalityof attributes.
would
sence
123
but they were willingto say homoiousios of like substance, as the natural translation
substance
in the
not
the Nicene
to
one
conservatives
The
elsewhere.
and
PARTY
MIDDLE
They
distinction between
a
hypostasis now "
subsistence/'instead of
ousia
using the making them
were
also
begin
substance,
"
latter in the
es
sense
in the as equivalent,
symbol. This enabled them to preserve the Origenistic teaching of "three hypostases," while insisting the on middle party community of attributes. The newly formed first into evidence with a synod at Ancyra, in 358, and came its chief early leaders were Bishops Basil of Ancyra, and They have usuallybeen called the SemiGeorge of Laodicea. Arians, but the term is a misnomer. They rejectedArianism He to Athanasius. They reallystood near energetically. recognized this approach, and Hilary of Poitiers furthered union by urgingthat the conservatives meant by homoiousios what the Nicene party understood by homoousios.1 The ulti about through the fusion of to come Nicene victorywas mate Nicene
the Nicene
and
"Semi-Arian"
the
parties.In that union the of Origenwere interpretations
tradition of Asia Minor, and the with those of Alexandria. to combine
slow process, however, and in its development the earlier Nicene views were modified into the New-Nicene to be considerably theology.
SECTION
THE
IV.
Constantius died in 361
cousin,Julian,whom
LATER
It
NICENE
he
was
a
STRUGGLE
preparing to
resist his
the soldiers in Paris had declared
Emperor.
as
was
world to Julian. Spared on account of his youth at the massacre of his father and other relatives the death of Constantine,he looked upon Constantius as on His
death left the Roman
his father's murderer.
Brought up in perilof his life,and forced to strict outward to hate churchly observance, he came which Constantius and was filled with everything represented, admiration Hellenism.
for the He
literature, life,and
philosophyof
"
the older
apostate,"in the sense of a turn concealed from the public, coat. his heath Though necessarily enism had long been real,when his campaign againstConstannot
was
1
De
an
Synodis,88
;
Ayer, p.
319.
ATHANASIUS'S
124
GROWING
STRENGTH
him
publiclyto declare it. It was heathenism of character. On his accession he at mystical,philosophical a revival. Christianitywas tempted a heathen everywhere and Christians removed from office. Bishops discouraged, under Constantius banished recalled,that the quarrelsof were tius enabled
Christians thus
was
in
the
heathen
in Alexandria
more
once
out
was
aid
might
exiled for the fourth
was
reaction.
in 362, but
time
before the year
by Julian, who
in
his
Athanasius
was
heathenism. success making converts angered by In he lost his life in a cam 363 Julian's reignwas soon over. had its last heathen paign againstthe Persians. In him Rome Emperor. The reign of Julian showed the real weakness of the Arianelements which Constantius had izing supported. Athanasians drew Semi-Arians and together. Furthermore, the Nicene debate
from
broadeningout
was
of the v/lations
Holy
to
include
discussion
a
Spiritto the Godhead.
of the
re-
Since the time of
Tertullian,in the
West, Father, Son, and Holy Spirithad been three "persons," of one substance (ante,p. 69).
regarded as The
reached
"a
of God
son
or
sion of the theme.
such
no
uncertain whether
been or
had
East
the
not."
Now
unanimity. Even Origen had created or uncreated," Spiritwas "
l
had
There
that it had
not
been
much
discus
forward, the homoousia
come
Holy Spiritwith the Father, seemed to Athanasius and of the Son. At a his friends a corollaryfrom the homoousia synod held in Alexandria in 362, by the just returned Athana drawn sius,terms of union were up for rival partiesin Antioch. the Arian heresy and It would be sufficient "to anathematize confess the faith confessed by the holy Fathers at Nicsea,and also those who say that the Holy Ghost is a to anathematize of the
and
creature
ployment tasis" the not
was
that
of the terms in the
himself
not
Trinity,but
head
The
in
the
"three
synod regarded
used
of Sabellian
nasius the
separate from
one
essence
death
of
sense
as
and
2
The
"one
hypostases" indifferent,provided in
of "alien
unity. The only for the
of Christ."
essence
door
was
essence," and thus
em
hypos"three"
"one"
opened by
in
Atha
full definition of the doctrine of
orthodoxy, with its God (substance) and three hypostases. Julian was succeeded by the brief reign of
for the New-Nicene
1
De
2
Tomus
Principiis,Preface. 3 admAntiochenos,
;
Ayer,
p. 350.
THE
Jovian.
The
empire who
happily, one Athanasius rule ended
375), who,
CAPPADOCIANS
GREAT had
once
more
promptly returned
ecclesiastical
his fourth
from
in 364, and he was succeeded findingthe imperialdefense
of the
his
giving to
ruler, and
Christian
a
little in
interfered
125
I
(364task, took (364-378)
Valentinian
by too
politics.
exile. Jovian's
great
a
brother, Valens
West, charge Valentian interfered littlewith sovereigntyof the East. under the influence of the churchly affairs. Valens came both and Homoousian Arian clergy of Constantinople,and Homoiousian sympathizersshared his dislike a situation which together. He condemned helped to bring these partiesnearer the
"
Athanasius the
and
Valens as
to
aged bishop however,
was,
had
Constantius
373, full of years At
Basil
the
about
of
to
; but
it
go
brief,
was
far from
the
city.
vigorous supporter of Arianism
Athanasius
died in
Alexandria,in
honors.
of
hands
leadershipin the struggle
the new
the
were
of the
men,
three
New-Nicene
great Cappadocians,
Cappadocia,Gregory of Nazianzus, and Nyssa. Born of a prominent Cappadocian family in
of CaBsarea
Gregory
not
such
no
of these
Chief
party.
have
of Athanasius
the death
passinginto
was
did
been.
and
exile,in 365
final
fifth and
a
received
330, Basil
the
best
trainingthat Constanti
nople and Athens could yield,in student association with his friend Gregory of Nazianzus. About 357 he yielded life-long to
the ascetic Christian tendencies
idea of monk.
a
gave
up
any
as worldly advancement, livingpractically of the risingmonas visited Egypt, then the home
of
career
He
of the age, and
and tic movement, cism in Asia Minor.
became
He
was,
the great propagator
however, made
a
of monasti-
for affairs and
not
in
Origen, and in sympathy with the Homoiousian party, he belonged to the section which into fellowship with Athanasius, and like Athgraduallycame Jknasius of the Holy he supported the full consubstantiality Spirit. To the wing of the Homoiousian party which refused the so-called Macedonians to regard the Spiritas fullyGod he offered strenuous vic a opposition. It was far-reaching when Basil became bishop of the Cappa tory for his cause for the
cloister.
Deeply versed
"
"
docian
Csesarea,in 37(L. The
post gave
him
ecclesiasticalau
large section of eastern Asia Minor, which he used to the full till his early death, in 379, to advance the He sought also to promote a good underNew-Nicene cause. thorityover
a
CAPPADOCIANS
GREAT
THE
126
in the East
the opponents of Arianism
standing between
and
the leaders of the West. An
brother.
Basil's younger
Gregory of Nyssa was and a writer of ability,
orator
greater skill and
theological clearness than not organizingand ad derived from the littleCappaministrative gifts. His title was docian town bishop in 371 or Nyssa of which he became of
Basil, he
"
He
372. Fathers
"
of Nazianzus
of his
friended
Basil's
had
lived till after 394, and of the Oriental Church.
Gregory town
even
birth,where
with Basil from
the monastic
attraction.
ranks
the
bishop. Warmly be student days,like Basil he felt strongly His ability as a preacherwas greater was
but that of either of his associates,
than
his title from
(329?-389?) had his father
the four great
among
in most
exercised
was
priesthe aided his father,from about made was bishop of the villageof Sasima. the Arianism About 378 he went to Constantinopleto oppose the faith of the vast which was majority of its inhabitants. The accession of the zealouslyNicene Emperor, Theodosius, him the needed in 379, gave support, and he preached with such success that he gained the repute of having turned the made he was bishop city to the Nicene faith. By Theodosius But the frictions of party strife of Constantinople in 381. varying stations. 361. By Basil he
and
the
inclination
times before to
he one
As
a
to
driven him
ascetic retirement from
the
which
had him
world, caused
this most exalted ecclesiastical post. relinquish ranked with Gregory of Nyssa. Like him he of the Eastern
than
intellectual victoryof the New-Nicene of that
formula.
age
What
expressedby
a
speedily
As
a
writer
is reckoned
Fathers, and the later Orient has given him
the "Theologian." the title, To the three Cappadocians,more
men
several
faith
to was
any
others,the
due.
To
the
triumph of the Nicene modifications they reallymade have been well their work
recent
German
seemed
the
writer i1
God, leading a (and Marcellus) taught the one The Cappathreefold personallife, who reveals Himself such. as docians think of three divine hypostases,which, as they manifest the same are activity, recognizedas possessingone nature and the for same dignity. The mystery for the former lay in the trinity; Athanasius
1
Seeberg, Text-Book
of the History of Doctrines,Eng. tr.,1
:
232.
TRIUMPH
NEW-NICENE
THE
128
empire, in spiteof a in northern brief toleration of Arianism Italyby Gratian's suc Valentinian II, influenced by his mother, against which cessor, had of Milan Ambrose to strive. Here, too, the authority of Arians
Theodosius in the
several
the
decided
potent
was
empire
was
a
centuries
in the
fate of Arianism
after her
lost cause, the
among
death, about
though
Germanic
it
was
388. to
Arianism
continue
invaders,thanks
to
for the
(see Section V). the synod of 381 met, the Nicene when Yet creed, as even adopted in 325, failed to satisfythe requirements of theologic development in the victorious party. It said nothing regard A instance. of the Holy Spirit,\for ing the[consubstantiality creed more desirable, fullymeeting the state of discussion was into use, and and actually such a creed came by 451 was re It ulti of 381. garded as adopted by the General Council mately took the place of the genuine Nicene creed, and is that Its exact the "Nicene" known to this day. origin is un as certain, but it is closely related to the baptismal creed of from the reconstructible teaching of Cyril, Jerusalem, as afterward bishop of that city,about 348 ; and also to that of missionary
of Ulfila
work
Epiphanius
of Salami
s, about
374.1
be said that it long controversy, it may that a less disputed phrase was misfortune not adopted was a that imperial interference at Nicsea, and doubly a misfortune In the strugplayed so large a part"in the ensuing discussions. into existence,and a policy of im gle the imperial church came perialinterference was fullydeveloped. Departure from official crime. a orthodoxy had become On
this
reviewing
Theodosius's
attitude
was
no
less strenuous
toward
remain
parties. regard to heretical Christian heathen In 392 he forbade worship under penalties similar to the old weapon those for lese-majesty and sacrilege.2It was used of heathenism by Christian against Christianity now toleration had fully Constantine's hands against heathenism. worship persisted,and disappeared. Nevertheless, heathen only slowly died out.
ing
heathenism
than
in
1
Ayer, Source
2
Codex
Book, pp. 354-356. Theodosianus, 16l". 12 ; Ayer,
p. 347.
V.
SECTION
TRIBES
GERMANIC
THE
MISSIONS
A1UAN
THE
AND
129
INVASIONS
GERMANIC
history of the empire the defense of the and the Danube frontiers of the Rhine against the Teutonic important military problem. peoples beyond had been an Under Marcu^ Aurelius a desperate,but ultimatelysuccessful Danube had been waged by the Romans the upper on war (167-180). Considerable shiftingof tribes and formations of fron of the Roman confederacies took place behind the screen tier; but by the beginning of the third century the group the upper had formed across known the Alemans as Rhine, the
Throughout
and
half
century later,that of the Franks
a
side of that
230-240, southern
the Goths Russia.
these
Between
river.
two
on
In 250
251
right
developments, about
completed their settlement and
the lower
the Roman
in what
is
now
hold in the Bal
seriouslythreatened by a Gothic invasion,in which Goths the persecutingEmperor, Decius, lost his life. The effected a settlement in the regionnorth of the lower Danube. They invaded the empire,and the perilwas not stayed tillthe kans
was
(269), from
victories of Claudius
"Gothicus."
The
which
his title,
he derived
stronger Emperors, Aurelian, Diocletian,
Constantine, held the frontiers of the Rhine
and
the danger of invasion effectively ; but present. By the fourth century the Goths north of Danube
who
were
the Germanic
kinsmen
in
most
contact
always
was
the
Danube,
civilization of any of while their the Visigoths,
as
Ostrogoths. The exact is uncertain,though they are generally
Russia
called
were
meaning of these names West and East Goths. regarded as signifying There was, indeed,much interchangebetween Romans from the time of Aurelian onward. Germans, especially numbers, in the Roman served, in increasing
mans
Roman
traders
penetratedfar beyond the borders settled in the
pire. Germans Roman
ways.
the
Roman
known
tribes,were
in southern
with
and
Prisoners of
taken
probably
Ger
armies. of the
border provincesand
war,
and
em
adopted
in the
raid
Cappadocia, had introduced the germs of Chris the Visigothsbefore the close of the third cen tianityamong a tury, and even rudimentarychurch organizationin certain places. The Visigoths,as a nation, had not been converted. of 264, from
4 To
that
work
Ulfila
parentage sprung,
was
to
in part at
contribute.
Born
about
310, of
least,from the captivesjustmen-
WORK
THE
130
tioned,he
of Christian
was
ULFILA
OF
origin,and
became
the services of the littleChristian Gothic
companied
a
Gothic
Eusebius
Arian
of
embassy, Nicomedia,
and
circle.
bishop
of
in Antioch
in the latter
In 341
after the formation
and
reckoned
one
of the Homoiousian
of its adherents.
For
the
ac
bishop by Constantinople, the synod (ante, theology,which anti-Nicene,
party he next
in the
where city,or is uncertain. His then sitting, p. 120) was thenceforth been very simple,was to have seems whether
he
ordained
was
then
"reader"
a
seven
was
to be
years
he
land, tillpersecution compelled him and his fellow Christians to seek refuge on Roman soil,livingand the modern Plevna, in Bulgaria. laboringfor many years near labored
in his native
His great work was the translation of the Scriptures, at least or of the New Testament, into the Gothic tongue. In 383 he died
Constantinople. Unfortunately,the complete oblivion into which these Arian labors fell, owing to their un orthodox character in the view of the followingage, allows no knowledge of Ulfila's associates,nor a judgment as to how far the credit of turning the Visigothsto Christianity belongedto about 370. him, or to the Gothic chieftain Fritigern, in spiteof heathen But, however brought about, the Visigoths, persecution,rapidly accepted Arian Christianity.Not only 'they,but their neighbors the Ostrogoths,the Vandals in part, Germanic and remoter such as the Burgundians and tribes,, on
a
visit to
the Arian faith before invadingthe Lombards, had embraced empire. Indeed, so widely had Christianitypenetrated that
improbablethat,had the invasions been a coupleof generationsdelayed, all might have entered the empire as As it was, the far Christians. those tribes only which were thest removed from the influences going out from the Visigoths those of northwestern the chief were Germany, of whom the Franks and the Saxons remained overwhelmingly heathen Such rapid extension of Chris at the time x"f the invasions. tianityshows that the hold of native paganism must have been and that many, whose have utterlyperished, names slight, shared in the work of conversion. of the utmost It was sig it seems
not
"
"
nificance that when Germans
came,
tianity. Had
the walls of the
empire were
broken
the
for the most part, not as enemies of Chris the Western empire fallen,as well it might, a
might have been vastly century before,the story of Christianity different.
GERMAN
THE
INVASIONS
131
Central Asia, by an invasion of Huns from western the Visigothssought shelter across the frontier of the lower Danube in 376. offi Angered by ill-treatment from Roman cials, they crossed the Balkans and annihilated the Roman army in in in battle which the Emperor Valens a near Adrianople, 378, Pressed
strong hand
lost his life,f The
of Theodosius
(379-395)
re
strained their further attacks; but on his death the empire, divide^ between his son of eighteen,Arcadius, in the East, and his
eleven-year-old son, Honorius,
able
resist the
to
dered
attack.
almost to the walls of
into Greece,
penetratingas
Under
in the
West, was no longer the Alaric, Visigothsplun
and Constantinople, far
as
thence
moved
Sparta. By 401 the Visi resisted for Italy,but were able Vandal Stilicho, general,
pressinginto northern the next few years by Theodosius's he had left as guardian for the young Honorius. whom Stilicho's murder, in 408, opened the road to Rome, and Alaric not till 410, however, that promptly marched thither. It was the Visigothicchieftain actuallycaptured the city. The poppular impressionof this event was profound. The old mistress of the world had fallen before the barbarians. Alaric,desirous of establishing a kingdom for himself and of securingRoman of Italy,marched for southern at once Africa, the granary Italy,and there died before the close of 410. Under Ataulf the Visigothichost marched northward, invading southern in 412. Gaul Here the Goths settled by 419, developing ultimatelya kingdom that included half of modern France, of Spain by conquest during the to which they added most goths were
course
of the century.
The
Roman
inhabitants
were
not
driven
out, but
they were subjected to their Germanic conquerors, who appropriatedmuch of the land, and placed its older occu inferior position. Commerce ham was pants in a distinctly pered,the life of the cities largelybroken down, and civilization
crippled. in progress, the tribes across these events the were their opportunity. The Rhine had seen Arian Vandals and heathen Alans and Suevi invaded Gaul at the close of 406, ultimatelypushing their way into Spain, where they arrived While
before Gaul
the Visigoths. The and
burg, and still bears
Franks
pressed into northern the Burgundians conquered the regionaround Strassthence graduallythe territory of eastern Gaul which their
name.
had
Britain, involved
in this
collapseof
GERMAN
THE
132
increasinglyinvaded by the Saxons, had been attackingits coasts since the
authority,was
Roman
INVASIONS
Angles,and Jutes, who
Roman of the fourth century. There weaker grasp than on the continent, and
civilization had
middle a
quest slowly advanced, it drove
westward, and Vandals
much
made
Spain, having
from
the
con
largely
heathen
The
a
Africa
in full force in 429, under Gaiseric. They of the Germanic the most early powerful
ratical ships speedilydominated the in 455. A Vandal raid sacked Rome
Germanic
Celtic element
of Britain entered
as
land.
by 425, invaded established
soon
it
there
kingdoms, whose pi
western
A
Mediterranean.
fearful
invasion
of
in 451,
checked in battle by the Huns under Attila,was and Visi near Troyes by the combined forces of the Romans goths. The next year Attila carried his devastations into Italy, and was which barely preventedfrom taking Rome by causes
Gaul
are
obscure, but
now
Leo
I, were
Though
believed
which
among to
have
the rule of the
been
the
efforts of its
bishop,
determinative.
Emperors
was
nominally maintained
who established the Germanic West, and even conquerors, professedlytheir de kingdoms in Gaul, Spain,and Africa were in the
pendents, the Emperors army. to
On
the
Valentinian
death III.
became
the tools of the chiefs of the
of Honorius, in 423, the empire passed
His
long reign,till455,
was
marked
by
the
of Africa, and Aetius, the count quarrels of Boniface, count of Italy,which permitted the Vandal conquest of North Africa. Aetius won, indeed, about the last victoryof the empire when, he defeated Attila in 451. Between with the Visigoths, 455 and set up and deposed in the 476 no less than nine Emperors were the head of the army. The real ruler of Italywas From West. held by Ricimer, of Suevic and Visi456 to 472 this post was taken by After his death the command was gothic descent. certain Orestes,who conferred the imperialtitle on his son, a in Italy was Romulus, nicknamed Augustulus. The army them the recruited chiefly from smaller Germanic tribes,among third of the land. demanded a Rugii and Heruli. It now in mutiny in 476 under the Orestes refused,and the army rose Germanic it made King. This date generalOdovakar, whom Em has usuallybeen taken as that of the close of the Roman pire. In realityit was without specialsignificance.Romulus further Emperor in no Augustulus was deposed. There was and his contemthe West till Charlemagne. But Odovakar
INVASIONS
GERMAN
THE
133
at an thought that the Roman Empire was in ruled southern ruled in Italy as' the Visigoths end. He France and Spain, a nominal subjectof the Roman Emperor, in who the throne sat on Constantinople. ended in 493 in the Odovakar's sovereignty in Italy was Germanic invaders of Italy,the Ostro struggleagainst new that successful conqueror Under a goths, led by Theodoric. and Germanic of Remarkable in Roman amalgamation really stitutions was Ravenna, whence attempted. His capitalwas The he ruled till his death in 526. Ostrogothickingdom in under the Em Italywas brought to an end by the long wars fought,from 535 to 555, by Beliperor Justinian,which were sarius and Narses, who restored a ravaged Italyto the empire. Contemporaneously (534) the imperialauthoritywras re-estab lished in North Africa and the Vandal kingdom brought to Between end. 568 and 572 not long at peace. an Italy was
porarieshad
a
no
invasion, that of the Lombards,
Germanic
new
that
kingdom ern Italy,to did
was
to last for two
which
regionthey
not, however, win
Rome
centuries.
gave
and
founded
Masters
a
of north
their name, the Lombards the southern part of the
did
they gain Ravenna, the seat of the imperial remained, therefore, exarch, till the eighth century. Rome connected had its seat in Constanti with the empire which frontier nople, but so distant and so close to the Lombard that effective control from impossible Constantinople was condition extremely favorable for the growth of the political a peninsula,nor
"
of its bishop.
power
Contemporaneously with the earlier of the scribed,changes of the utmost were significance Gaul.
The
Franks, of whom
long been pressinginto inces.
Divided
jFranks,
from
^energy,he He
and
church
into about
his
he
an
Arian.
declared
thousand year.
His
After for
of was
most a
has
just de
in process
been
made,
part of the ancient
tribes, the Clovis.
King
of
the
in had
prov
Salic
A
chieftain of great his sovereigntyas far as the Loire. still heathen, though he treated the
481,
was
respect. In 493
dian, but, unlike not
several
people were
with
the northern
extended
soon
mention
events
he
married
Clotilda,a Burgunof her fellow countrymen, a "Catholic," the Alemans, in 496, great victoryover
Christianity,and
his followers in
was
baptized
with
three
Rheims, on Christmas of that to be contribe,therefore,
the first Germanic
CONVERSION
THE
134 verted
Burgundians, and belief
Lombards
for Clovis
won
but, added
death, in 511,
his
to
take
to
of the
sions north
Visigoths,Ostrogoths,Vandals, Arians.
bishops whom
enabled abilities,
own
from
the
Pyrenees and
to become
stretchingeven
J
was
connections
between
them
and
him
before his
France, his territories
That
beyond ultimately,though
"Catholic"
so
of
Rhine.
the
he, in turn,
of their posses extensive a ruler
Visigothsmost
well be called the founder
that he may
This
in agreement the good-willof the old Roman
were
only
not
FRANKS
THE
the support of the
population and favored
faith.
the orthodox
to
OF
the
Franks
were
immediately,to
not
of
the papacy
most
bring far-reaching
consequences.
conversion
The
of the Franks
the other Germanic
had
also much
influence
on
invaders,though the example of the native
population among powerfully. The
whom
settled worked even more they were Arianism in 517, Burgundians abandoned and in 532 became of Frankish im the The kingdom. part perialconquests of Justinian ended the Arian kingdoms of the Vandals and Ostrogoths. The ter rivalryof the creeds was minated in Spain by the renunciation of Arianism by the VisigothicKing, Recared, in 587, and confirmed at the Third Coun cil of Toledo, in 589. About of 590 the gradual conversion the Lombards to Catholicism began a process not completed tillabout 660. Thus all Arianism ultimatelydisappeared. "
SECTION
THE
VI.
GROWTH
OF
THE
PAPACY
the distinction
To
Church already attachingto the Roman and its bishop the period of the invasions brought new emi Believed to be founded by Peter, situated in the an nence. cient capital, the guardian of apostolical tradition,the largest and
of the West, it had stood orthodox in controversy, and in the ruin of the Germanic vasions it seemed the great survivinginstitution of the ancient most
church
generous
in the Arian world the
which
they
bishops
of Rome
several abilities,
~
\ "
\
unable
were
in this
to
While
overthrow.
period
were
men
most
of
of moderate
the strongest leaders of the West, and to them great advancement in the authorityof the Roman bishop the development of a real papacy" Such a leader due. was were
"
of force
C,Church
was
not
Innocent
I
(402-417). He
claimed
tradition onlycustodyof apostolical
for the Roman and the founda-
136
THE
Italyby the
Eastern
MONASTICISM
OF
RISE
empire, diminished the independenceof the papacy. Outside of Italy the growth of a new Catholic the Franks, and the gradual conversion of Arian Ger power, manic rulers,brought about a harmony between the new sover their in latter and that the extensive to bishops eigns gave claims, though accompanied by great dependence of Roman sovereigns. The full realization dependence on the Germanic of the papal ideal,thus early established,was to be a task of and was vicissitudes. to encounter centuries, many SECTION
*,
MONASTICISM
VII.
?
It has standard
of
before the time of Constantine
church
by the
aided
was
progress
(ante,pp. 103, 104). Their inherent
ascetic tendencies
philosophiesof the ancient
better who
pointed out that ascetic ideals and a double Christian morality had long been growing in the
been
world.
in the
Origen,for
with the Hellenistic
instance, distinguished
spirit, Long before the close of the third century the holy virginswere a conspicuous element in the church, and men and women, without leavingtheir homes, were pracis asceticism. Nor asceticism, or even monasticism, ) tising be found in Its to to are peculiar Christianity. representatives the religions of India and among Jews, Greeks, and Egyptians. led to its increased development contem Certain causes with the recognition of Christianity by the state. The porary low condition of the church, (emphasized by the influx of vast permeated
was
was
for his asceticism.
;
in the peace
numbers sion
of
from
Constantine,\led
life
by serious-minded
doms
left asceticism
The
world
morality,from /
V ble and
A
than
was
practiceof
:~:~
a
to
a
all,the
lavman"s
Christian movement.
a
soon a
ascetic
attain-
breach
worship and
to
more
an-
formalism the
close of
individual
become with
of
estima-
more
extreme
freer and
was was
as
developed by
desire for
Monasticism
conver
Christian
mind
The
contemplation
Above
in its initiation it
tions of conventional
of the
cessation of martyr-
well to flee.
of public worship, as rigidity
approach to enough ; but :
The
Christians.
the active virtues.
God.
after the
enlarged valuation
it seemed
/ the third century, led L
303, and
highestChristian achievement filled with sightsthat offended
which
tiquityregarded the
to
the
.
\1 able.
to
260
the
service.
formal limita-
It_wasW
:,
monasticism,was born in Egypt, about 250, of native (Coptic)stock. of Christian
the founder
in central
Koma,
137
MONASTICISM
EARLY
Impressed with Christ's words and about v/up his possessions,
into the fifteen years later he went lived have is Here he said to solitude,becoming a hermit. till356 (?). He believed himself tormented by demons in every Some vijlage.
his native
practisedthe strictest self-
He
fasted.
He
imaginableform.
prayed constantly. He by overcoming the flesh. Anthony were largest
singlyor their
soon
as
as
) / V
imitators,
many
of which
/
Whether
possiblehermit-
largelyof
their self-denialswere
and
worship
were
far
l
devising.
own
first great improver of monasticism The Born about 292, he became soldier,and was a
heathenism
when Christianity
to
first he
At
near
L
God
to
alone,others absolutely
these monks
in groups,
like. Their
had
in groups, in the deserts of Nitria and Scetis.
lived
of whom
the
draw
would
He
denial.
some
; *
to the rich young man,1 he gave 270 took up the ascetic life in/
adopted
the
hermit
Pachomius.
was
from
converted
perhaps twenty
old.
years
dissatisfiedwith its
life,but
in he established the first Christian monastery irregularities, all the Here Tabennisi,in southern Egypt, about 315-320. into knit inmates were a singlebody, having assigned work, of
regularhours another
in
"
a
worship, similar dress,and
word,
a
life in
under
common
cells close to an
abbot.
one
This
also It was healthful type of monasticism. a vastlymore was for whom established a Pachomius one possiblefor women, At his death,in 346, there were ten of his monasteries convent. in
^/
\/
Egypt. The
types, the hermit form of Anthony and the cenobite
two
side by side in Egypt, that land to the rest of the em considerable developmentearlyin the fourth I
organizationof Pachomius, continued and
both
carried from
were
pire. Syria saw century.
There
sion,of which Simeon
a
an
the
hermit
example, a
who gtvlitgs.
form for
dwelt
took
extravagant
expres-
is that of the famous littlelater,
thirtyyears, till his death
in
situated east of ^ntioph. Mo the top of a pillar, in Asia nasticism Minor, on the other hand, continued the tradition of Pachomius, chieflyowing to the efforts of its great
459,
on
JBasjL(ante,p. 125), who ^l popularizer, from
about
360
to
his death 1
in 379.
Matt.
1921.
labored for its spread The
Rule
which
bears
^
his name, that I more \
his actual
life in
a
emphasized work, should
monks T
whether of
is,in
a
MONASTICISM
compositionor than
common
Bible
and
prayer,
aid those
similar good deeds. / Rule
OF
SPREAD
THE
138
that
reading.
by the discouragedextreme
It
outside
generalway,
/ and Russian Churches weight laid than (^less
a
not,
was
even
of Pachomius. It
of
care
It
taught that orphans, and
asceticism.
basis of the monasticism
Basil's
of the Greek
the present day, though with much and by him on work helpfulnessto to
others. The
/
work
introduction
of monasticism
of Athanasius. the
/tury
By
exhortations and
into the
the
was
closingyears of the fourth cenexamples of Jerome, Ambrose, and favor, though it also encountered
the
) Augustine brought it much its great / no little opposition. In France Tpurs, who established a monastery Soon
West
monasticism, both
advocate
Poitiers
near
in its cenobite
Martin
was
and
about
in its hermit
The earliest throughout the West. but Eusebius, bishop of monks, as East, were laymen ; Vercelli in Italy,who died in 371, began the practiceof requir ingthe clergyof his cathedral to live the monastic life. Through the custom the influence of this example it graduallybecame for monks ordination. Such clerical consecrato receive priestly ;ion became, also,the rule ultimatelyin the East. Western monasticism was long in a chaotic condition. Indi vidual monasteries had their separate rules. Asceticism,always characteristic in high degree of Eastern monasticism, found monasteries were disciples.On the other hand, many many orms,
was
to
be
found
in the
lax. ^of
The
Nursia.
of Western
great reformer Born
about
monasticism
480, he studied for
a
was
Benedict
brief time in
Rome,
hermit but, oppressed by the evils of the city,he became a of the mountains at Subiaco, east of Rome. (c.500) in a cave The fame of his sanctitygathered disciples about him, and led to
the offer of the
he acceptedonly to
unwillingto submit 529, traditionally
neighboringmonastery, which monks leave when he found its ill-regulated At uncertain date, to his discipline. some
headship of
he
a
founded
now
the
mother
monastery
of
Cassino, about and Naples. To it he gave his Rule, half-way between Rome of his life,his meet and in it he died; the last certain event
the
Benedictine
order,
on
the
hill of Monte
ing with the OstrogothicKing, Totila,having taken place in 542.
BENEDICT'S Benedict's of
human
Rule1
famous
exhibited
his
and
nature
RULE
Roman
139
his
profound knowledge genius for organization.
contained At
yet who
was
to consult
in
bound
was
monks:
Christ's_soldiers. self-supporting garri"Dii_,,QL he implicitly abbot, who must, an obeyed,
and
Tts head
in minor
monk wasjto~beconie__
None
a.
common
concern
questionsthe elder without having fried
but, ocuce^admitted,, his, To~Benedict's thinking,wjorshipwas
year; mona^teryfor^a
irrevocable^
vowlPwere
of
matters
grave
all the brethren, and
life of the
self-
nr|"ai
pe
Its daily common undouBtediy the prime dutyLJiL^-Jnojik. ;
observance
least four
occupied at
periods. Almost
much
as
hours, divided laid
was emphasis,
into
work.
on.
seven "
Idle
Hence of the spuTT' Benedict prescribed is the enemy fixed time must manual labor in the fields.and_ceadio".Some ^
ness
"spentin reading eachday, varying with
be
books
seasons
of the
assigned,with provisionto These insure their being read. made injunctions every_Jienedictine monastery, at all true to the founder s ideal,a_centre of a library. The value of these, of lnxlul"^,Iancl "he_possesspr nations and the\ provisionsin the trainingof the Germanic of literature was inestimable. Yet they were but' preservation that of worship. In secondary to Benedict's main purpose, characterized by great modera general,Benedict's Rule was in its requirementsas to food, labor, and tion and good sense year;
and
in Lent
the
It discipline.
was
a
must
be
strict life,but
not
one
at
all
impossible
for the average earnest man. In the Benedictine system early Western monasticism is to be seen at its best. His_Rule spread slowly. Itjwas carried .
by
missionaries
Roman
England
and
It did not Germany. penetrate France till the seventh century; but by the time,of well-nighuniversal. With__the Charlemagne it had become ilule of Benedict the adjustment between monasticism and the missionrc1rwas~TX5mplete.The services of its monks as
afies~anct pioneers
to
were
inestimable
of
value.
In
troubled
times the monastery afforded the_ojily__re"uge for ^peace-loving vSpuls.The highestproof of its adaption to the later Roman
Empire and the Middle Ages was supported the institution;they 1
Extracts
Historical
in Ayer, pp.
Documents
of
631-641 the Middle
;
that were
not to
be
only
the best
found
in it.
men
Its
practicallyin full in Henderson, Select Ages, pp. 274-314.
AMBROSE
140
great faults,from
discredit of the life of the
its emphasis pointof view, were higher and lower morality,and its Christian family; but both were in
heritances
conditions
on
distinction
a
Empire
from
between Christian
antecedent
nasticism
ideals in the Roman
and
the
development of monasticism. their product,not their cause.
was
to
SECTION j
modern
a
VIII.
AMBROSE
AND
Mo-
CHRYSOSTOM
V
"K
The
contrast
trated
by
Ambrose.
and
between
the unlike
East
is in many experiencesof
and
West
and qualities
Ambrose
in
born
was
illus
ways
Chrysostom in western
Trier, now
Germany, where his father held the high civil office of prae Educated in Rome torian prefectof Gaul, about 337-340. for and likableness led to his " civil career, his talents,integrity, / appointment,about 374, as governor of a considerable part of ^ northern Italy,with his residence in Milan, then practically an imperialcapital. The death of the Arian bishop,Auxen'
tius,in 374, left the Milanese were
in bitter
soon
of his
struggleas
The
successor.
young
quietthe throng,when and
he
found
Milan.
To
became to
a
the
church
to
raised,"Ambrose
was
call of God.
a
was
He
the church.
and
talent for
He
gave
up
his
studied
acceptablepreacher. Above
the full the Roman
Vbecame
factions
two
theological complexion entered
governor
the cry
Ambrose, this
most
the
to
The
Bishop I" himself, though unbaptized,elected bishop of
to the poor
wealth
vacant.
see
theology. He all,he possessed
administration,and
he
soon
Strongly attached to the Nicene faith,Ambrose would make no compromise with the Arians, and resisted all their attempts to secure placesof aided by the effort in which they were an worship in Milan Empress Justina,mother of the youthful Valentinian II. In the efforts of the hea the same spirithe opposed successfully the
first ecclesiastic of the
West.
"
then
party in Rome
to
obtain
from
Valentinian
II the
res
Victory in the Senate chamber, and other privileges for the older worship. His greatest triumph That in the case of the Emperor Theodosius. was quick the of of murder the tempered ruler, angered by governor of its inhabThessalonica,in 390, caused a punitivemassacre
J
toration
of the Altar
itants.
Ambrose,
Emperor
to
of
with
his
manifest 1
moral
rare
courage,
called
public repentance.1 It
Ayer,
pp.
390, 391.
on
throws
the a
141
CHRYSOSTOM
AND
AMBROSE
he
that
the character of Theodosius
lighton pleasing
obeyed
the admonition. Ambrose
was
theologicalwriter of such reputationthat
a
Church
the Roman
him
reckons
of its
one
"
Doctors
^
" "
or
work, however, in this field was
His
authoritative teachers.
as
largelya reproductionof the thoughts of Greek theologians, though with a deeper sense of sin and grace than they. "I but I will glory because will not glory because I am righteous, free from sin, I will not glory because I am I #m redeemed. l sins are bent was .but because forgiven." Ambrose's my J practical.He wrote on Christian ethics,in full sympathy with of the time.
the ascetic movement the
development
ful and
sometimes
personalcharacter Such
church.
contributed
He
of Christian
hymnology a overbearing,he was zeal and of indefatigable were
men
needed
much
in the West. man "
a
in the shock
to
Force
of the
highest true princeof the* of the collapsing
He died in 397. empire if the church was to survive in power. the life of Chrysostom. John, to whom Very different was the name was givenlong after Chrysostom, "golden-mouthed,"
his death, tioch about
born
was
of noble
and
^
well-to-do parents in An-
Losing his father shortlyafter his birth, j he was mother, Anthusa, / brought up by his religious-minded and early distinguished himself in scholarshipand eloquence. / About 370, he was baptized and probablyordained a "reader." He now extreme asceticism,and pursued theological \ practised 345-347.
*-
studies
under
Diodorus
later Antiochian became
a
pelledhis
hermit return
of Tarsus,
Antioch, where
to
was
and exegetical
he
was
ordained
a
deacon
the priesthood. Then useful period of his life. For
advanced
the Oriental Church were
of the
Not
followed the happiestand most the great twelve years he was mons
leaders
he satisfiedwith his austerities, (c. 375), and so remained till ill-health com
school.
(c.381). In 386 he
Jthat
of the
one
to
the ablest preacherof Antioch probably ever possessed. His ser eminently practical.The simple, "
/
,
always preferred grammatical understandingof the Scriptures, beloved in Alexan in Antioch to the allegorical interpretation His themes were dria,appealedto him. eminently social the of life. He soon Christian conduct had an enormous following. fame the of Constanti Such was see that, on Chrysostom's he f orced was by Eutropius, v acant, practically noplefalling "
1
De Jacob
et vita
beata,1
:
621.
CHRYSOSTOM
142
the favorite of the Emperor Arcadius, Jof the capitalin 398. Here he soon like that of Antioch. beset
From
the
with
foes.
to won
accept the bishopric a
popular hearing
first, however, his
way
in Con
The
unscrupulous patriarch to bring Constantinople into practicalsubjection. Himself the opponent of Origen's for teaching,he charged Chrysostom with too great partiality that master. for which there Chrysostom's strict discipline, ( was disliked by the loose-living was ample justification, clergy of Worst of he the o all, won / Constantinople. hostilityf the J vigorousEmpress Eudoxia, by reasons of denunciations of femi nine extravagance in dress,which she thought aimed at herself. fearless in de Chrysostom was certainlyas tactlessas he was nouncing offenses in high places. All the forces againsthim In his arose. gathered together. A pretext for attack soon certain monks oppositionto Origen,Theophilus had disciplined of Egypt. Four of these, known the "tall brothers," fled as well received. Theophilus to Chrysostom, by whom they were and Chrysostom's other enemies now secured a synod, at an "The Oak," as imperial estate near Constantinople known and which, under the leadershipof Theophilus, condemned C deposed Chrysostom in 403. The as Empress was supersti/ tious as she was enraged,and an accident in the palace later tradition picturedit probablymistakenlyas an earthquake led left the capital. to Chrysostom's recall shortly after he had of brief duration. A silver statue of the Empress, Peace was erected hard by his cathedral,led to denunciations by Chrys of the ceremonies of its dedication. The ostom Empress saw in him more than ever This time, in spite a personalenemy. of warm the miserable banished to popular support, he was of Cucusus, on the edge of Armenia. town Pope Innocent I protested,but in vain. Yet from this exile Chrysostom con tinued so to influence his friends by letter that his opponents determined to place him in deeper obscurity. In 407 he was ordered reached there, dying on the to Pityus,but he never journey. The fate of this most deserving, ifnot most judicious, preacher side of imperial inter.of righteousnessillustrates the seamy I ference in ecclesiastical affairs,and the risingjealousiesof the I great sees of the East, from whose mutual hostility the church / and the empire were greatlyto suffer. stantinoplewas
of Alexandria, Theophilus, desired
"
"
APOLLINARIS
144
with Athanasius,Apolprimarilyreligious.To both, Christ's
his opponents.
from
even
linaris's interest work
for
same
time
was
the
Moreover,
as
transformation
of
sinful
mortality into divine and blessed immortality. This salvation,Apollinaris thought with Athanasius, could be achieved only if Christ was completely and perfectlydivine. But how, Apollinaris united with argued, could Christ be made up of a perfectman complete God ? Was that not to assert two Sons, one eternal, Nor could Apollinarisexplain and the other by adoption? 1 Christ's sinlessness or the harmony of His wills,if Christ was To him, the best solujoined with full God.2 complete man akin that of seemed he otherwise opposed, to Arius, whom r,tion of the soul in the taken by the Logos, Jesus that was place / That view having been conf and only the body was human. Jdemned,though without mention of his name, by a synod in in 362,3 Apollinaris apparently altered his theory jAlexandria /so as to hold that Jesus had the body and animal soul of a man, in Him the Logos.4 At the but that the reasoningspirit was it
with
was
he
held
sorrows."
our
that it
absorbed
so
"
fered
men
"
5
the
divine
that
"God
These
our
made
so
has
the
in His
opinions seemed
human
own
to
one
flesh suf do
special
and were destined to be widely and Christ's divinity, permanentlyinfluentialin Oriental Christian thinking,but they really^denied Christ's true humanity, and as such speedily honor
i
to
called down
condemnation
against him
in 377
so-called Second
"J pin381. by
their
author.
382, Antioch
Ecumenical
Council
in "
378,
that
of
decided
Rome and
finallythe
Constantinople
6
was Apollinaris
and
on
and
the
school
stronglyoppposed by Gregory of of Antioch.
The
Nazianzus
founoTef of the
latter,in
its later stage, was Diodorus (?-394), long a presbyterof An Its roots, tioch,and from 378 to his death bishop of Tarsus.
indeed, ran back into the earlier teachingof Paul of Samosata posi (ante,p. 72) and Lucian (ante,p. 106) ; but the extreme tions
which
they represented,and
their
were leadership,
re
jected,and the school stood on the basis of the Nicene ortho marked by a degree of literalism in its exegesis doxy. It was of allegory of Scripturequite in contrast to the excessive use 1 8 4
Ayer, p. 495. Athanasius, Tomus Ayer, p. 495.
2
Ibid.
6
Canon, 1.
ad Antiochenos, 7. 8
Ibid.,p.
496.
THE
SCHOOL
influenced
more
and
Adam,"
philosophyshowed the influence of of Plato. Its thought of Christ was
theirs that
as
by
the tradition of Asia
the
by
145
Its
by the Alexandrians. Aristotle
ANTIOCH
OF
ancient
Christ
Minor, of the "second
distinction
between
the
Jesus
of
Alexandria. experiencethan was laid more Antioch, therefore, weight of teachingon the earthly life and'human of Jesus than was the tendency in Alex nature andria. In this attempt to give true value to Christ's human two per ity,Diodorus approached the view that in Christ were in union. moral rather than essential Since the sons Logos is eternal and like can only bear like,that which was born of Mary the human the indwellingof j was only. The incarnation was the Logos in a perfectman, of God in a temple. These views as ; of which reminiscent had the are adoptionistChristology,
the
history and
of
t
'
found
of its latest avowed
one
in Antioch
defenders
century earlier. They
a
in Paul out
were
of Samosata
of touch
with
the
conceptionof salvation the making divine of the human. of Diodorus were Chrysostom (ante,p. Among the disciples of and Theodore Nestorius. Theodore, a 141), Mopsuestia, held the bishopricfor which he is native of Antioch, who named for thirty-six the ablest years, tillhis death in 428, was exegete and theologianof the Antiochian school. Though he
v/ Greek
"
maintained son
"
that
prosopon,
God
and
irpocrwrrov
man
in Christ
he had
"
constituted
one
per
in making that difficulty
con
identical with those real,and held theories practically
tention
of Diodorus.1
of Antioch, held in high Nestorius. a presbyter and monk made patriarchof Constanti repute th*ereas a preacher,was
nople in
428.
of his discoveries, especially
Recent
auto
own
of Heraclides of Damascus, have immensely broadened knowledge of his real theological well as of the facts of his later life. His dogmatic as position, that of the school of Antioch; yet essentially standpointwas work, biographical
he would
not
admit
The
that
the doctrine with which Christ
we
Treatise
designateat
he the
there was same
essential characteristics in the
\vere
in Christ two
charged. time two nature
"With
persons
the
natures.
of the
.
one
"
name
The .
.
divinityand
in
humanity are from all eternitydistinguished." Perhaps his furthest departure from the current Greek conception of in such an expression salvation is to be seen God the Word as : the
2
"
1
Ayer, pp. 498-501.
2
Ibid.,p. 502.
146
THE
ALEXANDRIAN Christ because He
is also named Christ.
And
without
the
INTERPRETATION has alwaysconjunction with
it is impossible for God
the Word
to do
anything
humanity, for all is
planned upon an intimate Nesnot on the deification of the humanity."1 conjunction, torius would emphasize the realityand completenessof the
J human
in the Christian's Lord.
Opposed to Nestorius,and to be his bitterest enemy, was Cyril,the patriarchof Alexandria (412-444),the nephew and of the patriarch who had had so unworthy a part in successor the downfall of Chrysostom. In him unscrupulousambition of Constantinople combined with the jealousy longentertained and it must in Alexandria be admitted, reciprocatedand with the hostility of the rival schools of Alexandria and Antioch. in his Yet it is but justto Cyrilto note that there was more how to Nestorius than mere opposition jealousyand rivalry, ever prominent those unlovelytraits may have been. Cyril, and in consonance the Alexandrian tradition, with the following Greek conceptionof salvation, in Christ the full making saw the view of Apoldivine of the human. Though he rejected linaris and held that Christ's humanity was completein that stood very near it possessed he really to body, soul,and spirit, in Christ the such divine His emphasis on was Apollinaris. Him the that of "two in union as that,though he described in Christ was that of the Logos. natures,"the onlypersonality The Logos "took flesh,"He clothed Himself with humanity. The human element had no personality apart from the Logos. Yet while Cyril held to individual man. Jesus was not an of qualities between the divine and the human, an interchange From two natures, one" ; and that each is a completenature. is the divine. For Cyril it was, therefore, one personality who was God made flesh, we born, who died,of whom partake in the Supper, and whose making divine of humanity is the that we, too, shall be made partakersof the proofand means "
"
"
If the school of Antioch separationof the divine and the human
divine nature.2
came as
near
to
such
a
leave Christ
\ only the Son of God by adoption,that of Cyrilallowed Him littlemore than an impersonalhumanity absorbed in divinity. Mother of of the Mother of Jesus was An ancient designation God"" Theotokos,"eoroW?. It had been used by Alexander of and Gregory of Nazianzus. Alexandria,Athanasius, Apollinaris, "
1
Ayer, p. 502.
2
See
Ayer,pp. 505-507.
THE To
Cyrilit was,
OF
"MOTHER
of course,
GOD"
147
natural
expression. Everywhere be said to have been in good usage, save in the East it may where the school of Antioch had influence, and even Theodore of Mopsuestia of that school was willingto employ the expres coin in sion,if carefullyguarded.1 Nestorius found it current dis Constantinople. To his thinkingit did not sufficiently from the divine in Christ. He therefore tinguishthe human preached againstit,at the beginningof his bishopric, declaring a
form to be "Mother the proper is born of flesh is flesh." Yet
littlelater
as
willingto
say
of Christ""
"for
that
which
he expressed himself a Theotokos,in the guarded way in even
"
It can be endured in con employ it. sideration of the fact that the temple, which is inseparably of her." 3 united with God In preaching the Word, comes against this expressionNestorius had touched popular piety and the rising for the Virgin on the quick. reverence religious his opportunity to humiliate the rival see of Con Cyril saw and the school of Antioch at one blow, while ad stantinople vancing his own Christology. Cyril promptly wrote to the Egyptian monks defending the disputed phrase, and 'there followed an exchange of criticalletters between soon Cyril and Nestorius. It speedily the patri to an came open attack on arch of Constantinople. to his Cyril now brought every influence at his command in aid in one church of the most repulsivecontests history. He appealed to the Emperor and Empress, Theodosius II and Eudocia, and to the Emperor's sister,Pulcheria, representing that Nestorius's doctrines destroyed all basis of salvation. He presented his case to Pope Celestine I (422-432). Nes in his turn, also wrote to the Pope. Celestine promptly torius, found in favor of Cyril,and ordered, through a Roman synod which
Theodore
would
"
in 430, that Nestorius recant be excommunicated. The or action of the Pope is hard to understand. The letter of Nes torius agreed more nearly in its definition of the question at issue with the Western
view
than
did the
theory of Cyril. Nes both natures which by the highest in the one and unmixed union are adored of the Only person 4 Politics were Begotten." probably the determiningfactor. Rome and Alexandria had long worked togetheragainst the torius declared his faith in
1 4
"
2 Ayer, p. 500. Ibid.,p. 501. In Loofs, Nestoriana, p. 171.
a
Ibid.
COUNCIL
THE
148
OF
EPHESUS
Constantinople. Nestorius was less respectful in his address to the Pope than Cyril. Moreover, without being degree of favor to the a Pelagian,Nestorius had given some the Pope opposed (see p. 187). Nestorius's Pelagianswhom also displeasingto attack on the much-prized Theotokos was risingclaims
j
of
Celestine.
widely involved in the dispute,the empire being now two Emperors, Theodosius II of the East, and Valentinian III in Ephesus in in the West, called a generalcouncil to meet 431. Cyril and his followers were early on hand, as was Nes slow in arriving. torius, but the friends of Nestorius were bishop of Ephesus promptly organized Cyril and Memnon, such of the council as were present and they could secure. v Nestorius condemned and deposed in a singleday's ses was sion.1 A few days later Nestorius's friends,led by John, the of Antioch, arrived. They organized and, in turn, patriarch v condemned and deposed Cyril and Memnon.2 Cyril'scouncil, the and added papal delegates, meanwhile, had been joinedby time condemning Pela/John to its list of deposed,at the same ^ The gianism (see p. 188), doubtless to please the West. at a loss as to what to course Emperor Theodosius II was The
Nestorius
pursue.
retired to
prisoned Cyril and inclined their
their side and
to
\ffollow. Antioch ever,
Alexandria
and
they
both, under
were
Nestorius, and
was
now
were
would
allowed
soon
in
imperialpressure,
Antioch
Theodosius
trouble-makers, but
as
real victim
The
sees.
but
Memnon
monastery.
a
to
to to
was
more hostility were
politics
return
worse
made
im
than
willingto
Nestorius, and Cyril in creedal formula. Accord
sacrifice
compromise. concede something to Antioch ingly,in 433, John of Antioch sent to Cyrila creed composed, of Cyrus, then the leadingtheo it is probable,by Theodoret This creed was Antimore logianof the school of Antioch. ochian than Alexandrian, though it could be interpretedin Lord Jesus therefore acknowledge our either direction. "We A union Christ complete God and complete man. of the two natures has been made, therefore we confess one Christ. The holy Virgin is Theotokos,because God the .
.
.
Word tion 1
was
...
.
.
.
made
united
Ayer, p.
with
507.
flesh and Himself 2
became the
man,
and
from
temple received
Ibid.,509.
3
her concep from her."
Ibid.,pp. 510, 511.
3
THE
FATE
OF
NESTORIUS
149
signed this creed, though without retracting any of his former utterances. By so doing he made irrevocable the of Nestorius. Yet Nestorius could have signed it overthrow more even willinglythan he. This agreement enabled Cyril in the East for his council of 431, to secure generalrecognition of papal representa ih the West the participation in Ephesus tives had always accredited it as the Third General Council. Nestorius himself 'was banished to upper Egypt. There he lived a miserable existence,and there he wrote, certainlyas Treatise of Heraclides of 450, his remarkable late as the autumn he survived the Council of Chalcedon Whether of Damascus. (/
Cyrilnow
"
is uncertain. all events
is
some
reason
to think
that
he did.
rejoicedin the steps which led to it,and then sympathy with the views which were
he
in
himself
There
At
felt pro
claimed orthodox. all of Nestorius's sympathizers shared in his desertion., Ibas, the leadingtheologianof the Syrian school of Edessa^ */ supported his teaching. Persecuted in the empire, NestorianNot
ism
found
Persia.
much
There
in Syria, and protectionin followingeven it developed a wide missionary activity. In
~/
time the seventh century it entered China, and about the same southern India. Nestorian churches still exist in the region Lake where Turkey and Persia divide the territorybetween Urumia The
the upper Tigris,and also in India. Antioch and Alexandria agreement of 433 between and
in reality, but
a
truce.
The
division of the two
was,
partiesbut in majority of the
Cyril undoubtedly representedthe Eastern Church, with his emphasis on the divine in the person im of reducing the human of Christ, at the expense to an personal humanity. Though he vigorouslyrejectedApollithat of Apollinaris.It had the narianism, his tendency was especially sympathy of the great party of monks; and many, in Egypt, went further than Cyril,and viewed Christ's human absorbed in His divinity,so that He pos ity as practically sessed one nature only, and that divine. Cyril died in 444, and was succeeded as patriarchof Alexandria by Dioscurus, and religious of far less intellectual acumen motive, but a man the authorityof to advance ambitious, if possible, more even the Alexandrian Two see. later,446, a new patriarch, years took the Flavian, bishop'sthrone in Constantinople. Though of his earlyhistory, littleis known it seems probable that his creased.
DIOSCURUS,
150
with
sympathieswere Flavian's
the
promised
course
AND
FLAVIAN,
LEO
school of Antioch. be
to
He
stormy.
the
From had
the
first, opposi
only of Dioscurus, but of the imperialfavorite minis ter, Chrysaphius,who had supplantedPulcheria in the counsels tion not
Chrysaphiuswas
II.
of Theodosius
a
supporter of the Alex
andrians.
r
Dioscurus planned an at arose. quarrelsoon of the Antiochian school tack on the remaining representatives In sympathy with this effort, and as a Nestorian heretics. as for
Occasion
leader
of the monastic
party,
the
on
counted, stood the aged abbot
help of
which
Dioscurus
"archimandrite," Eutyches
or
of
of little theological a man a partisan Constantinople, ability, of the late Cyril,and influential not only by reason of his the of b ut by friendship Chrysaphius. Eutyches popularity, with was now charged heresyby Bishop Eusebius of Dorylseum. with reluctance,evidentlyknowing Flavian took up the case its possibilities of mischief ; but at a local synod in Constanti and examined condemned. nople,late in 448, Eutyches was His heresy was that he affirmed : I confess that our Lord was of two before the union [i. but natures e.y the incarnation], "
after the union
had
Rome of Leo and
I
nature."
one
now
l
of the ablest of its Popes in the person (seeante, p. 135), and to Leo both Eutyches
one
(440-461)
Flavian
speedilypresentedthe case.2 To Flavian, whom he heartily supported,Leo wrote his famous letter of June, 449, usually called the Tome,3 in which the great Pope set forth a
the view
which
the West
had
entertained
since the time
of
that in Christ were two Tertullian, complete natures, from the without which, detracting propertiesof either nature and substance, came togetherin one person." What may be said,chieflyin criticism of Leo's letter is that, while represent ing clearlyand truly the Western tradition,it did not touch the subtler Greek mind the intellectual depths to which had carried its speculations.Probably it was well that it did not. Meanwhile Dioscurus was moving activelyin Eutyches's full and
"
defense and
the extension of his
the
own
claims.
Emperor called a general council to August, 449. At Ephesus Dioscurus was rehabilitated,Flavian
was 1
Ayer, pp. 513, 514.
3
Ibid.,28
and
:
; extracts, Ayer, p. 515.
At
his instance
in
Ephesus in Eutyches supreme. of Dorylseum conEusebius meet
"
Letters of Leo, 20-28.
y CHALCEDON
OF
CREED
THE
152
Jr. m^y^ ;_truly perfectIn Godhead p"rl Q^r" p^rJWvfGod and trul^m^n, of a reasonable soul and body; consubstantial with the Father accordingto the Godhead, ancLcon(ojjLOovcnov) substantial with, .us -according to the manhood, in all thingslike
the
same
sin;begotten before all ages of the Father accord ing to the Godhead, and in these latter days,for us and for our sal of God (Theotokos), vation,born of the VirginMary, the Mother Christ,Son, Lord, accordingto the manhood; one and the same us, without
unto
unchangeably, inOnly-begotten,in two natures, inconfusedly, being by no divisibly, inseparably,the distinction of natures taken away means by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved,and concurringin one person (prosopon) and one subsistence (hypostasis) not parted or divided into two and the Son and but same one Only-begotten,God the persons, Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophetsfrom the beginning have declared concerningHim, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the creed of the holy Fathers has handed down ,
to
us.
Such
is the creed that has
Greek, Latin, and
since been regardedin the
ever
Protestant
most
Churches
the
as
"
ortho
Christological problem. It is easy to criticiseit. Its adoptionwas greatlyinvolved in ecclesiastical It solved few of the intellectual difficultiesregarding politics. Christologywhich had been raised in the East. It did not ,/ even heal the Christological quarrels.But, when all is ad dox"
solution
mitted,it
of the
be said that its formulation
must
its consequences field in which a
there
portant than that, it I of the church ^
It established
useful.
had
been true
was
that in Christ
a
to
a
was norm
fortunate
and
of doctrine in
great confusion. the fundamental
More
im
conviction
complete revelation of God
is
genuinehuman life. and Roman If a coincidence of imperial interestshad secured for Rome, the imperialauthority was a great dogmatic victory determined that the victoryshould not be one of Roman juris the council diction. By a canon, againstwhich Leo protested, like that of exalted the claims of Constantinople to a dignity made
Rome
in terms
of
a
(ante,p. 135). Nor
the downfall
was
of Alexandria less
damaging. Alexandrian rivalryof Constantinoplehad been successful rivalrywas Rome's advantage in the East. Now at
an
end, for the
consequences
of the Chalcedonian
decision
^fcrippledAlexandria permanently. By the council the historic distribution of the Orient
was
Jerusalem beinggiven completed,
THE
REVOLT
MONOPHYSITE
153
the patriarchalstandingwhich it had long claimed, side by Alexan side with the three older patriarchates, Constantinople,
dria,and Antioch.
X.
THE
EAST
creed of Chalcedon
was
now
f
The
SECTION
originand largeportion of
DIVIDED
the officialstandard
the empire. Its Western
able, however, entals
to
it seemed
a
shared
the East.
This
"Nestorian."
those regionswhich
spiritmade
stronglyin
most
it unaccept Ori To many
especiallytrue
was
of
the
in
Alexandrian
tendency to emphasize the divine in Christ at the expense of the fullyhuman, and these elements of oppositionincluded of the monks, the old native stock of Egypt generally, most and a largeportion of the population of Syria and Armenia. Cyril and Undoubtedly {he tendencies which the "orthodox" his heretical successor, conDioscurus,had representedwere of the and with seemed Greek sonant conception salvation, honor Christ. These to do to special rejectersof the creed of Chalcedon included many shades of opinion,but as a whole they showed little departure from Cyril. Their chief differ from of emphasis. and the West Chalcedon ence was one They rejectedEutyches, yet most of them would say "of two and di understood that the human natures," provided it was '7
\
vine
were
united
in the incarnation
into
nature, and
one
that
attributes. As with Cyril,this divine,with human essentially than with more humanity was impersonal,and, perhaps,even him it was that without transformed into divinity, so ceasing, in a certain sense, to be human, it was properly describable as one
Hence
divine nature.
"/called Monophysites
"
the
opponents
believers in
Immediately after the Council
one
of Chalcedon
were
nature.
of Chalcedon
in
Palestine and, the government
which revolution, practical able only slowlyto master. was By 457 the see of Alexandria in possessionof a Monophysite, Timothy, called by his was enemies the Cat; by 461, Peter the Fuller,of the same faith,
next, Egypt
were
held that of Antioch. nent, but
the
native
off the
throwing sympathized with the Fuller caused
These
captures
were
not
to be perma
populationsof Egypt and Syria were of Constantinopleand dominance largely the Monophysite protest. In Antioch Peter fresh commotion by adding to the Trisagion,
EFFORTS
COMPROMISE
154
ascriptionran: "Holy God, holy Strong,holy Im mortal, who ivas crucified for us." The empire found itself grievously 'threatened, no politically and much of the less than religiously, by these disaffections; than two centuries was devoted to imperialpolicy for more In the con their adjustment, with slightpermanent success. Zeno and Basilicus for the imperialthrone, the test between direct bid for Monophysite support by issuing, latter made a "the so-called in 476, an Encyclion,in which he anathematized in modification Tome of Leo, and all thingsdone at Chalcedon that the
so
"
of the
creed.1
Nicene
For
yet ready, and this action that led to his overthrow induced I
to
attempt
new
I famous
a
heal the
reversal the East
of Basilicus
was
one
not
was
of the
causes
Zeno, however, probably
by Zeno. patriarchAcacius
the
by
such
Constantinople,made a In 482 he published his
of
schism.
In it the results of fhe Councils of Nicsea
Henoticon.2
confirmed, Nestorius and Eutyches Constantinoplewere condemned, and Cyril's "twelve chapters"3 approved. It and
of the exact relationship which to that of Chalcedon not intended to was not, and was in the declaration : These was be, clear. Its chief significance brief
a
gave
statement, Christological
"
things we write, not as making an innovation upon the faith, who has held or holds any but to satisfyyou ; and every one other opinion,either at the present or at another time, whether in any at Chalcedon or synod whatever, we anathematize." creed
left it free to hold the Chalcedonian
This
The
ous.
was
consequence
not
peace
but
to
be
confusion.
errone
While
Monophysites accepted it,the Monophysite extremists On the other would have nothing to do with the Henoticon. and its orthodoxy at hand, the Roman see, feelingits honor tacked by this practical rejectionof Chalcedon, excommuni many
cated
Acacius
and
broke
off relations with
the
East, the schism
the continuing till 519, when the Emperor Justin renewed that increased authority of Chalcedon, under circumstances the prestige of the papacy,4but only alienated Egypt and Syria
the
!
more.
Justin's successor,
than
any
other
himself master 1 3
Ayer, pp.
of the Eastern of the church.
523-526.
Ibid.,pp. 505-507.
fully making conspicuous militarysuc-
the great Justinian (527-565), more succeeded Emgerors, His 2 4
in
Ibid.,pp. 527-529. Ante, p. 135 ; see Ayer,
p. 536.
155
POLICY
JUSTINIAN'S
the empire for a time control of Italy and The church was a department now practically
cesses
restored to
North
Africa.
Heathenism
of the state. before. never
suppressed and
was
persecutedas
Justinian himself was, at first, strongly in his sympathies,his Empress, Theodora, leaned While
Chalcedonian
Monophysite side. He soon gave up the persecutionof Monophysiteswith which his reignbegan. Himself one of the minds of the age, he sought to develop an ablest theological ecclesiastical policythat would so interpretthe creed of Chalthe
to
leavingit technicallyuntouched, would ex construction, clude any possibleAntiochian or "Nestorian" thus bringing its significance fullyinto accord with the the he hoped to pla By this means ology of Cyril of Alexandria. cate the Monophysites,and also to satisfythe wishes of the whether "orthodox" or East generally, Monophysite, without and the West too deeply by an actual rejection offendingRome
/cedon that, while
of the Chalcedonian
Justinian's aim.
orthodoxy was Cyrillic-Chalcedonian a
As
difficulttask.
far
as
concerned
dox
Any
view it succeeded.
nently discredited. By satisfied the wishes of "orthodox"
result
Justinian
and
was
was
Leontius theologian,
witnessinga
Leontius
and
"orthodox"
torian."
perma
undoubtedly
"
An
the
a
fresh
teaching of
a
The
Byzantium (c.485-543). Aristotelian philosophy, distinctions to
The
feelingof
much
be
subsistences
"
explanationwithout
Leontius now "intra-hypostatic"ewTrdoraTo?
of the
the
that
Monophysite, was
hypostases
the rise of
revival of the
in Christ could not
natures
ing two
of
appliedAristotelian
tologicalproblems. two
was
overwhelming majority of the
greatlyaided in his task by of the Chalcedonian creed, in interpretation age
Cyril
East.
Justinian
monastic
was
only "ortho
the
of Antiochianism
form
a
satisfaction of the Mo
of Chalcedon
this the
It
In its effort to render the
it failed. in general nophysites of the creed lic interpretation "
a
of
establishment
the
Hence
decision.
the
Chris-
East, both
affirmation
of
without involv interpreted and therefore being "Nes these
"Nestorian" The
conse
might be that is,there might be such of one nature a hypostaticunion that while the peculiarities remained, it might find its hypostasisin the other. In Christ which is that of both natures, is that of this one hypostasis, the Logos. Thus Leontius would interpretthe creed of Chal-
quences
was
what
"
gave.
"
natures
JUSTINIAN
156
THEOLOGICAL
in terms
cedon
subordinated Such
an
seemed, interpretation
basis of reunion
with
constituted their
majority. The
the
in Christ
human
the ultimate
that
POLITICIAN
with the aim, if not
wholly consonant language,of Cyril. The
exact so
A
AS
realityis at the
is
with
the
real,but is
the divine.
time, a quitepossible
moderate
more
Monophysites, who largesection led by Severus,
Monophysite patriarchof Antioch (512-518),who, tillhis death in 538, found a refugein Egypt, held essentially the same posi tion as Leontius. Their chief difference was that they regarded the Chalcedonian Council and its creed with greater suspicion. radical Monophysites, led by Julian of HalicarWith the more less auspicious. nassus (d.after 518), the prospect of union was They went so far as to hold that Christ's body was incorrupti and incapableof ble from the beginning of the incarnation, so far as Christ Himself save permittedit. Its enemies suffering charged the theory of Julian with Docetic significance. this situation by establishing To meet an anti-Antiochian, of the creed of Chalcedon, and winning, interpretation Cyrillic if possible, the moderate Monophysites,was the aim of Jus tinian. He came to favor the so-called Theopaschite (i.e., of formula the Scythian monks, "one of the "sufferingGod") Trinity suffered in the flesh,"after a controversy lastingfrom Because of monastic 519 to 533. quarrelsin Palestine,and also because the Emperor's theological sympathies,like those of his age, were exceedinglyintolerant,Justinian condemned and teachingsof Origen in 543. 1 the memory Justinian's great effort to further his theological policywas "
occasion
the
discussion
of the
known
as
"
that
of the
"Three
Chapters." In 544 Justinian,definingthe issue by his own the person and writingsof Theo condemned imperialauthority, dore
of
Mopsuestia,now
than
more
a
century dead, but
once
the revered leader of the school of Antioch
(ante,p. 145), the writingsof Theodoret of Cyrus in criticism of Cyril (ante,p. 148), and a letter of Ibas of Edessa to Maris the Persian (ante, been and Ibas had approved by the p. 149). Theodoret Council
in interpretation
school
Council
of
any
Antioch, and i
Emperor nominally it impossible made
Cyrillicsense, condemned greatlydisparagedthe authorityof but
The
of Chalcedon.
of the
untouched, but
left the creed of Chalcedon
of
action
The
of Chalcedon.
a
edict aroused
Ayer, pp. 542, 543.
not
a
the the
little opposi-
AS
JUSTINIAN
POLITICIAN
THEOLOGICAL
A
157
Pope Vigilius(537-555) disliked it, but the imperial reconquest of Italyhad placed the Popes largelyin the power Between his knowledge of the feelingof the of the Emperor. vacil attitude was and his fear of Justinian,Vigilius's West latingand utterlyunheroic.1 To carry out his will,Justinian tion.
the Fifth General
convened
now
Council,which
met
in Constan
Chapters," i. e., Theodore tinoplein 553. By it the "Three and the writingsjust described,were condemned, the "Theoreckoned more paschite" formula approved,and Origen once heretic.2 Pope Vigilius, though in Constantinople,refused a the imperialpres but such was to share in these proceedings, less than
that within
sure
the council.
The
was
action
of the council
Africa; and
year
he acceded
to the
decision of
of the creed of Chalinterpretation Cyrillic the only "orthodox" understanding. The
cedon
now
a
was
resisted for
the yieldingattitude
few
a
of the
years
Pope led
in North to
a
schis
which lasted separationof northern Italy from Rome till the time of Gregory the Great, and in the neighboring of the longer. One main purpose Illyricumand Istria even of the "Three condemnation Chapters" the reconciliation of failed. In Egypt and Syria Monophysitthe Monophysites ism remained the dominant being that force,the real reason these provinces were developing a native national conscious differences to the empire,for which theological ness antagonistic matic
"
"
were
the
more
Justinian's
Under berius
excuse
II
than
the
successors,
(578-582), alternate
nophysitesand
vain
attempts
cause.
Justin II (565-578),and Ti severe persecutionof the Mo to
win
them
occurred.
These
the Monophysite groups as significance The native were separatednational churches. now practically Monophysite body of Egypt can hardly be given fixed date for in of Chalcedon the land was the Council its origin. From rebellion. That church, the Coptic, is creasinglyin religious than stillthe main Christian body of Egypt, numbering more six hundred and fiftythousand adherents, stronglyMonophy site to this day in doctrine,under the rule of a patriarchwho stilltakes his title from Alexandria, though his seat has long Its services are still chieflyin the ancient in Cairo. been extent replaced it. The Coptic, though Arabic has to some most conspicuousdaughterof the Coptic Church is the Abysefforts
1
See
were
now
Ayer, pp.
of less
544-551.
2
Ayer, pp. 551, 552.
158
ABYSSINIA,
EGYPT,
was Christianity
When
sinian.
SYRIA,
is uncertain.
There
is
some
ARMENIA
AND
introduced to
reason
Frumentius, ordained
think
into "Ethiopia" that
its first mis
bishop by Athanasius, effective spread of Christianity there seems The 330. about The Abyssinian 480. to have been by Egyptian monks, about stands to the present day in dependent relations to Church that of Egypt, its head, the Abuna, being appointed by the It is Monophysite, and differs Coptic patriarchof Alexandria. of its cul in the backwardness little from that of Egypt, save sionary was
a
the great extent to which fastingis carried. It is probably the lowest in civilization of any existingchurch. While Egypt presented the spectacleof a united Monophy ture, and
site population,Syria was tants
inclined to
deeply divided.
Nestorianism
(ante, p.
Part
of its inhabi
149). Some were great organizer of
Monophysite. The Syrian Monophysitism, after its persecutionin the early part of the reign of Justinian, was Baradseus Jacob, nicknamed monk and enjoyed a Edessa, he became (?-578). Born near the support of Justinian's Monophysite-disposed Empress, Theodora. In 541 or 543 he was ordained bishop of Edessa, and for the rest of his lifeserved as a Monophysite missionary, ordaining,it is said, eighty thousand clergy. To him Syrian Monophysitism owed its great growth, and from him the Syrian Monophysite Church, which exists to the present day, derives the name given by its opponents, Jacobite. Its head calls himself patriarchof Antioch, though his seat has for centuries of his flock are to be found. been in the TigrisValley,where most abou-t eighty thousand. They number Armenia Em during the first four centuries of the Roman vassal kingdom, never a pire was thoroughly Romanized, and under its own its peculiarities language maintaining own sovereigns. Christian beginnings are obscure; but the great in the land was Gregory, called the propagator of Christianity Illuminator,who labored in the closingyears of the third cen converted and tury. By him King Tiridates (c.238-314) was baptized Armenia thus becoming the first country to have a orthodox, and
many
"
Christian ruler,since this event antedated the Christian pro Armenian fession of Constantine. Christianitygrew vigor
ously. Never menia
was
in
of the next
to the Roman closelybound In part conquered by Persia in 387. very
century hatred
of Persia
seems
to
world, Ar the
have
struggles turned
MONOTHELITE
THE
160
CONTROVERSY
by the Caliphs Omar
carried out
and
fell in 635, Jerusalem In 651, the Persian kingdom the
Spain,bringingthe into
forward
the
France,
Damascus
to
end.
an
to
a
close,and
and
Poitiers.
In the
it, in 672-678, North Africa were
Syria,Egypt, and
swept
East, Con
and
again in permanently
the Mohammedans.
by
circumstances, before
such
Under efforts
naturallymade
were
to
the
final
catastrophe,
unity in the threatened
secure
After
negotiations empire. lastingseveral in which the patriarchSergius of Constantinople was leader,a union policywas inauguratedby the Emperor
portionsof the
clius,on
into
its progress was permanently under Charles in the great Martel,
resisted stantinoplesuccessfully 717-718.
By 711,
where
Franks, by V battle of 732, between Tours
taken
in 641.
Strait of Gibraltar
Visigothicmonarchy
the
checked
Othman.
brought
was
crossed
flood
Mohammedan
and
in 638, Alexandria
Antioch
the basis of
a
declaration
that in all that He
years,
the Hera-
did Christ
by "one divine-human energy." Cyrus, the "orthodox" patriarchof Alexandria,set up a formula of union, of which this the substance, in Egypt, in 633, with much was apparent suc in Monophysite opinion.1 Opposition arose, cess conciliating led by a Palestinian monk, Sophronius,soon to be patriarchof alarmed Jerusalem. and now tried to stop any Sergius was discussion of the question. He now wrote, in that sense, to Pope Honorius (625-638), who advised againstthe expression and said, rather incidentally, that "energy" as unscriptural, acted
Christ had
will.
one
Heraclius
now,
composed by Sergius,in which he question of one or two energiesand
in 638, issued his Ekthesis, forbade discussion of the affirmed
that Christ had
will.
one
It
easier to start
was
it. Pope John will in Christ 641. stans
or
discussion
655), who further an
1
Monothelite
heresy
died that year, and was II (642-668), who issued,in 648, holder
with
the as
pp.
questionof
called
was
Christ's will
661, 662.
in
Conhe
wills.2
or
I
(649-
only
to
theological problem consonant West, which had always held that Christ's
of interpretation of the
by
one "
Typos, in which
a
of the papacy the ambitious Martin was in the situation an saw opportunitynot
the views
Ayer,
of the
it
end
to
doctrine of
succeeded
Heraclius
forbade The
theological controversy than
(640-642) condemned
IV "
a
the
2
Ibid.,pp.
662-664.
THE natures
each
were
authorityin
COUNCIL
GENERAL
SIXTH
perfectand entire,but also
the Orient.
161
therefore assembled
He
papal great synod
to assert a
proclaimed the existence of two wills and not only condemned Serdivine gius and other patriarchsof Constantinople,but the Ekthesis flat defiance of the Emperor. and the Typos.} This was Conarrested and had stans brought a prisonerto Pope Martin treated with great bru Constantinoplein 653, where he was tality. Martin had the courage of his convictions. He was in 649, which and human in Christ in Rome
"
Crimea, where
exiled to the
he
died.
Strained
Constantinoplefollowed.
and
Rome
tween
"
Constans
IV
Constantine
relations II
be was
that
time, the (668-685). By by Monophysite provinces,the retention of which had been the had been taken by the Mohammedans. of the discussion, source It was more important to placateItaly than to favor them. The Emperor entered into negotiationswith Pope Agatho (678-681), who issued a long letter of definition as Leo I had Under set forth his Tome. once imperialauspicesa council, held in Constantinoplein 680 the Sixth General Council, was and 681. By it Christ was declared to have "two natural wills succeeded
willings
or
.
.
not
.
contrary
one
to
but
other
the
.
.
His
.
or reluctant,but rather as resisting subject to His divine and omnipotent will." It also con in the patriarchate demned Sergiusand other of his successors and Pope Honorius.2 of Constantinople,Cyrus of Alexandria the divided had triumphed over For the third time Rome definition. Nicsea, Chalcedon, and Con East in theological victories. It must be said, stantinoplehad all been Roman will was for that complete and also,that a human necessary for which perfecthumanity of Christ as well as perfectdivinity, The doctrine,thus defined,was the West had always stood. With its defini the logical completion of that of Chalcedon. ended in so far as controversies were tion, the Christological
will
human
follows,not
doctrinal determination
a
defeat.
Like
work
was
meet
in
of
Council
appendix
which
was
thus
was,
in
a
the council of the "Three
a
Western sense,
a
success,
Western
Chapters" (553), it
A council to do this canons. disciplinary summoned by Justinian II (685-695, 704-711), to Constantinoplein 692, and is called from the domed
formulated
had
1
sort
concerned.
was
the Sixth General
While it had
as
no
Extracts, Ayer, pp. 664, 665.
2
Ayer,
pp.
665-672.
THE
162 room
in which
council of 680
IMAGE
CONTROVERSY
it assembled and
had
681
"
met
which "
was
that
the Second
in which
Trullan
the
Council,
Quini-sextum,as completing the Fifth and Sixth It was General Councils. entirelyEastern in its composition, and is looked upon by the Oriental Church as the completion is not accepted of the council of 680 and 681 though its validity were renewed; but by that of Rome. Many ancient canons several of the new enactments directlycontradicted Western practice. It enacted, in agreement with Chalcedon, that "the see of Constantinopleshall enjoy equal privilege with the of Old Rome." It permittedmarriage to deacons and pres see the Roman byters,and condemned prohibitionof such mar riages. The Greek Church stillmaintains this permission. It of fastingon forbade the Roman custom Saturdays in Lent. It prohibited the favorite Western representationof Christ under the symbol of a lamb, orderinginstead the depictionof human a figure.1Though not very important in themselves, these enactments of the growing estrangement in are significant feelingand practicebetween East and West. The apparent collapseof the Eastern empire in the seventh followed by a very considerable renewal of its century was strength under the able Leo III, the Isaurian (717-740), to whose lease of life militaryand administrative talents its new due. A forceful sovereign,he would rule the church in was the spirit of Justinian. He desired to make entrance as easy and for the of as Jews, Moslems, possible representatives the stricter Christian sects, such as the remaining Montanists. of the wide They charged the church with idolatry, by reason spreadveneration of pictures. In 726, Leo forbade their further result was employment in worship. The religiousrevolt. The monks and common peopleresisted, partlyfrom veneration of images,partly in the interest of the freedom of the church from imperialdictation. Leo enforced his decree by the army. In most of the empire he had his will. Italywas too remote, and there Popes and people resisted him. Under Pope Gregory III (731-741), a Roman the synod of 731 excommunicated opponents of pictures. The Emperor answered by removing all of Sicilyand such portionsof Italy as he could from the Pope's jurisdiction.Leo's able and tyrannous son, Constanrelenttine V (740-775),pursued the same more policyeven or
Concilium
,
1
Ayer, pp. 673-679.
163
DAMASCUS
OF
JOHN
lessly. A synod assembled by him in Constantinoplein 754 the condemned pictures and approved his authority over In this strugglethe papacy church. sought the help of the and
Eastern
Emperors.
tore
dependence on the imperialpolicycame, however,
itself permanently from
Franks
A
change of
the
(780-797), under
VI
the accession of Constantino of his mother, Irene, a dominance with
partisanof pictures. By
the with the presence of papal delegates, estimate of the Greek Church, the last, assembled in Nicrea in 787. By its de
authority,and imperial Seventh
and, in the
General
Council
now
" the cross, and the Gospels should be given due cree pictures, not indeed that true wor salutation and honorable reverence, For the ship,which pertainsalone to the divine nature. honor which is paid to the image passes on to that which the .
image represents,and shows council
the
to
reverence
to
seems
he
have
shows
who
.
.
image
the
to
reverence
subject representedin it." the
much
that
unconscious
been
The same
thing could have been said by heathenism for its images. Among the vigoroussupporters of image-reverencewas John (700?-753?), the
of Damascus
of the later theo
honored
most
logiansof the Eastern portionof the the city from which he took his name,
church.
ancient
the
son
of
a
Born
in
Christian
civil service of the Mohammedan Caliph, he succeeded to his father's position, only to abandon it and Jerusalem, of the cloister of St. Sabas monk near become a
high-placedin
the
of Knowledge, is a complete, of the theology of the church of the systematicpresentation His
chief work,
East.
With
Fountain
The
and originality, whole presentedthe
littleof
earlier writers,he
much
use
of extracts
in clear and
from
form, logical
instructor of the Greek the great theological that he became so Church, and, thanks to a Latin translation of the twelfth cenHis philosophi tury, influenced the scholasticism of the West. influenced by Neo-Platoncal basis is an Aristotelianism largely
ism.
In
the
(ante,p. 155), in consonant
is
a
he
discussion Christological an
of the interpretation
with the views
of
Cyril.
God,
sacrifice offered to
not
a
To ransom
followed
Chalcedonian
him
the death to
Leontius
symbol of Christ
the devil.
The
Lord's Supper is fullythe body and blood of Christ,not by tranbut by a miraculous transformation wrought by substantiation, the
Holy Spirit. 1
Ayer,
pp. 694-697.
,
S
^
CONSTITUTION
164
OF
John of Damascus the
summed
Orient, and beyond the
THE
IMPERIAL
the
theological development of positionswhich he representedthe up
made
East
Its practicallyno progress. intellectual explanationof Christianity was
XII.
SECTION
CONSTITUTIONAL
THE
CHURCH
contribution
to
the
completed.
DEVELOPMENT
OF
THE
CHURCH
as acceptance of Christianity
The
to
gave
the
By
the
time
the practicalauthority over Justinian,the Emperor declared, on
Emperors of
what initiative,
the religion of the empire
a
sound
was
doctrine, and
to
a
church. his
own
considerable
regulated churchly administration.1 The Emperors largely controlled appointment to high ecclesiastical office, in the East. This imperialpower limited,how was especially by the necessity,which even Emperors as powerful as ever, Justinian felt,of securingthe approval of the church through of adminis of faith and canons generalcouncils for statements tration. The imperialsupport of these edicts and decisions of have generalcouncils made heresy a crime, and must seriously of Christian thought. It was limited freedom narrow a very path both in doctrinal opinion and in administration,that a If con bishop of Constantinople,for instance,had to walk. extent
ditions
it
were
more
favorable
for the papacy (ante,pp. 134-136), of the general ineffectiveness of
largelya consequence not lackingwhere imperialcontrol in Italy,though cases were the Popes felt the heavy hands of the Emperors. As in the third century, the bishopscontinued to be the centres was
of local ecclesiastical administration,and increase.
to
By
them
the other
clergywere
their power not
tended
merely ordained,
in their hands. The First but the pay of those below them was Council of Nicsea provided that other clergyshould not remove from
a
diocese
the bishop'sconsent.2
without
In each of the
the metropolitan, provincesthe bishop of the capitalcitywas who, according to the synod of Antioch (341), should "have that the other bishops do nothing precedence in rank of local extraordinarywithout him." 3 The ancient custom ex synods, for the consideration of provincialquestionswas .
.
tended, the First Council 1 3
E. g.,
Ayer, pp. 542, 555. Ibid.,p. 363.
.
of Nicsea
requiringthem 2
to
Ayer, p. 361.
be
held
twice
165
CLERGY
THE
year.1 This metropolitan arrangement
a
into the East
troduced
it
In the West
by
half
about
was
the
fully in
was
of the fourth
middle
century.
a century later in development, of the papacy. the dominance
limited in Italy by its way in northern Nevertheless it won and
was
the metropolitansstood the whose of the empire, the patriarchs,
Above
rise of ;the metropolitansystem.
Italy,Spain,and Gaul. bishopsof the great capitals
prominence antedated These
were
the
the
bishops,or
patriarchs,of Rome, Constantinople (by 381), Alexandria, Antioch, and, by 451, Jerusalem. class made a privileged By Constantine, the clergy were of taxation (319).2 The and exempted from the publicburdens through the en government, anxious not to lose its revenues into clerical office of the well-to-do,ordered that only trance those
fortune"
small
"of
result of this
policywas
should
ordained
be
(326).3
The
that, though the ordination of slaves
forbidden in the East everywhere discouraged,and was re prevailingly by the Emperor Zeno in 484, the clergywere
was
cruited
classes of little property
from
or
education.
The
bril
Ambrose of whom of talent and means, then before those of high is an example, show the possibilities which had long who passedthese barriers. The feeling, ability
liant careers
of
some
men
existed,that the higher clergy,at least,should
not
engage
in
were worldly or gainfuloccupation, grew, and such works expresslyforbidden by the Emperor Valentinian III in 452. an Such exclusive devotion to the clerical callingdemanded the received not merely enlarged support. The church now of old ; but the income of a rapidlyin as giftsof the faithful, creasingbody of landed estates presentedor bequeathed to it in the hands by wealthy Christians,the control of which was (468-483) of the bishops. An arrangement of Pope Simplicius provided that ecclesiasticalincome should be divided into quar each for the bishop,the other clergy,the up-keep of ters, one
any
the services and The
feelingwas
for the poor. natural that the clergyshould
and edifices,
be moral
ex
amples to their flocks. Celibacy had long been prizedas be longingto the holier Christian life. In this respect the West stricter than the East. Pope Leo I (440-461) held that was sub-deacons should refrain from marriage,4though it was even 1 3
Aver, p. Ibid.,p.
360.
2
Ibid., p. 283.
280.
4
Letters,145.
CATECHUMENS,
166
CONFIRMATION
universallyenforced in the still con Church. In the East, the practicewhich Western established by the time of Justinian,that only tinues was celibates could be bishops,while clergybelow that rank could ordination. This before without rule, though not marry advantages, has had the great disadvantage of blocking pro motion in the Eastern Church, and leading to the choice of from the ranks of the monks. bishopsprevailingly thus extensive,the growth of While the bishop'spower was
to
be centuries before this rule
the church
was
into the rural districts about
the
and of cities,
many
congregationsin the cities themselves, led to the formation of congregationsin charge of presbyters,and thus to a certain office. These increase in the importance of the presbyterial congregationsstillbelonged,in most regions,to the undivided citychurch, ruled by the bishop;but by the sixth century the in France. its appearance There the parish system made in charge received two-thirds of the local priest (presbyter) income, paying the rest to the bishop. from into the church heathenism The incoming of masses to an Reception led,at first, emphasis on the catechumenate. of hands, was and laying on to it,with the sign of the cross popularlyregarded as conferringmembership in the church, and went
of less earnest Christians the great multitude in possible in Christian profession, save danger of death.
was
as
far
as
growth of generationsof exclusivelyChristian ancestry, and, in the West, the spread of Augustinian doctrines of bap The tismal grace, brought this half-way attitude to an end. when the whole population lost its significance catechumenate had become supposedly Christian. In one important respect East and West fellasunder in this with baptism. As already period regarding rites connected described, by the time of Tertullian (ante, p. 96), baptism in followed by anointingand laying on of hands was proper token of the receptionof the Holy Spirit.In Tertullian's age both baptism and laying on of hands were acts of the bishop, in case of necessity, when save baptism could be admin the growth of istered by any Christian (ante,p. 97). With in East and the church, presbyterscame to baptize regularly West. With regard to the further rite the two regionsdiffered. The East saw its chief significance in the anointing,and al lowed that to be performed,as it does to-day,by the presbyter
The
LORD'S
THE
168
Augustine,and
and Ambrose,
SUPPER
Leo I in the West.
This preach
largelyexpository,though with plain applicationto often highly rhetori the problems of dailylife. In form it was their approval by applause. cal, and the hearers manifested excelled,preach probablynever Yet, while this preachingwas general,and in many by no means ing was country districts, ing
was
offered before
Prayer
was
form.
The
benediction
and
sermons
non-baptizedthen dismissed. The private portion of the service
the
"
held
Lord's
present, and
the
Supper
that, by divine
"
followed.
Both
the miracle
of Christ was of the presence wrought, but differed in the service it took place. In the judgment of the
to when
as
East
it was
This
was
East
West
made,
was
prayer
heard.
in liturgical
sermon
givenby the bishop,when
was
and
be
to
were
after the
classes for whom
various
the
to
cities,few
considerable
even
or
power,
the invocation,epiklesis. in the West till late in the
duringthe prayer known undoubtedly the view
as
There, however, it was replaced,probably under Roman influence,by the conviction that the Eucharistic the words of institution were when miracle occurred recited, sixth
century.
"
this is the new covenant culminatingin This is My body To Gregory of Nyssa and Cyril of Alexandria in My blood." of the incarnation,wherein Christ the Supper is the repetition .
the
takes
into union
elements
flesh. The
human
communion. other.
It
The
.
with
Himself
as
Lord's
Supper was at once possibleto emphasize
was
East
.
put that
of communion
a one
He
once
did
sacrificeand
aspect
in the
or
a
the
foreground.
theory of salvation,the Supper was viewed as primarilya great, life-giving mystery, wherein the partaker received the transformingbody and blood of his Lord, and at least,a partakerof the divine thereby became, in a measure its
with
Consonant
nature, built up
the
immortal
in the
denied
far from
was
to
and
West.
sinless life. This It
held
was
to
be
view true.
conception of salvation as coming into right relations with God, led the West to emphasize the aspect of sacrifice, as incliningGod to be gracious to those in whose But
the Western
behalf so
it
readilyas
The
offered.
was
of the
tery-drama,in which in life-giving energy.
mind
did
not
lend
itself
the Oriental mysticism. In general, Lord's Supper tended to become a mys
the Eastern
administration
Western
to
the divine and
eternal
manifested
itself
CHRISTMAS
Sunday worship,daily services
Beside the acter
were
morning
169
now
very
and
common,
cost, Easter
was
briefer char
evening worship.
and
were,
a
widely developedinto
had
older festivals of the Christian year,
The
of
Easter
and
Pente
earlier,great periodsof religiousobservance. precededby a fortydays' fast,though the method as
reckoning this lenten period varied. The Roman system became that of the whole West, and continues to -ultimately whole time of the present. The of Holy Week now a was to the Easter re observance, passingover specialpenitential of Ascension joicing.By the fourth century the observance was general. The chief addition to the festivals of the church which belongsto this periodis that of Christmas. Apparently in church till into held feast of Christ's nativitywas the no the fourth century. By the second century, January 6 had been of Basilides as the date of observed by the Gnostic disciples Jesus' baptism. At a time not now apparent, but probably about the beginning of the fourth century, this was regarded of an in the East as the time of Christ's birth also,by reason Him made of Luke 323, which exactly thirty interpretation of
years
old at His It
ever. was
was
an
created
at
calendar the
as
at work, how baptism. Other factors were opinionin the third century that the universe in the Julian the vernal equinox,reckoned
March
beginningof the
tion,fall
on
the
habits of thought would make creation,the inceptionof the incarna
Similar
25. new
day,
same
winter solstice, December
and
25.
therefore That
that
Christ's birth
date, when
the
on
the
sun
begins to turn, was the birthday of the Mithraic Sol Invictus, well of the choice,though it may not probably the reason was have commended it as substitutinga great Christian for a festival. At all events, the celebration of popular heathen first in Rome, apparently December 25 as Christmas appears in 353 or 354, though it may it From Rome date from 336. into Constantinople, spread to the East, being introduced A probably by Gregory of Nazianzus, between 378 and 381. in 388, declares of Chrysostom, preached in Antioch sermon that and
celebration
the the
discourse
observance Alexandria 1
then
was
was
ten
years
delivered,it would
of December between
not
25
400
old in the
appear,
on
East,
the first
in the
and
Syrian capital. It reached its inauguration, 432. 1 From
Kirsopp Lake, in Hastings'sEncyclopaediaof Religion and Ethics,3601-8.
MARTYRS
170 Christmas
became
SECTION
back
to
93). With
the middle
the
with
church
in honor
of Peter
deaths
public services (ante,p.
himself
Constantine
in Rome.
looked
Men
Their
Constantine, however, and the fresh from heathenism, this of masses
pilgrimageto Jerusalem, where
be discovered.
of their relics
of
largelyincreased.
reverence
CHRISTIANITY
of martyrs and second century.
of the
conversion
accession to the church
Pentecost.
LOWER
XIV.
regularlycommemorated
were
a
and
Easter
beginningsof veneration
The run
great festivals of the church,
of the
one
comparable only with
RELICS
AND
the true
cross
was
the time
on
great
a
mother, Helena, made
His
back
built
of
thought to persecution
heroic age, and upon its martyrs as the athletes of the Christian race. Popular opinion,which had with
much
as
reason,
a
of the martyrs in long sanctioned the remembrance and worship, had passed over, before the close of the to be prayed to century, to the feelingthat they were
with
tercessors
those
who
tianityof
God,1 and
as
them.
honored the second
able to
There
fourth as
protect, heal, and thus
arose
rank, as Harnack
prayer
popular
a
in aid
Chris
has well called it. The
the old gods and heroes. To the martyrs, popular feelingadded distinguished ascetics,church leaders,and opponents of heresy. There was,
martyrs, for the
yet,
as
no
masses,
of
regularprocess
Inclusion in its ranks
was
guardians of
were
took
a
the
place of
weighing claims
matter
of
cities,patrons of omnipresent. As Jerome
common
to
sainthood.
opinion. They
trades, curers
of disease.
expressed it: "They fol is present low the Lamb, whithersoever He goeth. If the Lamb be believed respectingthose who must everywhere, the same 2 with honored with the Lamb." burning are They were tapers.3 Chief of all these sacred personages the VirginMary. was Pious fancy busied itself with her early. To Irenseus she was the second Eve (ante,p. 66). Yet, curiouslyenough, she did not stand out pre-eminent tillwell into the fourth century, at least in the teaching of the intellectual circles in the church, though popular legend,as reflected for instance in the apocryThey
1
3
are
Augustine, Sermons, 1591. Ibid.,7.
2
Against Vigilantius,6.
THE
MARY
VIRGIN had
of James, phal Protevangelium
illustrated in Tertullian
as feeling,
171
made
much
of her.
and
Clement
of
Ascetic
Alexandria,
asserted her perpetualvirginity.With the rise of monasticism, monastic full elevation of ideal. The the Virgin became a created beingscame with the ChrisMary to the first among and the complete sanction of the de tologicalcontroversies, of God/' in the condemnation of Nestorius scription"Mother and the decision of the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Thenceforth ular and
the
Virginwas
officialreverence
that feelingwhich
had
the chosen
as
Apostle could
or
her went expressionin the
found
Above
far nobler form.
due
alike.
all saints in pop
among
To
goddesses of Egypt, Syria,and
mother a
foremost
that
the
was
of
All that martyr
intercessor
as
much
worship of the Asia Minor, though in her reverence rightfully
vehicle of the incarnation. do for the faithful
out
or
protector,
blessed above
abundant them, could dispensein yet more In proportion,also, as the Cyrillicinterpretation
she,
as
measure.
of the
Chalcedonian
creed and
phasizethe divine in Christ
Monophysitism tended
to
em
at the expense
of the human, and afar from men, therefore,however unintentionally, put Him she appeared a winsome sympathizer with our humanity. In
a
tween
The
she took the place of her Son,
measure,
and
God roots
of
mediator
as
be
man.
are angel-worship
to be found
in apostolic times,1 of in certain Gnostic systems, and
much yet though made playing a great role, for instance,in the speculationsof
Origen, angels
an
conspicuouslyobjects of Christian tilllate in the fourth century. They were reverence always far less definite and graspableby the common mind than the for angels was given great furtherance martyrs. Reverence Christian mystic work by the Neo-Platonic composed in the last quarter of the fifth century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite,2 and called that of Pseudo-Dionysius. Of all the most honored. angelicbeings,the Archangel Michael was A
church
were
not
of him
in commemoration
was
Constantinopleby Constantine, and in the fifth century.
When
Michaelmas, September 29 aeval It 1
feast-daysin the has already been
Col. 218.
West
the one
"
"
was
pointed
one
built
a
few miles from
existed in Rome
early
celebration of his festival on of the most popular of medi
instituted,is uncertain. out
that
reverence 2
Acts 1734.
for relics
ANGELS,
172
of martyrs
remains
ciated, it
included
being developed
was
not
merely the
mortal
of articles saints,but all manner believed, with Christ, the Apostles, and
was
and
church.
of the
heroes the
extent, and
enormous
an
century it
fourth
began early. By the to
PICTURES
RELICS,
of the
statute
Their Seventh
Council
General
this time forward
from
wide-spread use
asso
the
is illustrated
(787):
"If
by any
is found
consecratinga temple holy deposed as a transgressor of with the ecclesiastical traditions."1 this Closely connected for relics was the valuation reverence placed on pilgrimages to placeswhere preserved,and above all to the Holy they were Land, or to Rome. for pictureswas slower in gaining a foothold. Reverence It seemed connected with the ancient idolatry. too positively rapidly By the time of Cyril of Alexandria, however, it was it if where in the Eastern became, Church, anything, spreading The struggles more ending in the prevalentthan in the West. General Council of picturesby the Seventh full authorization have already been narrated (ante,p. 163). Christian feeling flat surface only,paintings, and that representation a on was bishop
relics,he
without
shall be
mosaics, not statues, should be allowed, at least in the interior of the Greek Church the custom of churches, and this remains of not matter a to the present, though this restriction was law.
church This life of
of the second Christianity the people,but it had also
monks, and leaders
it
of the
was
rank
profoundlyaffected
the
its heartiest supporters in the rather than resisted by the great
furthered
church, certainlyafter the middle
of the
fifth
from heathenism to undoubtedly made the way Christianityeasier for thousands, but it largelyheathenized It
century.
the church
itself.
SECTION
While
East
XV.
and
SOME
West
already outlined,and
CHARACTERISTICS
WESTERN
shared in the Western
theological development
influences and
contributed
much
to
contro Christological a versies,there was appreciabledifference in the weight very interest in the two portionsof the empire. The of theological leader between West produced no reallyconspicuoustheological
the
official decisions
in the
1
Arian
Canon
7.
CHARACTERISTICS
WESTERN
173
(340?-397). Even Hilary of eminent as an original not sufficiently Poitiers (300?-367) was Both real exception. thinker to make Hilary and Ambrose a
Cyprian (d. 258)
the latter espe Tertullian was per
Fathers"
students of the Greek
devoted
were
Ambrose
and
ciallyof the great Cappadocians. Though by his Montanism, his sonallydiscredited
influence lived
on
in
greatlyvalued Cyprian. While, therefore, Greek elements into Western entered largely thinking,it developedits own pe the
culiarities. The
like Tertullian, disposed,
part of the empire was
western
rather than, like the East, Christianityunder judicial Its under thought of the Gospel was philosophical aspects. did not deny law. While the West that primarilyof a new the Eastern conceptionthat salvation is a making divine and immortal of our sinful mortality,that conceptionwas too ab that sal Its own stract for it readilyto grasp. thought was vation is getting Hence, in Tertullian,Cyprian, rightwith God. of sin,and a clearer con and Ambrose there is a deeper sense Religionin the West had a ceptionof grace than in the East. closer relation to the acts of every-day life than in the East. It was recognizedevil acts, J more forgivenessof definitely a
to view
^
and
less
"more
transformation of nature, than in the East
abstract
an
overcoming
an
sin,and less
of
a
from
rescue
earthiness
West, through the teaching of Tertullian, Cyprian,and Ambrose, sin was traced to an inherited vitiation
and
In the
death.
of human
estimate
of sin and
yet
combined
was,
jbfthe
if.
West, gave
dailylife of
the
All these Western "TfTthff work
a
There
in the East.
"
in
nature
'of
that had
way
can
be
Church
was
became
though
it
ecclesiasticalorganization
Church
a
stronger control of the
Augustine.
the
Aquileiahe the
out
peoplethan was achieved by that of the East. to their fullfruition to come were peculiarities
he studied in Rome, he
firmer
the Western
could boast.
in 360.
worked imperfectly
the
SECTION
Jerome
doubt, also,that this Western
no
grace,
with
corresponding parallel
no
ablest Born where made
XVI.
scholar about he his
was
JERtfME
that 340
the
ancient
in Strido in
baptizedby Pope
headquartersfor
friend of Rufinus
Western
Dalmatia,
a
Liberius
while, where
(?-410), the translator of
174
JEROME
Origen, like Jerome to be a supporter of monasticism and a in Palestine,but with whom monk he was to quarrel over Origen'sorthodoxy. Jerome had a restless desire to know the From 366 to 370 he visited the world. scholarlyand religious cities of Gaul. him again in Aquileia. The next three years saw Then he to Antioch, where came a journey through the Orient with
overtaken
was
Himself
illness in which
severe
he believed Christ
reproached him for devotion to the turned to the Scriptures, studying Hebrew, and
appeared
classics. He
a
now
and
livingas a hermit from 373 to 379, not far from Antioch. Ordained a presbyterin Antioch, in 379, he studied in Constan him in The tinopleunder Gregory Nazianzus. year 382 saw the hearty support of Pope Damasus Rome, where he won and out of season the merits (366-384),and preached in season of the monastic life. Soon he had a largefollowing, especially Roman of position women enmity, even ; but also much among the for monasticism not as yet popular in was clergy, among the West, and
Jerome
of
disputants.The
so
uncomfortable
whither led
by
number
a
Paula
and
himself
death
was
of Damasus
in Rome
that he
of his Roman
Jerome's
made
retired,in 385,
Antioch,
to
a
celibacy,
to
the chief
Bethlehem
monastery his
made
him.
followed
her
daughter,Eustochium, soon With them he journeyed through Palestine and of Egypt, returningto monastic establishments
Jerome's
position
to monastic
converts
386, where Paula built nunneries and Here, as head of the monastery, Jerome tillhis death, in 420.
vindictive
of the most
one
for
in men.
headquarters
as a unquestionablelearningwas older Latin versions were translator of the Scriptures. The crude, and had fallen into much corruption. Pope Damasus revision. That he completed for the a proposed to Jerome
New
best
Testament
use
about
of his
lated in Bethlehem, with
proof of
The
388.
Old Testament
he then trans
friends.
the aid of Jewish
It is
a
scholarshipthat,in spiteeven of the wishes of Augustine,he went back of the Septuagint to the Hebrew. the Vulgate, The result of Jerome's work was stillin
Jerome's
in the Roman
use
Jerome
had, also, no
tinued the Chronicle a
of
soundness
It is his best monument.
Church.
small
deserts
of Eusebius.
His
biographicaldictionaryof Christian
himself.
He
was
an
abundant
a
as
De
historian.
con
Viris Inlustribus
writers to and
commentator
He
on
is
including the Scriptures.
AUGUSTINE'S
176
YOUTH
two Augustine himself. In Augustine there were natures, one other and the eagerly high-minded and passionate sensuous, be wrong not to say that father and truth-seeking. It may reflected in him. From mother sent for were Tagaste he was the sake of schoolingto the neighboring Madaura, and thence he pursued the study of rhetoric. Here, to Carthage, where
when
hold
to
he was seventeen, he took a concubine, to whom for at least fourteen a son, Adeoyears, and to them
about
dearly loved, was born in 372. If the sensuous Augustine Augustinewas thus early aroused, the truth-seeking awakened. of When the Cicero's nineteen, was speedily study almost completely lost Hortensius affec "changed my now 1 O This im tions,and turned my prayers to Thyself, Lord." perfectconversion caused Augustine to desire to seek truth as He began to study the Scriptures, "but that alone of value. they appeared to me unworthy to be compared with the dig and intellectual turned for spiritual nity of Cicero." 2 He now datus, whom
comfort
to
he
the
dualistic system syncretistic,
known
Mani-
as
willingto pray "Grant me chas yet."3 For nine years Manichsean, living Augustine remained a in and partly Tagaste,engaged in study and partlyin Carthage teaching. He was crowned at Carthage for a theatrical poem.4 He gatheredfriends about him, of whom to prove Alypius was he began to doubt the intellectual the closest. As he went on His associates urged and moral adequacy of Manichseism. him to meet the highly respectedManichsean leader,Faustus. The inadequacy of Faustus's expositionscompleted his mental he remained disillusion. Though outwardly a Manichsean, Augustinewas now inwardly a sceptic. By the advice of Manin 383, and by their ichsean friends Augustine removed to Rome aid, in 384, he obtained from the prefect,Symmachus, a gov then ernment appointment as teacher of rhetoric in Milan the Western capitalof the empire. in Milan, Augustine came under Here the powerful preach he heard as an illustration of pulpit ing of Ambrose, whom since he eloquence rather than with approval of the message, of the scepticalphilosophy of the under the sway was now and Alypius joined him. Monnica Here At New Academy. chseism (ante,p. 107). He was tityand continence, but not
;
"
1
Confessions, 34.
2
Ibid.,3s.
wish
his mother's
he
of the
youth
the
entered
It
with another.1
He on
faith
less creditable relation
even
pointof
the lowest
was
of
account
his regretfully
dismissed an
befitted his
as
postponed on
marriage was
woman.
and
ful concubine
betrothed
became
now
station in life,though
177
CONVERSION
AUGUSTINE'S
his moral
life. At
with Neo-Platonism, in contact junctureAiigustinecame (ante,p. 106), through the translations of Victorinus. It was
this
almost
a:
revelation to him.
and
of the materialism
Instead
world the spiritual the source not only of all good, but of all reality. Evil was existence,as with the no positive It was Manichseans. negative,a lack of good, an alienation
Manichseism, he only real world, and in God of
dualism
now
in the
saw
highestof blessings. This new philosophy,which always colored Augustine'steach for him to accept Christianity.He was ings,made it possible impressedby the authorityof the church, as a hearer of Ambrose As he said later,"I should not believe might well have been. the Gospel except as moved by the authorityof the Catholic know
To
God.
of the will from
God
is the
2
Church."
He at hand. now Augustine'sexperiencewas had never felt more painfullythe cleft between his ideals and his conduct. He was impressed by learningof the Christian in old age, some before, by the Neoprofessionmade years Platonist Victorinus,whose writingshad so recentlyinfluenced A travelled African,Pontitianus,told him and Alypius him.3 that filledwith shame of the monastic life of Egypt. He was like these monks could put away temptations ignorant men felt powerlessto resist.4 Over of learning, which he, a man with self-condemnation,he rushed into the garden and come
A
crisis in
there heard
ing : "Take
up
that he had in
the voice
riotingand
ness,
not
thereof." mind
and
he had 1 3
6
5
not
that
From
thus
He
drunkenness,
make
the
child from
a
reached
reading,and his
in strife and
Christ, and
a
read."
and
been
of
not
eyes
in
neighboringhouse, say for
moment
of the
copy
fell on
the words
chambering
envying ; but put
provisionfor
a
ye
on
and
epistles :
"Not
wanton
the Lord
Jesus
the flesh to fulfil the lusts
Augustine
had
the peace
of
his sins which of divine power to overcome It may be that it was, as it far sought in vain. sense
Against the Epistleof Manichceus, 5 ; Ayer, p. 455. * Confessions,88. Confessions,82; Ayer, pp. 431-433. " 1313812 435-437. Romans ; Confessions, ; Ayer, pp. 615. Confessions,
2
AUGUSTINE'S
178
called,a conversion
has been
its outward
but
LATER
form.
In
Christian transformation
to
its
LIFE
monasticism. it
essence
was
of nature.
Augustine'sconversion occurred in the late He resignedhis professorship partly on account retired with
now
to
await
ology as yet. He
his friends to the estate
baptism.
He
was
His most
far from
being the were
of 386.
summer
named
characteristic tenets
still primarilya
was
If so, that was fundamental a
and illness, Cassisiacum,
of
in the
master
undeveloped.
Christianized Neo-Platonist
; but
the
type of his piety was
At Cassisiacum the alreadydetermined. engaged in philosophicaldiscussion,and Augustine
friends wrote
some
of the earliest of his treatises.
At the Easter
season
baptized,with Adeodatus and Alypius,by Am for his birthplace. brose in Milan. left Milan Augustine now the journey Monnica On died in Ostia. The story of her death, as told by Augustine,is one of the noblest monuments of ancient Christian literature.1 His plans thus changed, he in Rome, but by the autumn lived for some months of 388 was in Tagaste. Here he dwelt with a group of friends, more once busied in studies much at Cassisiacum. as During this period in Tagaste his brilliant son, Adeodatus, died. Augustine thought to found a monastery, and to further this projectwent the modern to Hippo, near Bona, in Algeria,early in 391. There ordained he was the priesthood,almost to forcibly. of Hippo. Four ordained colleague-bishop years later he was When his aged associate, Valerius,died is unknown, but Augus tine probably soon had full episcopalcharge. In Hippo he of 387
he
was
in that portion of Africa, and the first monastery died on it also a training-school for the clergy. He
founded made
August 28, 430, during the siegeof Hippo by the Vandals. Almost from the time of his baptism Augustine wrote against With his entrance the ministry,and es the Manichseans. on peciallyas bishop,he was brought into conflict with the DonaThis tists (ante,p. 113), then wide-spreadin northern Africa. discussion led Augustine to a full consideration of the church, its nature and its authority. By the earlyyears of his episco sin and pate he had reached his characteristic opinions on not the product of the great Pelagian con They were grace. troversy which occupiedmuch of his strengthfrom 412 onward, though that struggleclarified their expression. 1
910-12. Confessions,
AUGUSTINE'S
THOUGHT
of much
OF
GOD
179
Augustine'sinfluence lay in his mys tical piety. Its fullest expression,though everywhere to be found in his works, is perhaps in the remarkable Confessions, written about 400, in which he gave an account of his experi The
secret
to
ences
of
his conversion. written
No
other
similar
autobi spiritual
in the ancient
ography was church, and few at any periodin church history. It has always stood a classic of re ligious experience."Thou hast formed us for Thyself,and our restless tillthey find their rest in Thee" (I1). "It is good, then, for me to cleave unto God, for if I remain not in hearts
are
Him, neither shall I in myself; but He, remaining in Himself, reneweth all things. And Thou art the Lord God, since my standest
Thou a
of
way
of my
goodness" (711)."I sought acquiringstrengthsufficientto enjoy Thee; but I
it not
found
in need
not
until I embraced
that 'Mediator between God and the man Christ Jesus/ 'who is over all God blessed for man, ever' callingme" (718)."My whole hope is only in Thy ex
ceeding great what
command and
thank
mercy.
Thou
Give
Thee, and
hast melted
deeper note
of
permanent,
even
confess unto Thy name, because Thou these so wicked and nefarious acts of I attribute it,and to Thy mercy, that
away
sin
my
as
personaldevotion
since Paul, and the to the livingGod
Thou
and commandest, wilt" (1029). "I will love Thee, O Lord,
from me hast put away To Thy grace mine. Thou
what
it were than
ice"
the church
as conceptionof religion was
(27).
a
if often but
had
was
partially comprehended. thus always one was
first thought of God Augustine's sonal connection
tion
with
a
being in whom
man's
is a
heard
vital relationship
the influence of which
one
Here
onlyreal
to
be
of per
satisfac
good is to be found ; but when he thought of God philo it was in terms borrowed from Neo-Platonism. God sophically, is simple, absolute being,as distinguished from all created things or
which
are
manifold
and
variable.
of all that
reallyexists. This phasize the divine unity, even
His doctrine he set forth in his came
determinative
He
is the basis -andvsource conceptionled Augustine to em when
treatingof the Trinity. great work On the Trinity. It be
henceforth of Western
thinking. "Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit, one God, alone,great, omnipotent,good, of all things visible and invisible." 1 just,merciful, creator of one and the same "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, substance, 1
Trinity,7
:
612.
"; AUGUSTINE'S
180
THOUGHT
OF
GOD
work the creator, the omnipotentTrinity, "Neither three Gods, nor three goods,but one
God
"
indivisibly(421). God, good, om
nipotent,the Trinity itself."1 Tertullian,Origen, and Athanasius had taught the subordination of the Son and Spiritto the Father. Augustine so emphasized the unity as to teach is so great an the full equality of the "persons." "There equalityin that Trinity,that not only the Father is not greater but neither are the Father and than the Son, as regardsdivinity, the Son togethergreater than the Holy Spirit." Augustine not satisfied with the distinction "persons"; but it was was consecrated by usage, and he could find nothing more fitting: "When it is asked, what are the three? human language labors under great poverty of speech. Yet we say, three 'persons/ in order to express it,but in order not to be silent." 3 It not is evident that, though Augustine held firmlyto the ecclesias and his Neo-Platonic tical tradition, his own inclinations, phi inclined toward the Monarchian Modalistic losophy position. It would, however, be wholly unjust to call him a Modalist. He attempted to illustrate the Trinityby many comparisons, the even such as memory, famous or will,4 more understanding, lover,loved, and love.5 This
"God
unity and
whom
whom
from
Augustinehold the
Word
is
that
born,
the Holy Spiritprincipally proceeds. And added because find the word principally, we
I have
therefore
equalitymade
alone is He
the Father from
and
of
sense
Eastern the Holy Spiritproceeds from the Son also."6 and remains of subordinationism feelingthat the Father is
that
all,taught that the Holy Spiritproceedsfrom for that the Father alone,but Augustine had prepared the way which, acknowledged in Spain, at the Third Council filioque, of Toledo, in 589, as a part of the so-called Nicene creed,spread the West, and remains to this day a dividingissue between over the sole
incarnation
the
the divine.
stronglyas God
and
b Wherefore, far 1
4 7
as
He
Latin Churches.
and
the Greek In
of
source
man
; so
God
far
is man,
as
Augustine emphasized "
Christ
before all worlds He
is
God, He
the Father
Trinity,8, Preface. Ibid.,1012. Enchiridion, 35.
Jesus,the Son ;
and
man
in
the of
human
God,
world.
our
.
the Father
is greater than He."
2
Ibid.
z
*
Ibid.,92.
6
as
is both
are 7
one
He
;
.
.
so
is the
Ibid.,59. Ibid.,1517.
181
STATE
FALLEN
MAN'S
alone and man, God through whom only mediator between of sins. "It [Adam's sin]cannot be pardoned there is forgiveness God mediator between and blotted out except through the one the man, and man, of that remission.
Augustine had it sometimes of
which
men
Christ's death is the basis
As
the exact
of that death, significance
to
God, sometimes stead,and sometimes
sacrifice to
a
punishment
our
Jesus."1
in
our
as
ransom
a
of the devil.
the power
freed from
are
endurance
an
as
viewed
He
thought to consistent clearness.
not as
Christ
To
a
by degree
Augustine laid stress theologians, That humility life of Jesus. of the humble the significance on the characteristic in vivid contrast to the pride which was was The true It is an example to men. note in the sin of Adam. hast pointed out Thou in Thy secret mercy mediator, whom to the humble, and didst send, that by His example also they humility." might learn the same created good and upright, Man, accordingto Augustine,was in the Greek
to be found
not
"
possessedof
with the
will,endowed
immortality.3 There was happy and in4communion
ning and He
free
of
was
sin
of not possibility
in his nature.
discord
no
God.4
with
this
From
of which fell by sin,the essence was pride.5 Its the loss of good.6 God's grace was forfeited, was consequence The of God.7 forsaken the soul died, since it was body, no of under the dominion longer controlled by the soul, came state
Adam
which
of "concupiscence,"
manifestation less and were
who
Adam
is lust.
ruin,of which all in that fell into
concerning the Not only were is made
worse
man
one
sin."
9
first all
of God. 1 4
7 10 12
a
"mass From
all the
of total and "
human
that
race
sinners in Adam,
since all
are
human
born
of
race,
but
;
has
we
man
declared
sinned.'"10
their sinful state The
"concupiscence."
the youngest in such deserves the wrath to
even
and as perdition,"12 sin "no this hopelessstate of original of
sin
for
all that
all have
'in him
hope
This
death.8
[Adam] when we were "The Apostle, however,
man
men
state
a
characteristic
most
ending is eternal
involved
result is that the whole fant is
fellinto
the proper
its consequences
and
the worst
2 Confessions,1043. Enchiridion, 48. 5 Nature and Grace, 33. 1426. City of God, 8 1415. 132. Ibid., City of God, Romans 512 ; Forgivenessof Sins, I11. OriginalSin, 34.
and
one,
Grace,33.
8
Rebuke
6
Enchiridion, 11. Ibid.,13U ; Ayer, Marriage, I27.
9 u
no,
p. 439.
GRACE
18 82 not
delivered,except by the
be
SALVATION
delivered,or is being delivered,or
has been
one,
AND
by God's grace, which and wholly free. "Wages is paid as a tary service. It is not a gift; wherefore Salvation
that death
sin is death, to show but
the due
as
is
comes
'
unearned, is not
all.
We
But
wholly undeserved, for mili
recompense
he says
l
the wages
of
inflictedundeservedly,
not
was
of sin.
recompense
1
of the Redeemer."
grace
will
ever
a
unless gift,
it is wholly
understand, then, that man's good deserts are themselves the giftof God, so that when of eternal life, these obtain the recompense it is simply grace
given
for
chooses
a
giftat
grace."2
to send
it.
This He
grace
are
to
to those to whom
comes
therefore
"to
whom predestinates
He
God
will,
3
The number of each class punishment and to salvation." is fixed.4 Augustine had held, in the periodimmediately fol lowing his conversion, that it is in man's power to accept or before the Pelagian controversy, he had rejectgrace, but even
the conclusion
to
come
this
savinggrace
originaland which
we
that grace is irresistible. The Faith is instilled, and is twofold.
personal,are
are
forgivenat baptism: "The Christians is the giftof God." 5 As
effect of
sins,both faith such
by
it is-
immediate
But justification.
Tertullian
(ante,p. 69), it is the infusion of love by the Holy
grace
does much
more.
As with
Spirit. It frees the enslaved will to choose that which is pleas ing to God, "not only in order that they may know, by the manifestation of that grace, what should be done, but more in order that, by its enabling, over they may do with love what 6 It is a gradual transformation of nature, a they know." sanctification. Through us, God does good works, which He rewards and to which He ascribes if they were men's own as merit.
No
man
have grace
may ance,
he will not
can
now,
be
sure
of his salvation in this life. He
but, unless God
maintain
adds
it to the end.7
the giftof persever that It would seem
Augustine may have been led to this conclusion largelyby the doctrine of baptismal regeneration. It is evident that if men receive grace at baptism, many do not keep it. This doctrine of grace was coupled in Augustine with a high valuation of the visible Catholic Church, as that only in which the true infusion of love by the Holy Spiritmay be found. 1 4 7
OriginalSin, 34
2
3
Ibid.,100
5
6
Rebuke
Enchiridion, 107. Ayer, p. 442. Predestination,3. Giftof Perseverance,1.
; and
Ayer, p. 442. Grace, 3.
THE
184
who
He
grace.
does not
CITY "
OF
GOD
faith
obstruct
"
expect, however, problem was not Middle Ages; but Augus may
benefit of the sacrament.1
to receive the
yet WTOiightout
it was
as
to be in the
The
be called the father of the doctrine of the sacraments tine may in the Western Church.
his City of God, begun in Augustine'sgreatest treatise was 412, in the dark days after the capture of Rome by Alaric,and It was his philosophyof history, and .his finished about 426. defense of Christianity against the heathen charge that neg lect of the 6ld gods under whom had grown Rome great was of its downfall. the cause He showed that the worship of the old gods had neither given Rome virtue,nor assurance strength, of a happy future life. The loss of the old gods, that the wor
ship of the one true God should come, was not a loss,but a great gain. Augustine then discusses the creation and the of evil. That bringshim to his great originand consequences theory of history. Since cities have
been to the
self,even of God,
againstGod "two formed by two loves : the earthlyby love of contempt of God ; the heavenly by the love
the contempt of self/'2 in Cain and Abel. Of the
These
to
even
resentatives members
been
the first rebellion
have
who
confessed
City
pilgrimson the earth. The Earthly City heathen Babylon and Rome, representatives states
and
civil order
of self his
as
own.
Those
are
due.
In
world
a
it represses its principle, But it must pass away
who
make
up
the
City
has chosen
to
though
all in that church
not
salvation.
has but
strangers and its
as
highest
all other
civil
It is a relative
its embodiment.
are
their rep of God, all have
themselves
had
of
disorder
are
the
as
of God
These
good. To it peace sin,though having love
are
are now
elect.
and
City
to
secures
of God
grows.
the elect whom in the visible
each
God
church,
the church
"Therefore
Christ, and the kingdom of kingdom His saints reign with Him, heaven. now Accordingly,even though otherwise than as they shall reignhereafter; and yet, though the tares grow in the church along with the wheat, they not reign with Him." 3 The visible,hierarchically organ and church t hat is the of ized it is,therefore, must God, City and of rule the world. this In more more teaching Augustine much of the philosophic basis of the theory of the mediaeval lay even
now
is the
of
(do A
papacy. 1
9810 Letters,
;
Ayer, p. 450.
2
City of God, 1428.
3
IUd.t
209.
TEACHINGS
PELAGIUS'S It is evident that, clear as respects,it contained many
185
Augustinein
the system of
was
profound contradictions,due
to
and Neo-Platonic thoughts of deep religious the intermingling traditionalism. Thus, he taught a and popular ecclesiastical He will,yet in which God sends grace to whom predestination with a he confined salvation to the visible church endowed
sacramental ecclesiasticism. He approached the distinction at*the Reformation between the visible and the invisi made
church, without clearlyreaching it. His heart piety, of personalrelation to God the Christian life as one also,saw in faith and love, yet he taught no less positively legalistic a ble
asceticism.
monastic
and
The
Ages did
Middle
not
reconcile his
respects beyond Augustine. It did not of them that most contradictions. It is by reason in these
could draw
movements
SECTION
most Augustine's
CONTROVERSY
PELAGIAN
THE
that in which
controversy, and
famous
various later
him.
from inspiration
XVIII.
advance
his
with to clearest expression, was teachingson sin and grace came British, a Pelagiusand that teacher's disciples.Pelagiuswas or perhaps an Irish monk, of excellent repute, much learning, about great moral earnestness, who had settled in Rome He seems the year 400, when to probably well on in years. morals and to have been shocked at the low tone of Roman
and
ethical stand labored earnestlyto secure strenuous more ards. Instead of being an innovator, his teaching in many
have
ways
the
older represented East generally, and
than
views
those
agreement with
in
"As
of virtue
and
a
to show
often
I have
in the
many
that of the popu to speak of the principles was
accustomed
am
capacityand
it is able to
what
as
holy life,I
attention to the
Augustine. With
West, will. "If I ought, I can,"
he held to the freedom of the human well expresses his position.His attitude lar Stoic ethics.
of
character
accomplish;
first of all to call
of human
then
from
and
nature
this to
arouse
of the hearer, that he may strive after different the feelings kinds of virtue." 1 He, therefore,denied any originalsin in herited power
the
mass
from not
Adam, men
affirmed that
Like the Stoics
to sin.
of
and
are
bad. 1
Adam's
Ayer,
pp.
all
men
now
have
the
he recognizedthat generally, sin set them
458,
459.
an
illexample,
PELAGIUS'S
186
TEACHINGS
they have been quick to follow. Hence they almost all need to be set right. This is accomplishedby justification by of the work faith alone, through baptism,by reason of Christ. Paul and Luther between No man so emphasized justification full power and duty faith alone. After has man baptism, by to keep the divine law. a vigorous follower in the much Pelagius won younger Ccelestius, a lawyer,and a Roman though he has been possibly which
claimed Africa
as
an
About
Irishman.
410, the
two
to
went
North
Augustine in Hippo, without findinghim. Pelagiusthen journeyed to the East, while Coelestius remained in Carthage and sought to be ordained a presbyterby Bishop Aurelius. That bishop now received from Paulinus, a deacon of
and
Milan,
"Adam sinned
called
letter
a
made
was
on
charging Coelestius
mortal
and
had
not
sinned.
self alone,and
not
the human
in that
or
would
(2) The
have
with
six
died whether
sin of Adam
(3) New-born
race.
(1)
errors.
he had
injuredhim children
are
(4) Neither does the whole race die,nor by by the death and sin of Adam the resurrection of Christ does the whole rise. race (5) The state
in which
Adam
was
before his fall.
kingdom of heaven as well as the Gospel. with men (6) Even before the coming of the Lord there were l This was sin." out an unfriendlystatement, but Coelestius did not rejectit; and it probably represents his views, which radical than those of Pelagius. have been somewhat more may An advisory synod in Carthage, in 411, decided against his ordination. Coelestius then journeyedto Ephesus, where he apparentlyreceived the desired consecration. Augustine had not been present in Carthage, but he soon heard of the matter, and at once began his long-continued literarypolemic against Pelagianism, which he found had religiousexperiencewas supporters. Augustine's own many saved been believed that he had He by deeply wounded. law
leads
to
the
irresistibledivine grace
from
sins which
he
could
never
have
as by his own strength. He held Pelagiusin error denying originalsin,rejectingsalvation by infused grace, and sin. Pelagiusdid not to live without affirminghuman power rejectgrace, but to him grace was remission of sins in baptism work of and generaldivine teaching. To Augustine the main that infusion of love by which character is gradually grace was
overcome
1
Ayer, p.
461.
AUGUSTINE
AGAINST
PELAGIUS
187
Early in Pelagius found support in the East. to 415, Augustine sent Orosius to Jerome, then in Palestine, interest him for the Augustinian cause. By Jerome, Pelagius accused before Bishop John of Jerusalem,but was approved was by the bishop" and before the year was out, a synod held in declared Pelagiusorthodox. Palestine) Diospolis(Lydda^in transformed.
In this situation
Augustineand
his friends caused
two
North
synods to be held in 416, one for its local district in in Mileve. These con Carthage and the other for Numidia demned the Pelagianopinionsand appealed to Pope Innocent African
I
(402-417) for
confirmation.
Innocent
was
undoubtedly
pleased at this recognitionof papal authority,and did as the Innocent died shortlyafter,and was African synods wished. succeeded by Zosimus (417-418), a Greek, and therefore nat urallyno specialsympathizer with the distinctive Augustinian appealed in person. positions.To Zosimus, Coelestius now The new Pope declared that the African synods had been too A to have regarded Coelestius as orthodox. hasty,and seems new synod met in Carthageearlyin 418, but the Africans made In April,418, at their instance the effective move. a more Western Emperor, Honorius, issued a rescriptcondemning Pelagianism and orderingthe exile of its adherents. In May held in Carthage, which held that Adam a largecouncil was that children should be baptizedfor the became mortal by .sin, for right remission of originalsin,that grace was necessary and that sinlessness is impossiblein this life. Moved living, Zosimus issued a circular letter condemn now by these actions,
ing Pelagiusand Coelestius. disappears. He probablydied Pelagiusnow
before 420.
A
appeared in the champion of his opinionsnow of Bishop Julian of Eclanum, in southern Italy. An person edict of the Emperor Honorius, in 419, requiredthe bishopsof of Pelagiusand Coelestius. the West to subscribe a condemnation Several of them Julian and eighteenothers in Italy refused. In Julian, driven into exile and sought refugein the East. were Augustine found an able opponent, and Pelagianismits chief who was much of a ration more systematizer ; but a defender 429 Julian and Coelestius found alist than Pelagius. About some though Nessupport from Nestorius in Constantinople, torius was not a Pelagian. This favor worked to Nestorius's troubles,and togetherwith the wish disadvantagein his own new
and
able
Pope led
of the
so-called Third
the condemnation
to
on
in less extreme
in the
a tendency represented
secure
even
and
forms, and
thinkingof
the
has
al
the church.
the great teacher of the Western before his death in 430. By no means
Church
peculiarportions of his
all
ac
theology,
definitely rejected. Thus,
Jerome
share in conversion, and had no irresistibledivine grace, though deeming grace will
ascribed to the human an
(ante,p.
West
as
cepted, however, the more where Pelagianismwas even thought of
431
the
SEMI-PELAGIANISM
XIX.
fame Augustine's was
Pelagianismby
in
Council
148). East, nevertheless lived
SECTION
of
Ephesus in officially rejectedin the
General
Pelagianism,thus
ways
AUGUSTINE
FROM
DISSENT
188
a
essential to salvation. Northern Africa, which had led the since the time of Tertullian, Church Western was intellectually devastated
now
the Vandals.
by
chief controversy
over
Cassianus, probablyfrom East, visited Egypt, and
pre-eminence in
France, and it was
southern
passedto
ship now
Its
leader
there that the
John Augustinian principlesarose. Gaul, but who had journeyed to the had served as deacon under Chrys-
in Marseilles about ostom, founded a monastery and a nunnery his Not far from 429 he wrote 415, and died there about 435.
in the form Collationes,
with
of conversations
free in man, of God." 1
opinion "the will always remains either neglector delightin the grace
his
In can
monk
of
Egyptian
Lerins, wrote
monks. and
it
Commonitorium, his design in which, without attackingAugustine by name, to do so really, was by representingAugustine'steachingson In 434
and
grace
Catholic all
Vincent,
as predestination
tradition.
possiblecare
has men
been and
a
novelties
without
support
"Moreover, in the Catholic Church that
should be taken
believed
a
we
everywhere, always
their associates
were
hold and
in
itself
that faith which
by
all." 2
called in the sixteenth
These
century
"Semi-Pelagians,"though Semi-Augustinianswould be more points with Augustine, correct, since they agreed in most and though rejectinghis essential doctrines of predestination who sincerely These were feared irresistiblegrace. earnest men that
Augustine'sdoctrines 1 2
Ayer, p. 469. Quod ubique, quod
would
cut
the
nerve
of all human
12 ;
semper,
quod
ab
omnibus, 24; Ayer, p. 471.
THE
effort after
SYNOD
OF
ORANGE
189
that righteousness righteousnessof life,especially
Predestination and irresistiblegrace sought in monasticism. seemed to deny human responsibility. This dissent from Augustine appeared in stillmore positive form in the writingsof Faustus,abbot of Lerins,and afterward bishop of Riez\ In his treatise on Grace, of about 474, he as
sin,but recognized original
held that
men
"the pos is the divine promise stillhave
of striving for salvation." Grace sibility and warning which inclines the weakened but stillfree will to choose the right rather than, as with Augustine, an inward will do with the God foresees what men transformingpower. invitations of the Gospel. He does not predestinate them. Though Faustus rejectedPelagius,he reallystood closer to him than to Augustine. A more Augustinian direction was given to the thought of southern France by the able and devoted Caes"ciiis (469?-542), for a time a monk of Lerins,and from 502 onward bishop of Aries. In 529 he held a littlesynod in Orange, the canons of which received a much because approved largersignificance Boniface II ended the by Pope (530-532). They practically Semi-Pelagian controversy, though Semi-Pelagian positions have always largelybeen maintained in the church.1 It was affirmed by this synod that man is not only under original sin, but has lost all power to turn to God, so that "it is brought about by the infusion of the Holy Spiritand His operationin that we wish to be set free." It is "by the free giftof grace, us that is,by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit,"that we have "the desire of believing"and "come to the birth of holy bap All good in man tism." is the work of God. of Thus many the main thoughts of Augustine were approved; but with a decided weakening of emphasis. The irresistibility of grace
is nowhere
affirmed.
"resist that
On
the contrary, those in
error
are
said
Holy Spirit." Predestination to evil is condemned. of all,the receptionof grace But, most marked is so bound to baptism that the sacramental qualityof grace the merit of works and are good put in the foreground. "We also believe this to be accordingto the Catholic faith,that grace having been received in baptism, all who have been baptized, and ought, by the aid and support of Christ, to perform can those thingswhich belongto the salvation of the soul,if they to
same
1
Ayer, pp. 472-476.
labor
GREAT
THE
GREGORY
190
1 Augustinianism was faithfully."
"
in the direction
modification
undoubted
approved, but with of popular Catholic" blunted.
religious conceptions. Its sharp pointswere XX.
SECTION
The
GREGORY
tendencies toward
a
THE
GREAT
and blunted, ecclesiastically
presentationof
sacra-
Augustinianism,which
mentally emphasized have alreadybeen noted, characterized the thinkingof Gregory v/the Great, the interpreter of Augustine to the Middle Ages. A teacher of littleoriginality, he presentedthe theological sys in in essential the with tem West, alreadydeveloped harmony of his age. His influence was the popular Christianity thus far-reaching.He is reckoned with Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome
of the Doctors
one
of the Latin
trative abilitiesand
achievements
become
of the
Church.
In adminis
Gregory was one of the great est of the Popes, and Latin Christianity generallyhad in him vision and permanent a leader of broad accomplishment. in of born Rome senatorial Christian family a Gregory was Before 573 he was made of about 540. or prefect, governor, the cityby the Emperor Justin II. The monastic lifeattracted civil distinctions, and by 574 he had devoted him from his and to the poor, and wealth to the founding of monasteries a
member
of St. Andrew
monastery
in what
home on the Cselian hill. Gregory formerly been his own always retained his interest in monasticism, and did much for life. His own the regulationand extension of the monastic and in 579 Pope too active for the cloister, temperament was to the Pelagius II (579-590) sent him as papal ambassador of w here he served with ability, court Constantinople, though, About curiously,without acquiringa knowledge of Greek. had
586
he
In 590 office.
The
was
he
more
once
chosen
was
He
died
time
of
on
in Rome
the
as
Pope, being the
March
of St. Andrew.
abbot
first monk
to attain that
12, 604.
Gregory's papacy
was
propitiousfor
an
able
which had risen high under Innocent I Pope. The papacy, (402-417) and Leo I (440-461),had sunk in power after Jus tinian had conquered the Ostrogothsand restored the imperial authority in Italy. Since 568, however, the control of the
Emperors
in
Italyhad
more 1
and
more
Ayer, p. 475.
waned
before the Lom-
GREGORY'S
192
THEOLOGY
for the future was significant Gregory'sfar-reach ing missionary campaign for the conversion of England, in will be given (p.198). account augurated in 596, of which some of Christianity, but It not only advanced markedly the cause of England, and the initiation of a closer relationship was than had yet been ultimatelyof Germany, with the papacy Even
achieved
more
elsewhere.
Nearer
home,
among
the
Arian
Lom
bards, Gregory inaugurated ultimately successful efforts to them to the Catholic faith,especially turn through the aid of the Queen of Kings Authari Theodelinda, who was successively (584-591)and Agilulf(592-615). Tradition mation
has ascribed to
of church
music
Gregory
the
"
a
in the refor
great work
"Gregorianchants"
"
and
in the
liturgy;but the absence of con temporary reference makes it probable that his services in both these respects were relativelyinconspicious.On the other undoubted. As a writer hand, his abilitiesas a preacherwere three of his works maintained high popularitythroughout the of Job, or Moralia, his treatise on Middle Ages his exposition the Regula Pasthe character and duties of the pastoral office, and his credulous Dialogueson the Lifeand Miracles of toralis,
development of
the Roman
"
the Italian Fathers.
Gregory'stheology is Augustinian,but with another em phasisthan that of Augustine. He developedall of Augus tine's ecclesiasticaltendencies,and
that
mass
of material
from
which Augustine took up into his system. popular Christianity Miracles, angels,and the devil have an even greater part in Gregory's system than in that of Augustine. While Gregory of the elect is fixed,and depends upon held that the number had Augus as God, he had no such interest in predestination is simply divine often speaks as if predestination tine. He practical.Man is fettered foreknowledge. His interests were in original sin,the evidence of which is his birth through lust. of Christ, re From this condition he is rescued by the work after baptism must be ceived in baptism; but sins committed satisfied. Works of merit wrought by God's assistinggrace make satisfaction. "The good that we do is both of God and of ourselves ; of God by prevenientgrace, our own by good will : for sins after following." Penance is the proper reparation baptism. It involves recognitionof the evil of the sin,coni
Moralia,
3321.
193
PURGATORY
has many helpsfor him Of these the great exercise penance. church
and satisfaction. The trition, seek merit
would
who
Supper, which
is the Lord's
est
of the sacrificeof There work
or
Gregory
should
pwn
For
martyrs."
l
as
repetition
a
the dead.
Christ,available for the livingand
is also the aid of the saints. of their
viewed
run
to
"Those
who
the
protectionof
the
in
trust
no
holy
of Christ, who, while reallydisciples
those
to achieve works opportunities avail themselves of merit, fail to do penance, or inadequately of the helps offered in the church, there remain the purifying
make
an.
of these
insufficientuse
fires of purgatory. The thought of
purgatory
first faint intimation
With
may
was
not
be
found
evident, and
Cyprian it is more
new
Gregory. The
with
in Hernias
of
he cites in this
Rome.2 connec
argued Augustine,on the basis of 1 Cor. 311'15, absolute that purgatory was not improbable,though he felt no definitely certaintyregardingit.4 Csesarius of Aries held more him fact. it was to the conception. To a Gregory now taught tion Matt.
purgatory
526.3
as
a
essential to the faith.
matter
"It
is to be be
purgatorialfire before the judgment for certain lightsins." Though the Eastern Church held that an and the judgment, death intermediate state exists between and sacrifice, its and souls can be helped therein by prayer conceptionof purgatory has always been vague compared with
lieved that
there
is
a
5
that of the West.
Thus, in all departments of ecclesiastical activityGregory
conspicuousleader of his time. In him the Western of the Middle Ages already exhibited its Church of doctrine,life, characteristic traits,whether worship, or or to be in the directions in which ganization. Its growth was Gregory had moved. as Contemporary with Gregory in part, and of significance of the theological of much the transmitter leaningof the an cient church to the Middle Isidore,the head of the Ages, was Spanish church from about GOO to 636, as bishop of Seville. brief statements of doctrine His Book to was of Sentences text-book of the Western be the theological Church tillthe His Origins or Etymologiesembraced welltwelfth century. of his age, ecclesiasticaland secular, nigh the round of learning stood
forth the most
"
1
Moralia,
*
Enchiridion,69 ;
1651.
"
2
Vis.,37.
City of God,
21 26.
3
51-5520. Letters,
6
Dialogues, 439.
ISIDORE
194
and
was
a
of
thought Vandals age,
main
antiquity. great.
was
all
the
originality
of
source
earlier but
of
SEVILLE
OF
His In
Middle
remarkable
knowledge value
him,
Ages
as
as
the
in
the
were
breadth
a
Middle
historian
to
of
of
the
learned
most
find
a
of
Ages
teacher
learning.
Goths
and of
man
of
the
his
little
THE
IV.
PERIOD
SECTION
of
acceptance
MISSIONS
I.
the
Franks
of
Catholic been
THE
the
OF
ISLANDS
Germanic
tribes,the con faith, and the gradual
Roman
the
by
orthodoxy
noted
CLOSE
THE
BRITISH
the
among to
TO
CONTROVERSY
IN
of Arianism
spread
version
AGES
INVESTITURE
THE
THE
MIDDLE
Germanic
invaders
Much,
however, to more striking proof of the no vitalityof the church in the collapsing empire and the opening it under with which Middle Ages than the vigor and success of Christianity. took the extension in the British foothold Isles before Christianity had some of Constantine. the conversion Bishops of York, London, and of Aries in 314. probably Lincoln, were present at the Council have
already
be
remained
Yet
it survived
downfall
the
129-134).
is
of the
the Celtic population, while
among
and
England
eastern
Saxon
invaders.
found but
(ante, pp.
There
done.
was
advanced
so
of the
the
feebly
soil of southern
heathenism
by the Angloto be beginnings were
slight Christian
Some
but
Empire
much
for
won
chiefly in the south
he
Roman
of Ireland
before
the
time
of
Patrick;
of the
Gospel in that island institutions,that he deserves
cause
and
the organized its Christian title of the Apostle of Ireland. Born about the 389, possibly in southern Wales, Patrick was of a deacon and the grandson of a priest. His training was son so
therefore
was
slave
a
years
Christian.
for
in
and
a
Most
the
coast
work
of
west.
not
to
facts
Few and
as
whom
which
little of his
In
432
of
he of
Germanus ended
with
of
was
or
Auxerre,
his death
in
in northeastern
were
in
the
his zeal
scattered
Patrick
monastery
south
there
conspicuous abilities
hitherto 195
the
efforts but
for six
was
Continent,
of
labors
some
survive;
the
the
France.
missionary without
405, he
about
inmate
an
in Ireland
of Patrick's
question, ganizer under no
raid
a
Escaped time
southern
Ireland, though wilder
in
missionary bishop by Bishop
began
461.
Ireland.
considerable
a
Lerins, off the dained
Seized
as
and be
can an
or
Christianity
of
Ireland
island in
the
with
and
Continent It
systematized and
was
brought
made
advance.
great
into association with
measure
some
Patrick
introduced
the diocesan
copate into Ireland; but that institution was by the clan system of the island,so that there and
monastic
many
by Patrick; but
He the
Rome. that
certain
seems
SCOTLAND
AND
IRELAND
196
soon
were,
epis
modified
instead,
favored was bishops. Monasticism great developer of the peculiar Irish
tribal the
(470?-548), under whose a stronglymissionary and, for the time, a notably leadership monasticism learned
of
group
monastic
Finian
was
monasteries
schools of Ireland centuries.
seventh
Irish
of Clonard
The
into
came
justlyfamous
were
gloryof this
is said
the can
earlyyears said.
be
to
have
labored
The
in the sixth and
Irish monasticism
missionaryachievement. in Scotland The beginningsof Christianity Ninian
being.
are
there in the fourth
very
was
its
obscure.
century and
but of his date and real work little fifth, Kentigern,or Mungo (527?-612?), who spread of the
in the neighborhood of Glasgow, is almost as dim Christianity Irish a probable that the northern figure. It would seem settlers who founded, about 490, the kingdom of Dalriada, em The Christians. as Argyleshire,came bracing the modern Columba (521-597), a man great missionaryto Scotland was of the most powerful tribal families closelyrelated with some of Ireland, and a pupil of Finian of Clonard. Distinguished in monasteries and founder of monk Ireland,he a alreadyas a himself transferred his labors,in 563, to Scotland, establishing with twelve companions on the island of lona or Hy, under the protectionof his fellow countryman and relative,the King of monas Dalriada. There Columba developed a most flourishing the labors among tery, and thence he went forth for missionary By Picts,who occupied the northern two-thirds of Scotland. and his associates the kingdom of the Picts was won Columba institutions were in Ireland, Christian for the Gospel. As the There even dioceses, and were no largely monastic. in ordination,of Co under the authority,save bishops were abbots as a lumba, who was presbyter,and of his successors of lona. These
land,
Irish
among
the island of
carried to northern Eng missionaryefforts were the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria. There, on
Lindisfarne,off the
extreme
northeastern
coast
of
OX
MISSIONARIES
England,a
lona
new
lona, in 634.
region by him associates.
by
Columba
in
monk
a
from in the
widely spread
651, and
afterward
his
by
the missionaryzeal of these Celtic monks
was
confined
means
any
Christianity was
till his death
Nor
197
established by Aidan,
was
Thence
CONTINENT
THE
the
to
British
the
Islands.
Columbanus,
monk of the Younger (543?-615), a celebrated Irish monastery of Bangor, which founded in was 558 by ;Comgall,a leader in learning and missionary zeal. From set forth, about. 585, with twelve Bangor, Columbanus monastic companions, and settled in Anegray, in Burgundy, which he planted the monastery of Luxeuil. Driven near forth about 610, in consequence of his prophet-like rebuke of King Theuderich II and the King's grandmother, Brunhilda, or
Columbanus where
worked
for
a
brief time
his Irish companion and
anchorite,and
an
became
later monastery northern
in northern
Callus, disciple,
as
name to, rather than to found, the of St. Gall. Columbanus made his way to
of
Columbanus
to live
was
to give his
Italy,and there established in.614,
the monastery
Switzerland,
Bobbio, in which
onfyone
was
monks
who
is
central and
labored
on
he died
a
of the earlier of
the Continent
"
in the year
Appenines, later.
number
a
of Irish
of them
many
in what
southern
Germany. Thus, Kilian wrought in Wiirzburgand Virgil in Salzburg. One modification of Chris tian practice, of great later importance,was introduced on the these Continent Irish monks, by notably by Columbanus. now
The
entrance
of thousands
into the church
when
Christianity
the old accepted by the state had largelybroken down of private publicdiscipline.There had grown up the custom
was
confession
stronglyfavored support than tended
to
the monks
the
among
the
of East
monks
it in the East. the Irish
among as laity,
Nowhere
had
monks, and
by
Basil
had
it"more hearty them
it
was
ex
The
the case, to some extent, by Irish on the Continent were the
introducers of privatelay confession. up
West.
indeed
was
of the East.
and
In
Ireland, also, grew
the first extensive
books, in which appropriate penitential assessed for specific sins though these books
satisfactions were had their antecedents
"
in earlier
penitentialtreatises the Irish monks
canons
made
of
councils.
familiar
on
These
the Con
tinent.
Meanwhile,
a
work
historyof Britain
of the utmost
and
the
papacy
for the religious significance had
been
undertaken
bv
MISSIONARIES
ROMAN
198
IN
ENGLAND
by a missionary impulse Pope Gregory the Great. Moved which he had long felt,and taking advantage of the favorable situation afforded by the marriage of ^Ethelberht, "King" of southeastern of Kent and overlord of much England, to a Christian princess,Berhta, Gregory sent a Roman Frankish friend,Augustine,the prior of his beloved monastery on the with a number of monastic Cselian hill, companions, to at tempt the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. The expeditionleft in 596, but its courage Rome small, and all the persuasive was of Gregory was requiredto induce it to proceed. It was power not tillthe springof 597 that the party, reinforced by Frank and ish assistants,reached Canterbury. ^Ethelberht many of his followers soon accepted Christianity.Gregory looked the struggleas already won. Augustine received epis upon copal consecration from Vergiliusof Aries in November, 597, and, by 601, Gregory appointed Augustine metropolitanwith authority to establish twelve bishops under his jurisdiction. northern When England should be converted a similar metroLondon and York politanatewas. to be established in York. British bishops, to be the ecclesiastical capitals. The were the Pope whom over Gregory had no recognizedjurisdiction, task committed to the superintendency of Augustine.1 The arduous than it seemed to much in realitywas to prove more Gregory's sanguine vision,and the greater part of a century in Eng to be dominant to pass, before Christianity was was thus inaugurated, was land. Yet the movement, vastly to The Anglo-Saxons owed their conver strengthenthe papacy. sion chieflyto the direct efforts of Rome, and they in turn devotion
displayeda
the papacy not characteristic of the had been and Spain,where Christianity
to
older lands,like France otherwise introduced.
to pro Anglo-Saxon Christianitywas of the most energeticof missionaries
some duce, moreover, the by whom Gospel and
advanced
without
obedience
were
alike to
be
the Continent.
on
England
papal
was
much
not
brought
vicissitude.
to the
The
acceptance of Christianity
hegemony
of Kent
was
wan
ing before the death of ^Ethelberht,and with it the first Chris tian triumphs were gradually gained eclipsed. Northumbria when Edwin, King of Northa success leadership. It was 1
9,
Gee
10.
and
Hardy, Documents
Illustrative of English Church
History, pp.
CHURCH
FRANKISH
200
AND
RULERS
tage of English Christianity.If that from
Rome
contributed
order,the Old British gave missionaryzeal and love of learning. The scholarshipof the Irish monasteries was transplantedto and there was strengthened by frequent AngloEngland, Of this intellectual movement Saxon a pilgrimagesto Rome. conspicuousillustration was Bede, generallycalled the "Vener able" of the joint member (672?-735). An almost life-long of Wearmouth
and
Jarrow
in
Northumbria, his learn embraced a century earlier, ing,like that of Isidore of Seville, monastery
the full round
of
of his age, and
knowledge
made
him
a
teacher
of
He wrote on generationsto come. chronology,natural phe and theology. Above the Scriptures, all,he is remem nomena, bered for his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, a of information work of great merit and the chief source regard ing the Christianization of the British Islands.
SECTION
CONTINENTAL
II.
the
With
conversion
MISSIONS
Clovis
of
AND
to
orthodox
Christianity and
of church (496) (ante,p. 133), a close relationship gan
in the Prankish
Frankish
that
of the
dominions.
conquest
Merovingian Kings
"
church
the
sank, however,
appointed
for
confiscated
or
to
the
low
ebb.
condition
true
two
sides
Clovis
of the
Even
church
be
was
"
the
Frankish
Bishops and abbots
considerations,much political put in secular hands.
were
of
state
it
largeextent
descendants
internal a
a
Christianization
and
Under
shield.
same
To
GROWTH
PAPAL
land
the efforts of
were was
Greg
papal control in France and to effect reform had little lastingresult. The political collapseof the Merovingians, led to the rise to of the Carolingianhouse, originally "mayors of the pal power ace," which was accomplished when Pippin,called,not wholly the battle of Tertry in 687. The of Heristal,won correctly, but the real authority Merovingian Kings continued in name, exercised by Pippin as "duke After his of the Franks." was Charles Martel death in 714, his illegitimate son (715-741) ex ercised all the powers of a King. By him the Mohammedan advance in western Europe was permanently stayed,by the ory
I to
gain
more
great battle between
effective
Tours
and
Poitiers in 732.
He
saw
the
advantage of churchly aid, and supported missionary effort in western Germany and the Netherlands,where he wished to ex-
Martel
Charles
nor
the
its
did
lands, and
Nevertheless,under Charles
its disorders.
sionaryand reformatorywork tianize largesections of western church, and bring the papacy the utmost
Pippin "of Heristal"
helpfulto the church of their Merovingians. They exploitedit for
secularized
political reasons,
little to check
Martel
initiated that
was
reform
Germany,
great mis
was
to Chris
the Frankish
into relations of
the Franks
and
a
both.
to
consequence
201
more
were
territoriesthan
own
neither
Yet
control. political
tend his
MISSIONARY
A
AS
BONIFACE
Willibrord (657?-739),a Northumbrian, began missionary work in Frisia with the support of Pippin of Heristal,and, in consecrated a missionarybishop by Pope SergiusI" 695, was an
resulted in the establishment
which
action
His
Utrecht.
work
of the ablest
one
Winfrid shire
had and
Boniface
or
In
and
success,
remarkable
most
An
(680?-754).
by birth,Winfrid
chester.
scanty
became
of the
with such illsuccess
that he returned
by period" up
of Devon
Anglo-Saxon of Nutcell
716, he began missionary labors
of
see
taken
was
men
monk
a
of the
near
Win
Frisia,but
in
England. In 718 and in Rome, where he received from Pope Gregory II 719, he was From 719 to (715-731) appointment to labor in Germany. he wrorked in Frisia and Hesse, going once to Rome more 722, in the year last named, and receivingconsecration mis as a to the Pope.1 The next ten sionarybishop,swearingallegiance in Hesse and Thuringia. Not a great success years witnessed only were heathen converted,but the Irish monks were brought largelyinto obedience to Rome. Gregory III (731-741) made Boniface an archbishopin 732, with authorityto found new sees. After a third journey to Rome, in 738, he thus organized the church
of
Bavaria, and
a
to
little later that
of
Thuringia. In
Sturm, in the foundation of the great 744, he aided his disciple, Benedictine monastery of Fulda, destined to be a centre of
learningand
Between
746
Mainz, which
thus
many.
of
priestlyeducation and
for all western-central
748, Boniface the
became
by
strengthenedthe causes increased papal authority. His
the considerable
fellow
found
workers
numbers
from
placein monastic 1
his and
Robinson, Readings
of native
archbishop
leadingGerman
this Boniface Jand
made
was
men
of order work and
was
England,
and
and
discipline greatlyaided
European History, 1
:
came
for whom
other Christian service. in
In all
see.
who
women
Ger
105-111.
as
he
BONIFACE'S
202
in 741
death of Charles Martel
The
his
between
Carloman
sons
(741-768). Both and
REFORMS
Carloman
monk.
churchly
more
ultimately retired
While
would
neither
his authoritydivided
(741-747), and
far
were
saw
from
abandon
Pippin than
their
father,
become
to
power
Short
the
authority
a
the
over
in the abolition of
supported Boniface and its worst abuses, and in a closer connec irregularities In a series of synods held under Boniface's tion with Rome. leadership, beginning in 742, the worldliness of the clergywas attacked,wandering bishops censured, priestlymarriage con At a synod enforced. demned, and stricter clerical discipline held in 747 the bishops assembled recognizedthe jurisdiction of the papacy, not though, as the civil rulers were present, Frankish
both
church,
these conclusions lacked the force of Frankish
law.
The
Frank
ish church, thanks to the work of Boniface, was vastlybettered in organization,character, and discipline, while, what was therein equally valued by him, the authority of the papacy was decidedlyincreased,even though that of the mayor very of the palace continued the more potent. drew As Boniface toward old age his thoughts turned toward the mission work in Frisia,with which he had begun. He se cured the appointment of his Anglo-Saxon disciple, Lull, as
his
successor
and
there
ive and faith.
in the
of Mainz.
see
murdered
was
by
the
In
had
work
well as solidation, the chief needs
SECTION
as
he
went
to
Frisia,
heathen, thus crowning his
widely influential life with His
754
death
a
of witness
and order,discipline, Christian advancement, and these
been
for
one
act
to
his con-
were
of the age.
III.
THE
FRANKS
THE
AND
PAPACY
pointed out (ante,p. 162) that the pa and Italy generally, opposed the iconoclastic efforts of pacy, the the Emperor Leo III, going so far as to excommunicate synod held under Gregory opponents of picturesin a Roman III, in 731. The by removing southern Emperor answered and placing these Italy and Sicilyfrom papal jurisdiction, regionsunder the see of Constantinople a matter long a thorn in the side of the papacy. In Rome and northern Italy the exercised from Constantinoplewas too feeble imperialpower It has already been
"
to control
papal action.
The
was imperialrepresentative
the
CORONATION
PIPPIN
OF
203
of Rome
stood a duke Ravenna, under whom in many militaryaffairs,though the Pope was of
exarch
for
respects the
of the city. Emperor's representativein the civil concerns in practical rebellion against the rulers The was now papacy
in Constantinople. It was, however, in a and were pressing, dangerous position.The Lombards The disunion conse threateningthe capture of Rome.
most were
quent
pn
papacy
seat
it necessary, if the the iconoclastic dispute made considerable to maintain independence in was any than that againstthe Lombards protection This the Popes sought,and at last obtained,
to find other
Rome, ,of the
J
their
had
who
Emperor. the Franks.
from
739
In
but in vain.
againstthe Lombards, otherwise.
was
He
greater plans than him.
Pippin
and
each to the other.
Charles
appealed to
III
Gregory
could
the papacy The
new
aid
With
his father had
even
for
Pippin the Short it minded, and ecclesiastically
more
was
Martel
Lombard
entertained be of mutual
now
moved
assistance
King, Aistulf (749-756),
from the Emperor in 751 and was griev conquered Ravenna itself. Pippin desired the kingly title as ously pressingRome in France. He had determined well as the kinglypower upon
should relegatethe last of the feeble Mero vingians,Childeric III, to a monastery, and placePippin him
a
revolution which
this change he desired not only the approval of the Frankish nobility,but the moral sanction of the church. He appealed to Pope Zacharias (741-752). The self on
the
throne.
Pope's approval was of was
751, Pippin was anointed
and
For
promptly granted, and formally in crowned, but
before the
close
kingly office. To this he whether by Boniface,as has
the
usuallybeen supposed, is uncertain. This
transaction,which
seems
to
have
been
simple at
the
far-reachingconsequences. fraught with the most the conclusion that it was it might be drawn From within the in Pope's powrer to give and withhold kingdoms. All unseen it,were wrapped up the re-establishment of the empire in the West, the Holy Roman Empire, and that interplayof papacy and empire which forms so, large a part of the historyof the Middle Ages. From this point of view it was the most impor of mediaeval history. tant event If the Pope could thus help Pippin, the latter could be no less serviceable to the Pope. Aistulf and his Lombards contime,
was
STATES
THE
204
THE
OF
CHURCH
Stephen II, therefore,went to Pippin himself,crowning anointingPippin and his sons afresh in the church of St. Denis Paris,in 754, and confirmingto near tinned to press
Rome.
and
them
the indefinite title of "Patricians
more
useful,perhaps,because
exarch his
in Ravenna.
implying a
It had
wholly undefined.
was
Soon
754, or
Aistulf to agree
early in
been
after this the
obligation. At reciprocal
late in
of the Romans"
to the
all the
relation to Rome
that
borne
by the imperial crowning,Pippin fulfilled
head
755, he invaded
to surrender
"
Pope
of
a
Prankish
Italy and Ravenna
army,
compelled
and
the other
campaign, in 756, was before the Lombard King made good his promise. necessary of which Exarchate Ravenna the capitaland The the was of the Pope. The "States the possessions now Pentapoliswere of the Church" were begun that temporal sovereigntyof the Lombard
recent
A
conquests.
second
"
which
papacy
was
to
last till1870.
Yet,
as
far
as
can
now
to Pope Stephen, judged, in thus granting the Exarchate itself, Pippin did Pippin regarded himself as overlord. Rome his to give. Legally,the not not give to the Pope. It was would have been hard to define. status of Rome Though the broken with the Emperor at Constanti Popes had practically Indeed the had not been conquered from him. nople,Rome recognizedthe sovereigntyof the Eastern Emperor in papacy till 772. the style of its public documents Pippin had the rightsthat might be included in the title wholly nebulous in the pos "Patrician of the Romans." was Actually,Rome session of the Pope. the extenta territorialruler, Though the Pope was thus now of his possessions far from was satisfying papal ambition, if' one judge by a curious forgery,the authorship of whichmay from this period the is unknown, but which to date seems
be
"
so-called "Donation
of Constantine."
l
In charter
form, and
of his expressionof a creed, and a fabulous account conversion and baptism, Constantine ordered all ecclesiastics to be subjectto Pope Sylvesterand successive occupants of the and all "the cityof Rome Roman see, and transferred to them the provinces, and cities of Italy or of the Western districts, half the Western a sovereigntyover regions." This meant of the empire at least an overlordship. Discredited by a few of the Middle of the wiser men was Ages, the "Donation" genwith
an
"
1
Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp.
319-329.
CHARLEMAGNE
205
erallybelieved,tillits falsitywas
demonstrated
of Cues
in 1440.
in 1433
and
SECTION
Pippin the
Short
Valla
Lorenzo
IV.
CHARLEMAGNE
in 768.
died
by Nicholas
A
strong ruler,his fame has been unduly eclipsed by that of his greater son, who, in general,
simply;carried had
further
his
divided
Carloman.
the
father
had
between
kingdom
his two between the
existed
Ill will
situation
what
begun.
sons,
Pippin
Charles
brothers, but
and
the
relieved
in 771. With by the death of Carloman that event the real reign of Charles, to whom the world has ascribed the title "Great" it indissolubly with to weave so as his name Charlemagne began. than any other sovereign in Charlemagne, perhaps more all thingsto his age. head over A warrior of great history, was than doubled his father's possessions. When gifts,he more he died his sway ruled all of modern France, Belgium, and Hol land, nearly half of modern Germany and Austria-Hungary, than half of Italy, and a bit of northeastern Spain. It was more since nearer imperialsize than anything that had been seen the downfall of the Western Roman Empire. Conquest was but part of his work. His armies, by extending the frontier, rest and time for consolidation to the central portion of gave his territories. He was the kindly mas the patron of learning, was
"
ter
"
of the
seemed A
church, the
small for attention
too
of
preserver or
too
quarrelwith Desiderius,King
in the
conquest
magne
in two
order, to whom
great for execution.
of the
extinction of that
and
campaigns in the
nothing
years
Lombards,
resulted
kingdom by Charle 774 to 777. Pippin's
the papacy were renewed, but the situation was altered. The was no practically longer separated as papacy
grants
to
it had
been
vening Rome
from
Lombard
was
main
Prankish
kingdom.
much
a
the
he thenceforth
ate of his
realm, rather than go
did that of the
so
far
as
Charlemagne's connection
effective overlordship than
more
father,and he did not
territories by the inter
treated as
an
the
Pope
as
bishopsof his
Highly important Charlemagne's conquest
for
that of his
the chief
independentpower,
to dictate the choice of the
with
prel
though
Popes,as he
kingdom.
the of the
extension
of
was Christianity Saxons, then occupying what
.
is
CROWNED
CHARLEMAGNE
206
EMPEROR
result achieved only after a Germany series of campaigns lastingfrom 772 to 804. His forcible a made impositionof Christianitywas permanent by the more and monasteries of plantingbishoprics throughpeacefulmeans out^theSaxon land. By this conversion the last considerable Germanic tribe,and one of the most giftedand energetic, was brought into the Christian family of Europe to its permanent became land. a wholly Christian advantage. Frisia,also,now Charlemagne's contests with the rebellious duke, Tassilo, of already Christianized Bavaria, led not only to the full absorp northwestern
now
tion of the Bavarian
system, but
to
"
in bishoprics
successful
wars
the
Prankish
against the
Avars
ecclesiastical and
the
ex
tension of Christianity of what into much is now Austria. Such a ruler,devoted equally to the extension of political power
and
of
it
the
visible embodiment
and controlling the greater part of Christianity, Western Christendom, was, indeed, a figureof imperial pro therefore,that Pope Leo III portions. It is not surprising, (795-816), who was greatlyindebted to Charlemagne for pro tection from disaffected Roman nobles, placed on the head of the Frankish the latter as King the Roman imperialcrown knelt in St. Peter's Church Christmas on day, 800. To the thinkingof the Roman populace who applauded,as to the West the restoration of the empire to the West, generally,it was that had for centuries been held by the ruler in Constan tinople. It placed Charlemagne in the great succession from Augustus. It gave a theocratic stamp to that empire. Un at the time to Charlemagne, expected,and not wholly welcome was
of
a
great ideal.
The
Roman
God's consecra died,and now thought,had never tion had been given to a Western Emperor by the hands of of the His representative.It was a not, necessarily, rejection imperialtitleof the ruler in Constantinople. The later empire had frequentlyseen Leo V two Emperors, East and West. (813-820), the Emperor in Constantinople, later, formally recognized the imperial title of his Western colleague. For
Empire, men
the West
and
consequence.
of the utmost for the papacy the coronation was of It raised questions of imperialpower and
to be controverted papal authoritythat were throughout the Middle Ages. It emphasized the feelingthat church and but two state sides of the same were shield,the one leading the other to eternal blessedness, to temporal happiness, man
15
Long.
10
EUROPE IN
THE
TIME
CHARLEMAGNE.
OF
AVest
5
10
Long.
15
East
fruui
T"
25
Greemv.
30
REVIVED
LEARNING and
both
made
more
UNDER
closelyrelated
and
than
ever
evident
cleavagebetween political peror
himself it seemed
207
owing mutual helpfulness.It anoT the deep-seatedreligious
East
and
the great Em the fulfilment of the dream of Augus
West.
To
in City offGod (ante,p. 184) the union of Christendom the earthly head. His kingdom of God, of which he was
tine's a
CHARLEMAGNE
power
"
greater than when
never
was
he died, in 814. schools were so
Charlemagne's accession no flourishing in Western Europe as those to be found in connection with the monasteries of the British Islands. It was from England that this many-sided monarch procured his chief intellectual and literaryassistant. Alcuin (735?-804) was probably a native, and certainly From of York. 781 to his death, with a student he was some interruptions, Charlemagne's main aid in a real renaissance of classical and Biblical learning, that rendered the reignbrightcompared with the years before,and raised the in At
tellectual life of the without
becoming
occasional
pupilin
though as
an
Charlemagne made Martin centre
Prankish
in
of
Tours, which
of
scholar,set the example of the palace." In 796
a
this "school
Alcuin
Charlemagne himself,
state.
much
the head
now
learningfor the.
of the monastery of St. under became his leadership a
whole
Frankish
realm.
helped in this intellectual revival,like the Lombard, (720?-795), the Frank, Einhard
Deacon
Visigoth,Theodulf various magne
national
The
mere
shows relationships
exhibited to
those who With
(760?-821). from
secure
any
the
Others
Paul
(770?-840), mention care
portionof
could raise the intellectual standards
or
the the
of these
which Western of his
Charle
Europe empire.
this growth of learning came
theologicaldiscussion. The Spanish bishops,Elipandus of Toledo and Felix of Urgel, Christology that Christ,though in His taught an adoptionist divine nature in His human the Son of God, was nature only a these opin son by adoption. Under Charlemagne's leadership ions were in synods held in Regensburg (792) and condemned Frankfort (794). In this work Charlemagne regarded himself the theological as guide no less than the protector of the church. In similar fashion,at the synod of Frankfort just mentioned, "
Charlemagne
had
the
conclusions
of the
General
Council
of
787vinNicsea of
(ante,p. 163), condemned, rejectedits approval and caused the Libri Carolini,defending picturereverence,
his position, to be issued.
In 809, at
a
synod in Aachen, Char-
ECCLESIASTICAL
208
MODIFICATIONS
lemagne approved the Spanish addition filioque(ante,p. 180) All these to the so-called Nicene-Constantinopolitancreed. in consultation with the bishops and theologiansof acts were his realm, but with no specialdeference to the Pope or refer of the matters to papal judgment. ence SECTION
V.
ECCLESIASTICAL
INSTITUTIONS
institutions were based on the cities, which on political dependent, and Christian organ surrounding country was
Roman the
ization
followed
the
same
rule.
The
country
districts
were
cared for by the city bishops and dependent upon and were their appointees,save where, in the East, there were "country Germanic invasions altered this situation. bishops." The By the sixth century the beginningsof the parish system were in France to be found (ante,p. 166). There it rapidly grew, of the foundation it was and stimulated by the custom of The founders and their heirs churches by large landowners. This situa retained the right of nominating the incumbent. tion left episcopal control uncertain. Charlemagne, there fore,provided that besides the rightof ordination of all parish the bishop should have visitorial and disciplinary priests, power his diocese. The further status was churchly throughout the full establishment of tithes. strengthenedby legal Long favored by the clergythrough Old Testament example, they demanded by a Frankish synod in Macon, in 585. By were treated as a legalcharge,and full legalsanc Pippin they were tion was to be col given them by Charlemagne. They were lected not only by bishops,but by and for the use of the incum bent of each parish. Moreover, constant giftsof lands to the church had raised ecclesiasticalpossessions, by the time of the The great to a third of the soil of France. earlyCarolingians, holdingswere a constant temptation in the financial need of a Charles Martel, who secularized much, but under the friendly of Charlemagne they were respected,if earlier government
confiscations Under
were
not
restored.
Charlemagne, preachingwas encouraged and books of sermons favored, though not yet prepared. Confession was obligatory. Every Christian was expected to be able to repeat the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles'Creed. Charlemagne renewed and extended the metropolitansystem,
AND
METROPOLITANS
ARCHBISHOPS
209
abeyance. At the beginningof his reign but one there was metropolitanin the Prankish kingdom. At These its end there were were now generally twenty-two. known as archbishops a title which goes back to the time of In Carolingiantheory Athanasius, though long looselyused. the judge and disciplinary the archbishop was officer of the bishopsof his province,possessedof powers which the growth It was of papal jurisdiction also his duty to curtail. was soon the religious to call frequentsynods to consider problems of the archdiocese,or as it was usuallystyled,the province. For the better regulation of his immediate clerical assistants, Bishop Chrodegang of Metz introduced, about 760, a semifavored which was and spread by monastic life in common, the designationof this life as the vita Charlemagne. From "canons" for the clergyattached to a cathe canonica,the name Their place of meeting was dral or collegiate church arose. called the capitulum,or chapter a title soon applied to the themselves. of the the life and work canons By this means bishop and his immediately associated clergy was largely regulated. Charlemagne himself designated the bishops of which
had
fallen into
"
"
his realm. In
all these
that of personalauthorityover changes, save episcopalappointments,Charlemagne was but carryingfurther the reforms Much that he completed begun by Boniface. his father,Pippin,had commenced. At Charlemagne's death, the Prankish
church
in
was
a
far better state
of
education,dis
and efficiency than it had been under the later Mero cipline, vingiansand earlyCarolingians.
SECTION
VI.
COLLAPSING
EMPIRE
AND
RISING
PAPACY
personal. Scarcelyhad he died when the rapid decline of his empire began. His son and Louis the Pious (814-840),was of excellent personal successor, character,but wholly unequal to the task left by Charlemagne, to the control of his own or even plottedagainsthim sons, who and quarrelled another. After his death they divided with one the empire between them by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. To Lothair (843-855) came Prankish Italyand a stripof territory the valleyof the Rhone and the region: including lyingimmedi atelywest of the Rhine, togetherwith the imperialtitle. To
Charlemagne'sgreat
power
was
THE
210
COLLAPSE
OF
THE
(843-875)was given the regioneast acquiredthe nickname, the German."
Louis he
EMPIRE of the
"
(843-877) came
most
of modern
France
and
To
Rhine, whence
Charles
the Bald
ultimatelythe is usuallyregardedas
im
the Treaty of Verdun and Germany go their separate ways. France These rulers proved utterlyinadequate for unity or defense. France suffered grievouslyfrom attacks by the Scandinavian Normans, who pushed up its rivers and burned its towns, ulti mately (911) establishingthemselves permanently in Nor of which to Saracen raids,in one a mandy. Italy was prey in Rome, was (841) St. Peter's itself, plundered. A littlelater, with the beginningof the tenth century, the raids of the Hun garians brought devastation to Germany and Italy. Under national unity or defense was im these circumstances, when possible,feudalism developed with great rapidity. Its roots back to the declining run days of the Roman Empire, but with the death of Charlemagne it was given great impetus. It was for any strong central govern intenselydivisive,substituting local seats of authority, ment jealousone of another and many engaged in constant struggle. Churches and monasteries be came largelythe prey of local nobles, or defended their rights with difficulty as parts of the feudal system. This social and form of organizationwas to dominate Europe tillthe political the growth of thirteenth century, and largelyto make possible
perialcrown. point whence
the mediaeval
This
papacy.
impulsegiven to learningby Charlemagne did not imme diatelydie. At the court of Charles the Bald, John Scotus much later added, the name Erigena was (?-877?), to whom held somewhat the same positionthat Alcuin had occupied un admired writingsof der Charlemagne. He translated the much Neothe Pseudo-Dionysius(ante, p. 171),and developedhis own too ignorant to judge Platonic philosophy,which his age was Maurus In Germany, Hrabanus heretical or orthodox. (776 ?856), abbot of Fulda and archbishopof Mainz, a pupilof Alcuin, attained a deserved reputationas a teacher, commentator on of and author furtherer of clerical education the Scriptures, what was (805?-882), well-nighan encyclopaedia.In Hincmar of France not Rheims, only a prelateof possessed archbishop controversial but a theological great assertiveness and influence, ist of decided gift. renewed The study of Augustine which this intellectual The
PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN
THE
212
DECRETALS
collapsingempire of Charlemagne led to the rise of a churchly party in France, which despairingof help from the of unity and hope. as the source state, looked toward the papacy This party regarded with suspicionalso any control of the church by the sovereigns or nobility,and it represented the jealousyof the ordinary bishops and lower clergytoward the great archbishops with their often arbitraryassertions of au Hincmar was a conspicuousexample. The thority,of whom The
aim
of the movement
the exaltation
not
was
of the papacy for of checking sec
sake; rather its exaltation as a means ular control and that of the archbishops,and of maintaining ecclesiastical unity. From 847 and 852, this circle,between and probably from Hincmar's own one regionof Rheims, came remarkable of forgeries the so-called Pseudoof the most Isidorian Decretals purporting to be collected by a certain Isidore Mercator, by whom Isidore of Seville (ante,p. 193) and its
own
"
"
Marius
Mercator
were
intended.
doubtless
It
consisted
of
of Rome in the Popes and councils from Clement first century to Gregory II in the eighth,part genuine and part "Donation of Constantine" (ante, p. 204) is forged. The included. The su early Popes therein claim for themselves jurisdiction.All bishops may appeal directlyto papal preme rightsare limited,and authority. Interveningarchiepiscopal neither papacy nor bishopsare subjectto secular control. With had nothing to do; but it was its originthe papacy to be used mightilyto the furtherance of papal claims. The age was un critical. It passed immediately as genuine, and not was ex historical study. had awakened posed tillthe Reformation the independence of the With the decline of imperialpower, the strong The Popes showed themselves rapidlyrose. papacy in Italy. Leo IV (847-855), aided by south Italian est men decisions
of
cities,defeated St. Peter's Nicholas
I
the
in Rome
with
surrounded
and
Saracens a
wall
(858-867) the Roman
"
see
the had
the
"Leonine
quarter of
City."
its ablest and
In
most
Gregory the Great and Hildebrand. of papal claims,hardly surpassed to be centuries in achieving. later,but which the papacy was Nicholas attempted to realize the ideals of Augustine'sCityof God. is superior to all earthly In his thought, the church the ruler of the whole church is the Pope, and the bish powers, able to make his agents. These conceptionshe was ops are assertive occupant between He sketched out a programme
effective in two
notable
tage of choosing the
cases,
side
on
in which which
I
NICHOLAS
BY
ADVANCED
PAPACY
he had
213
also the advan
right lay.
The
first was
Thietberga,the injuredwife of Lothair II of Lorraine. his concubine, WalDivorced that that sovereignmight marry drada, she appealed to Nicholas, who declared void the sanc tioningdecision of a synod held in Metz, in 863, and excom the archbishops of Trier and municated Cologne who had The Pope had defended helplesswoman supported Lothair. of the most two the less humbled powerful hood, he none second the ruler. In German German prelatesand thwarted a Nicholas received the appeal of the deposed Bishop case, Rothad of Soissons,who had been removed by the overbearing forced his restoration. of Rheims, and Archbishop Hincmar Here Nicholas appearedas the protector of the bishopsagainst their metropolitansand the defender of their right to appeal to the Pope as the final judge. In this quarrel the Pseudothat of
Isidorian Decretals In was
were
firstemployed in Rome.
third case, Nicholas, though having right on his side, less successful. The Emperor in Constantinople,Michael a
of ruled by his uncle,Bardas, a man Ignatius,refused Bardas reputation. The patriarch,
"
III, the Drunkard," unsavory
was
deposed. In his place,Bardas sacrament, and was learned men of the most cured the appointment of one
the
the
later Greek
world, Photius
pro
of
858-867, 878-886), (patriarch appealedto Nicholas, injured,
layman. Ignatius,thus who sent legatesto Constantinople. They joined in approval The Pope repudiatedtheir action,and, in 863, de of Photius. accused the Western clared Photius deposed. Photius now clause to the creed, Church of heresy for admitting ihefilioque fastingon Saturdays,using milk, butter, and cheese in Lent, and confiningconfirmation to the celibacy, demanding priestly bishops. At a synod under his leadershipin Constantinople, Nicholas failed in his condemned. in 867, the Pope was Church. the Eastern attempt to exercise his authority over but augmented, The ill feelingbetween East and West was which was to lead,in 1054, to the complete separationof the then
a
churches.
During this period followingthe death of Charlemagne im begun. Ansgar (801?-865), portant missionary efforts were a
monk
the next
of
driven out in 826, but was In 831 he labored in Sweden.
Corbie, entered Denmark
year.
In 829
and
830
MISSIONS
214 he
IN
EUROPE
appointed archbishop of the newly constituted see of Den Hamburg, with prospectivemissionaryjurisdiction over The destruction of Hamburg mark, Norway, and Sweden. by the Danes, in 845, resulted in Ansgar'sremoval to Bremen, which united with was ecclesiastically Hamburg. Ansgar's efforts were backed by no Frankish militaryforce,and his pa tient labors accomplished little. The full Christianization of was
Scandinavia
was
yet in the future.
attended missions in the East. The Bulgars, Larger success Turanian a originally people, from eastern Russia, had con quered a largeterritoryin the Balkan region in the seventh and century, and, in turn, had adopted the manners speech of their Slavic subjects. Under their King, Boris (852-884), For was introduced, Boris being baptizedin 864. Christianity time undecided between some Constantinopleand Rome, Boris finallychose spiritual allegianceto the former, since the pa triarch of Constantinople was willing to recognize a selfThis adhesion of immense governing Bulgarian church. was in determining the future growth of the Greek consequence Church in Eastern Europe. The most celebrated missionaries the Slavs were, however, the brothers Cyril (?-869) and among Methodius (?-885). Natives of Thessalonica, they had at tained high positionin the Eastern empire. On the request of Rostislav,duke of Moravia, the Eastern Emperor, Michael III, There they labored with great sent the brothers thither in 864. A struggleof several years between the papacy and success. resulted Constantinoplefor possessionof this new-won territory in the ultimate victoryof Rome. The use of a Slavic liturgy was permittedby Pope John VIII (872-882),though soon with its worship came drawn, but from this source ultimatelyto the Russian church. From Moravia, Christianityin its Roman
form
SECTION
came
to Bohemia
VII.
PAPAL
about
the close of the ninth
DECLINE
AND
RENEWAL
BY
THE
century.
REVIVED
EMPIRE
It may which such showed seem strange that the papacy under Nicholas I should within twenty-fiveyears of his power death is the
have fallen into its lowest
degradation. times. Up to
growing anarchy of the the collapseof the empire aided
the
The
explanation certain point a development of papal
PAPACY
THE
OF
DECLINE
RAPID
215
the sport of the became authority; that passed, the papacy in con faction was Italian nobles and ultimatelyof whatever chosen trol of Rome, since the Pope was by the clergy and could now appeal for aid to no peopleof the city. The papacy had to Pippinagainst as Zacharias strong outside political power the Lombards.
the close of the ninth century the papacy
At
quarrelsfor
in the
the
involved
was
of Italy. Stephen possession of
Spoleto,and
overborne by Guido, duke 891) was the empty imperialtitle. Formosus to grant him
V
(885-
compelled (891-896) Lambert,
similarlydependent, and crowned Guido's son, this situation Formosus sought relief Emperor in 892. From had the Germans in the aid of Arnulf, whom in 893 by calling In 895 Arnulf captured Rome, and was chosen King in 887. the next year. A few months crowned Emperor by Formosus of Rome, and his partisan, in turn master later Lambert was Stephen VI (896-897), had the remains of the latelydeceased in a synod, and treated Formosus disinterred,condemned with extreme indignity. A riot,however, thrust Stephen VI into prison,where he was strangled. in rapid succession, another the followed one as Popes now
was
various
factions
Stephen
VI
than
(897) and
influences in the
From
Alberic, a
son
much the was
who
and
man
of less
(955) no
controlling
The
century
were
notorious
those
daugh
their creatures.
controlled by Marozia's of strength, and character,who did ability, was
for
fitness for the
Octavian office,
in 955,
choosingas (955-964),being one of the
on
death
churchly reforms in Rome, but nevertheless secured appointment of his partisansas Popes. On his death he succeeded as temporal ruler of Rome by his son Octavian, had few of the father's rough virtues. Though without
moral as
throne. tenth
the XII
Theophylact, and his The Popes were Theodora.
death in 954 Rome
to his
932
the accession of John
noble
Roman
ters, Marozia
Between
Rome.
occupied the papal openingyears of the
seventeen
of the
controlled
Pope
election.
He
his
name
secured in this
earliest
Popes
whole
Roman
altered the
to
his
election
own
capacityJohn XII take
a
new
name
situation and
in
historyof the papacy, by calling the able German for aid upon sovereign,Otto I, against the threateningpower of Berengar II, who had gained control of a largepart of Italy. troduced
a
new
chapter in
the
line of
The
tion
Charlemagne
of the
to
came
of Louis
the death
911, with
OF
REGENERATION
THE
210
GERMANY
an
the Child. and
Carolingianempire
the
end
in
Germany, in With the disintegra growth of feudalism,
Germany threatened to fall into its tribal divisions,Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony, Franconia, and Lorraine. The most power ful
the tribal dukes.
were
men
The
necessities of defense from
and
Hungarians forced a degree of unity,which aided by the jealousyfelt by the bishops of the growing was nobles and of the secular nobility. In 911 the German power great clergy,therefore,chose Conrad, duke of Franconia, as King (911-918). He proved inadequate,and in 919 Henry elected his successor the Fowler, duke of Saxony, was (919-936). His abilitywas equal to the situation. Though having little in Saxony, he secured peace from the other dukes, save power, the Northmen
the drove back the Danes, subdued territories, in 933, defeated the Hun of the Elbe, and finally,
fortifiedhis Slavs east
own
The
garian invaders. moved, and he
the
foundations
succeeded
was
worst
King by
as
perilsof Germany had been re of a strong monarchy laid,when his
even
abler son,
Otto
I
(936-
973). first work
Otto's
the consolidation of his kingdom.
was
He
his vassals. In effectively all the aid of the bishops and great he used above this work abbots. They controlled largeterritoriesof Germany, and by these posts with his adherents, their forces,coupled with filling made
semi-independentdukes
the
his own,
sufficient to enable
were
Otto
to
control
any
hostile
lay nobles. He named the bishopsand abbots, to continue to the and under him they became, as they were prelates. The Napoleonicwars, lay rulers as well as spiritual peculiarconstitution of Germany thus arose, by which the imperialpower was based on control of ecclesiasticalappoint to lead to the investiture struggle ments was a situation which combination
of
"
with
the
papacy
in the next
century.
As
Otto
extended
his
bishopricson the borders of his king and partly missionary in aim, as Bran dom, partly political the Slavs,and Schleswig, Ripen, denburg and Havelberg among he
power
and
founded
Aarhus
new
for the
Danes.
He
also established
the
arch
bishopricof Magdeburg. Had
Otto
for the
ing of
confined
to
Germany
it would
have
been
land, and for the permanent upbuild strong central monarchy. He was, however, attracted
advantage a
his work
of that
HOLY
THE
ROMAN
EMPIRE
217
by Italy,and established relations there of the utmost historic the strength destined to dissipate importance,but which were A first invasion in 951 made him for centuries. of Germany of northern Italy. Rebellion at home master (953) and a great campaign againstthe Hungarians (955) interruptedhis Italian invaded Italy,invited by more enterprise ; but in 961 he once Pope John XII, then hard pressedby Berengar II (ante,p. 215). in Rome On February 2, 962, Otto was crowned by John XII event which, though in theory continuingthe as an Emperor succession of the Roman Emperors from Augustus and Charle the inaugurationof the Holy Roman was Empire, magne, in which till 1806. the to continue was name Theoretically, the head of secular Christendom, so constituted Emperor was with the approval of the church expressedby coronation by the papacy. he was less powerful Ger a more or Practically, man ruler,with Italian possessions, on varyingterms with the Popes. John XII soon tired of Otto's practical control,and plotted such to whom againsthim. Otto, of strong religious feeling, also moved a an offense,doubtless was Pope was by a desire the German to strengthenhis hold on bishops by securinga In 963 Otto more worthy and compliant head of the church. to choose no compelled the Roman people to swear Pope with John XII to be deposed, and brought out his consent, caused about the choice of Leo VIII (963-965). The new Pope stood solelyby imperialsupport. On Otto's departureJohn XII re "
his papacy, chose Benedict V. sumed
and
John's
on
death
the
factions
Roman
returned, forced Benedict into exile,restored Leo VIII, and after Leo's speedy demise, caused the choice of John XIII (965-972). Otto had rescued the papacy, for the time being,from the Roman nobles,but at the cost
of
Otto's
his
and
successor,
Otto
II
(973-983),pursued substan
policy at home, and regardingthe papacy, hand. His son, Otto father, though with a weaker same
(983-1002),went controlled
Rome, made
Otto
more
subserviencyto himself.
son
tiallythe
Once
put
the
further.
papacy
them
The
Roman
nobles
in his minority,but
down, and
caused
had
in 996
his cousin
once
as
III
more
he entered
Bruno
to
be
to hold Pope as Gregory V (996-999)" the first German the papal office. After Gregory's decease Otto III placed on the papal throne his tutor, Gerbert, archbishopof Rheims,
218
AND
EMPERORS
THE
THE
PAPACY
Silvester II (999-1003)" the first French
as
learned
of the age. of Otto III ended
man
death
The
Pope, and the
the direct line of Otto
most
I, and the
by Henry II (1002-1024), duke of Bavaria A man filled with and great-grandsonof Henry the Fowler. sincere desire to improve the state of the church, he yet felt him self forced by the difficultiesin securingand maintaining his po sition to exercise strict control over ecclesiasticalappointments. affairs to interfere His hands too fully tied by German were of Tusculum in Rome. There the counts gained effectually control of the papacy, and secured the appointment of Benedict VIII (1012-1024), with whom Henry stood on good terms, and he was crowned. persuaded the unspiriby whom Henry even tual Benedict VIII at a synod in Pavia in 1022, at which both the prohibitionof Pope and Emperor were present, to renew which the age re priestlymarriage and favor other measures garded as reforms. With the death of Henry II the direct line was more once secured by a Franconian extinct,and the imperialthrone was secured
throne
was
count,
Conrad
II
(1024-1039),
one
of the
ablest of German
empire gained great strength. His considerations however, and political thoughts were political, he Rome his ecclesiastical appointments. With determined rulers, under
did
whom
interfere.
not
for Benedict
papacy
his death
the
Tusculan
the
There
XIX
brother, John
VIII's
secured
party
the
(1024-1032),
twelve-year-old nephew, Benedict IX of the worst (1033-1048), both unworthy, and the latter one An intolerable situation arose occupants of the papal throne. able and which ended (see p. 221) by Conrad's at Rome, was far more religious son, Henry III, Emperor from 1039 to 1056. and
on
for his
SECTION
Charlemagne cational
ideals
and
himself
cultural
work
than in
the
in 779.
for its ascetic ideals.
Charlemagne's reign to
Benedict's
full ascetic observation
(ante,p. 139). The
for its edu
more
France, Witiza, or as he (750?-821) called of Aniane, from
by him
of Nursia
monasticism
of southern
Benedict
founded
MOVEMENTS
REFORM
valued
appealed,however,
nobleman
where
VIII.
aim of the
educational
was
was
"Rule" or
soon
the to
a
Those
soldier-
known,
monastery
secure
every
of Benedict
industrial side of
AIMS
220
This
new
that such
ence
force
CLUNY
REFORMS
in monasticism, and
it made
with
all the
order, under
an
a
was
THE
OF
singlehead,
a
constitution
a
with
comparable With
implies. It
Cluny practically strengthand now
came
of the Dominicans
that
or
influ
to
have
Jesuits of
this
an growth came enlargementof the An illustration is reformatory aims of the Cluny movement. of God." the "Truce Though not originatedby Cluny, it taken up and greatlyfurthered by Abbot Odilo from 1040 was
later times.
Its aim
onward.
to limit the constant
was
petty
wars
between
closed season in memory of Christ's a by prescribing from Wednesday evening tillMonday morning, during passion,
nobles
which
of violence
acts
should
visited with
be
tical punishments. Its purpose
severe
ecclesias
excellent;its success
was
but
partial. As
Cluny
the
clergy,and
movement
became
an
grew
not effort,
it
the support of the for the reform of monasticism, won
of clerical life. wide-reachingbetterment By the first half of the eleventh century the Cluny party, as a to "Simony"1 and "Nicolaitanism."2 whole, stood in opposition understood givingor receptionof a By the former was any as
at
but for first,
a
clericaloffice for money
payment
or
other sordid consideration.
By the latter,any breach of clerical celibacy,whether by marriage or concubinage. These reformers desired a worthy the age understood as clergy,appointedfor spiritual reasons, of the Cluny party, and even abbots While many worthiness. had apparently no criticism of royal ecclesias of Cluny itself, from tical appointments, if made spiritualmotives, by the of the eleventh century a large section was middle viewing and had as its reforma any investiture by a layman as simony, strong enough to take from the Kings and tory ideal a papacy princeswhat it deemed their usurped powers of clerical designa tion.
This
was
the section that
his great contest. Elsewhere than
in the
characteristic of the instituted
Romuald
tenth
ascetic reform
movement
and
a
monastic
eleventh
centuries.
In
in
was
Lor
revival of
hermits, called "deserts," in which
practised,and 1
support Hildebrand
to
largeproportionswas by Gerhard, abbot of Brogne (?-959). In Italy, of Ravenna (950?-1027) organized settlements of
Flanders
raine and
Cluny
was
Acts
from
818-24.
which
the strictest asceticism
missionaries 2
and
Rev. 2".
was
preachers went 14-
15.
RESCUES
III
HENRY
PAPACY
THE
221
"desert," which stillexists and gave Arezzo. is that of Camaldoli, near its name to the movement, Peter Damiani famous Even more was (1007?-1072), likewise of Ravenna, a fierysupporter of monastic reform, and oppo for a time, of simoriy and clerical marriage, who nent was, cardinal bishop of Ostia, and a leading ecclesiastical figurein of Hildebrandian ideas, preceding Italy in the advancement The
forth.
famous
most
Hildebrand's
papacy.
It is evident that before the middle a
for
strong movement
felt.
Henry
had, in
II
of the eleventh
reform
churchly large measure,
century
making itself sympathized with it was
under more even Henry III (1039-1056) was close its influence. Abbot Hugh of Cluny (1049-1109) was a friend of that Emperor, while the Empress, Agnes, from Aquitaine, had been brought up in heartiest sympathy with the Cluny party, of which her father had been a devoted adherent. nature, and though he Henry III was personallyof a religious had hesitation in controllingecclesiastical appointments no for political reasons as fullyas his father,Conrad II, he would take no money for so doing,denounced simony, and appointed bishops of high character and reformatory zeal. demanded The situation in Rome Henry Ill's interference,
(ante,p. 218).
for it had
now
become
an
intolerable
placed on the throne by the unworthy that its rivals,the were
back
party, had
of the
IX,
proved
Crescenzio
so
faction,
him
out
of
Rome,
partialpossessionof the city,and now, tiring and probably planning marriage, temporarilyof his high office, he sold it in 1045 for a pricevariouslystated as one thou two or sand pounds of silver. The purchaser was a Roman archpriest of good repute for piety,John Gratian, who took the name known few. to Gregory VI. Apparently the purchase was Gregory was welcomed at first by reformers like Peter Damiani. The scandal soon became public property. Benedict IX re fused to lay down the papacy, and there were three Popes now in Rome, each in possessionof one of the principalchurches, and each denouncing the other two. inter Henry III now fered. At a synod held by him in Sutri in December, 1040, Silvester III was deposed, and Gregory VI compelled to resign and banished to Germany. A few days later,a synod in Rome,
was
soon
in
nobles
Benedict
in 1044, and install their Silvester III in his stead. Benedict, however,
able to drive
as representative
Tusculan
scandal.
PARTY
REFORM
THE
222
SECURES
THE
PAPACY
under
imperialsupervision, deposed Benedict IX. Henry III and the overawed immediately nominated clergy and people of the city elected a German, Suidger,bishop of Bamberg, as Clement II (1046-1047). Henry III had reached the highmark of imperialcontrol over the papacy. water So grateful did its rescue from previousdegradationappear that the reform party did not at first seriouslycriticise this imperialdomina tion ; but it could not long go on without raisingthe question of the independence of the church. The very thoroughness of roused opposition. Henry's work soon Henry III had repeated occasion to show his control of the papal office. Clement II soon died, and Henry caused another bishop of his empire to be placed on the papal throne as DamII. The asus new Pope survived but a few months. Henry his cousin Bruno, bishop now see appointed to the vacant of Toul, a thoroughgoing reformer, in full sympathy with as a Cluny, who now journeyed to Rome pilgrim,and after merely formal canonical election by the clergy and people of the city for the Emperor's act was determinative took the "
"
title of Leo
IX
SECTION
Leo most
(1049-1054).
THE
IX.
set himself
IX
effective
composition of
measure
REFORM
PARTY
vigorouslyto was
a
SECURES
the
THE
PAPACY
task of reform.
His
great alteration wrought in the
advisers the cardinals. Pope's immediate The been employed to indicate cardinal,had originally name, a clergyman permanently attached to an ecclesiastical posi tion. By the time of Gregory I (590-604),its use in Rome was, uncertain From however, becoming technical. an epoch, but earlier than of Rome
the
the
"
conversion
of
Constantine, in each district deemed, or designated,the
particularchurch was the exclusive place for baptisms most as important,originally "title" churches, known as probably. These churches were and their presbytersor head presbyterswere the "cardinal" of the heads In a similar way, or leadingpriestsof Rome. the charitydistricts into which Rome divided in the third was known the "cardinal" or leading deacons. as century were At a later period,but certainlyby the eighth century, the bishops in the immediate vicinityof Rome, the "suburbicarian"
a
or
suburban
bishops,were
called the
"cardinal
bish-
THE
PARTY
REFORM
THE
SECURES
PAPACY
223
ops/' This division of the collegeof cardinals into "cardinal persists bishops,""cardinal priests,"and "cardinal deacons" and of As the Rome the to vicinity, leadingclergy present day. became "cardinal" the before name exclusively they were, long even or primarilyattached to them, the Pope's chief aids and advisers.
attainingthe
On
Leo
papacy
found
IX
the cardinalate filled
they were representativeof the had before noble factions which long controlled the papacy unsympathetic with Henry Ill's intervention, with men Leo IX appointed to several of these high placesmen reform. Christendom. of reformatory zeal from other parts of Western thus largelychanged the sympathies of the cardinalate, He with
Romans,
and
himself
surrounded
with the
rendered
measure
far
so
Church
of the Western
as
trusted
and in considerable assistants,
thenceforth
cardinalate as
whole
a
and
representative simply of the local
not
community. It was a step of far-reaching consequence. of of these Three specialsignificance. appointments were made cardinal of bishop,and Humbert, a monk Lorraine,was to be a leadingopponent of lay inves to his death in 1061 was titure and a force in papal politics.Hugh the White, a monk from the vicinityof Toul, who was to live till after 1098, be cardinal priest, was a long to be a supporter of reform, came only to become for the last twenty years of his life the most Roman
of
embittered
Finally,Hildebrand from Germany, was cial man
himself, who made
administration,in see.
tory zeal
a
and
his
successors.
had
accompanied Leo IX sub-deacon,charged with the finan considerable
some
of the
measure,
Ro
of power and reforma appointed other men important,if less prominent,posts in Rome and its
Leo to
of Hildebrand
opponents
IX
vicinity. Hildebrand, who dinalate, is the
papal history.
A
now
most man
came
into
remarkable of diminutive
association with
personalityin stature
and
the
car
mediaeval
unimpressive
of intellect, his power firmness of will,and limithim the outstandingfigureof his age. lessness of design made
appearance,
Born
Tuscany, not far from the educated in the Cluny monastery of St. 1020, he was year Mary on the Aventine in Rome, and early inspiredwith the radical of reformatory ideals. He accompanied Gregory most VI to Germany on that unlucky Pope's banishment (ante. in humble
circumstances
in
LEO
224
IX.
EAST
AND
WEST
DIVIDED
with Leo IX. 221), and thence returned to Rome Probably but whether he in he was was ever already a monk, Cluny it He was, however, still a young self is doubtful. and to man, p.
is
Leo
error.
an
Leo
leadinginfluence
the
ascribe to him
the
vigorousLeo
vigorouslyon
the work
of reform.
in cordial relations with its chief leaders,Hugo, abbot
Damiani, and
Peter
IX
rather his teacher.
was
entered
IX
under
Frederick
of Lorraine.
He
He
stood
of
Cluny,
made
exten
sive
journeys to Germany and France, holding synods and enforcingpapal authority. At his first Easter synod in Rome, in 1049, he condemned simony and priestlymarriage in the A synod held under his presidencyin Rheims severest terms. affirmed the same the principleof canonical election, year "no shall be promoted to ecclesiastical rulershipwithout one the choice of the clergyand people." By these journeys and assemblies the influence of the papacy was greatlyraised. In his relations with southern Italyand with Constantinople Leo IX was less fortunate. The advancing claims of the Nor who since 1016 had been graduallyconquering the lower mans, opposed by the Pope, who asserted part of the peninsula,were Papal interference with the possession for the papacy. still paid allegianceto churches, especiallyof Sicily,which Constantinople,aroused the assertive patriarchof that city, in conjunctionwith Michael Cerularius (1043-1058), who now, Leo, the metropolitanof Bulgaria,closed the churches of the in a the Latin Church Latin rite in their regionsand attacked letter written by the latter urging the old charges of Photius of un of the use (ante,p. 213), and adding a condemnation which had be leavened bread in the Lord's Supper a custom "
come
the
in
common
in the
West
ninth
IX
Leo
century.
of Lor and Frederick repliedby sending Cardinal Humbert raine,the papal chancellor,to Constantinoplein 1054, by whom an
of Michael
excommunication laid
was
on
the
high
usuallyregarded Latin
Churches.
as
altar of St. Sofia.
the
In
1053
formal Leo's
himself
Normans.
this
1054.
captured by the catastrophe, dying in
all his followers
Cerularius and This
separationof forces He
were
did
act
the
has
Greek
defeated not
been
and
and he
long survive
IX, Henry III appointed another Ger He took the of Eichstadt, as Pope. Bishop Gebhard man, title of Victor II (1055-1057). Though friendly to the reform On
the death
of Leo
INDEPENDENCE
SEEKS
PAPACY
THE
devoted
225
of his
admirer
imperialpatron, the unexpected death of the great Emperor in 1156, and on the quiet succession of Henry Ill's son did much to secure Henry IV, then a boy of six,under the regency of the Empress Mother, Agnesj. Less than a year later Victor II died. party, Victor II
X.
SECTION
a
THE
radical
BREAKS
PAPACY
Ill's dominance
Henry more
was
was
reformers,who
WITH
THE
EMPIRE
to the undoubtedly displeasing had endured it partlyof necessity,
be the papacy could otherwise freed from the control of the Roman nobles,and partlybecause since it
apparent how
not
was
Henry's sympathy with ment. Henry himself had of
features
many
been
firmly intrenched
so
church, and
control of the German
of the
of the reform the logicalconsequences he been clear to him. Now to have had
gency
formers
taken
for
an
place.
advance
if possible, end
or,
his
it
The
was
gone.
seemed lessen
move
in his
that itself,
papacy
movement
time
should
which
of the reform
appear
A
weak
not re
ripe to the re imperialcontrol,
altogether.
by the reform clergy, chose Frederick of Lorraine Pope as Stephen IX (1057-1058) without consulting the German thoroughgoing regent. A the brother of Duke reformer, the new Godfrey of Pope was of the German Lorraine,an enemy imperialhouse, who by his marriage with the Countess Beatrice of Tuscany had become the strongest noble in northern Italy. Under Stephen,Cardinal On
Victor
Humbert Three
now
II 's death
issued
a
the
Romans,
programme
led
for the reform
party in his
Books
Against the Simoniacs, in which he declared all attacked lay appointment invalid and, in especial, lay investi ture, that is the giftby the Emperor of a ring and a staff to the elected bishop in token of his induction into office. The the foundations victoryof these principleswould undermine of the imperial power in Germany. Their strenuous asser tion could but lead to a struggle of giganticproportions. far. too Nevertheless, Stephen did not dare push matters and Bishop Anselm of Lucca, He, therefore,sent Hildebrand who secured the approval of the Empress Agnes for his papacy. Scarcelyhad this been obtained when Stephen died in Flor ence.
Stephen'sdeath
provoked
a
crisis.
The
Roman
nobles
re-
HILDEBRAND'S
226
LEADERSHIP the
asserted their old authority over
partisan,Benedict
own
cardinals had lost.
The
to
X, only
flee.
situation
Their
week
a
by
the
chose their
later.
seemed
cause
saved
and
papacy
The
reform
for the
firmness
moment
and
political approval Godfrey of Tuscany and of a part of the people of Rome for the candidacy of Gerhard, bishop of Florence,a reformer and, like Godfrey, a A representative of this Roman native of Lorraine. minority obtained the consent of the regent, Agnes. Hildebrand now gathered the reform cardinals in Siena, and Gerhard was there chosen as Nicholas II (1058-1061). The militaryaid of God the new of Rome. made Pope master frey of Tuscany soon was
skill of Hildebrand.
secured
He
the
of
that of Hildebrand, and II the real power was and Peter Damiani. in lesser degree of the cardinals Humbert
Under
The
Nicholas
problem
Roman
nobles
to
was
without
free the papacy coming under
from the
the control
of the
overlordshipof
the
be must physical support for the papacy found. The aid of Tuscany could be counted assured. as Beatrice and her daughter, Matilda, were to be indefatigable in assistance. Yet sufficient. Under the not Tuscany was skilful guidance of Hildebrand, Nicholas II entered into cordial Some
Emperor.
relations with
the
Normans, who
trouble, recognized their vassals of the papacy.
had
caused
conquests, and
With
like
Leo
IX
received
intimate ability,
so
much
them
as
connections
of Peter established,largelythrough the agency of Lucca, with the democratic and Bishop Anselm Damiani the Pataria,opposed to the antias party in Lombardy known were
now
higher clergy of that region. reformatory and imperialistic Nicholas II at the Roman alliances, Strengthenedby these new synod of 1059 expresslyforbad lay investiture under any cir cumstances.
The
event significant
most
the decree
of this Roman
of the papacy synod of 1059
of Nicholas
regulatingchoice
the papacy the oldest written constitution now in spiteof considerable modification,it governs "
II
in
was
to
force,since,
the selection of
day. In theory,the choice of the Pope had been, like that of other bishops,by the clergyand people of the city In practice, election. of his see. termed This was a canonical such election had meant control by whatever political power constitution dominant The in Rome. was design of the new that danger. In form, it put into law the cirto remove was Popes
to this
in Mantua over
a
Alexander
IX
Hildebrand's
Thus
in 1064.
divided
EMPIRE
AND
PAPACY
228
CONTEST bold
policytriumphed
Germany.
II,with Hildebrand's
guidance,advanced the papal of Mainz, authoritymarkedly. Anno of Cologne and Siegfried of the most two powerfulprelatesof Germany, were compelled for simony. He preventedHenry IV from secur to do penance lent his approval to He ing a divorce from Queen Bertha. William the Conqueror's piratical expedition which resulted in the Norman conquest of England in 1066, and further aided of Norman William's plans by the establishment bishopsin the He gave his sanction to the efforts of principalEnglish sees. of southern the Normans to result in the Italy which were of age in 1065. Henry IV came conquest of Sicily. Meanwhile showed himself one of the Far from being a weak King, he soon most
of German
resourceful
rulers.
It
inevitable
was
that the
papal policyregardingecclesiastical appointments should clash with that historic control by German sovereignson which their The actual dispute in the empire so largelyrested. power of Milan the archbishopric a over came post of the first im Italy. Henry had ap portance for the control of northern whom Alexander had charged pointed Godfrey of Castiglione, "
with
simony.
The
Pataria
of
Milan
chose
a
certain
Atto,
recognizedas rightfularchbishop. In spite secured Godfrey's consecration,in of that act, Henry now fully on. struggle was 1073, to the disputed post. The of the the power involved The contest imperialgovernment Alexander and the claims of the radical papal reform party. misled looked Henry as a well-intentioned young man, upon not Henry by bad advice, and he therefore excommunicated counsellors as guiltyof simony. himself,but Henry's immediate II died,leaving the Within few days thereafter Alexander a great dispute to his successor. Alexander
whom
SECTION
Hildebrand's new
election
constitution
of Alexander
claimed
Hildebrand
the church
took the
came
established
funeral
Pope,
and
in curious
under
Nicholas
carried
IV
HENRY
about
II, in St. John
disregardof the II. During the
Lateran, the crowd
him, almost
Chains, where he was of Gregory VII (1073-1085).
of St. Peter in name
AND
HILDEBRAND
XI.
in
a
ac
riot,to
enthroned.
He
In his accession
IIILDEBRAXI)
AND
HEXRY
IV
229
of Augustine's of the principles interpretation he The papacy City of God had reached the papal throne. which all viewed as a divinelyappointed universal sovereignty, must obey, and to- which all earthlysovereignsare responsible, welfare,but for their temporal good not only for tl"eir spiritual Though Cardinal Deusdedit, rather than Hildegovernment. brand, .was probably the author of the famous Dictatus,it well Church "That the Roman Hildebrand's principles: expresses "That the Roman founded pontiffalone was by God alone." de he alone can "That with rightbe called universal." can "That he alone may use [i.e., dis pose or reinstate bishops." be permitted it may "That pose of] the imperialinsignia." be judged he himself may him to depose Emperors." "That absolve subjectsfrom their fealty he may "That of no one." It was men."1 to wicked nothing less than an ideal of worldrulership.In view of later experienceit may be called imprac
the extremest
ticable and
unchristian; but neither Hildebrand
even
nor
his
experience. It was a great ideal of a possible effected by obedience to command society, regeneratedhuman and as such was deservingof respect in ing spiritual power, alone could held it,and worthy of that trial which those who age
had
had
that
reveal its value
or
worthlessness.
favorable were pontificate A rebellion againstHenry IV by his Saxon for the papacy. and the discontent of the who had many grievances, subjects, nobles of other regionskept Henry fullyoccupied. In 1074 he and prom in Nuremberg before the papal legates, did penance in 1075, Hilde ised obedience. At the Easter synod in Rome brand the decree againstlay investiture7~cfejiy to renewed later Henry any share in creatingbishops. A few months Henry's fortunes changed. In June, 1075, his defeat of the of Germany, and his atti Saxons made him apparentlymaster tude toward the papacy more speedilyaltered. Henry once Hilde made an appointment to the archbishopricof Milan. brand replied, in December, 1075, with a letter calling Henry his with account.2 On to severe January 24, 1076, Henry, nobles and bishops, held a council in Worms, at which the turn forward with personal coat cardinal,Hugh the White, was The
1
opening years
of Hildebrand's
Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp. 366, 367 Robinson, Readings in European History, 1 : 274. 2 Henderson, pp. 367-371 ; Robinson, 1 : 276-279.
;
extracts
in
HILDEBRAND
230
AND
IV
HENRY
There a largeportionof the Ger chargesagainstHildebrand. of Hildebrand and man bishopsjoinedin a fierce denunciation of his authorityas Pope1 an action for which the a rejection approval of the Lombard prelateswas speedilysecured. Hildebrand's reply was the most famous of mediaeval papal At the Roman decrees. synod of February 22, 1076, he ex communicated Henry, forbad him authorityover Germany and Italy,and released all Henry's subjectsfrom their oaths of allegiance.2It was- the boldest assertion of papal authority To it Henry replied that had ever been made. by a fieryletter "
addressed which
to
HiHebrand,
he called
on
"now
Hildebrand
no
pope,
to
"come
but
false
a
down,
to
monk," in
be damned
throughout all eternity."3 Had Henry IV had a united Germany behind him the result might easilyhave been Hildebrand's overthrow. Germany was united. The Saxons and Henry's other political enemies not used the opportunityto make him trouble. the bishops Even had regard for the authorityof a Pope they had nominally unable the risingopposition. to meet rejected. Henry was An assembly of nobles in Tribur, in October, 1076, declared that unless released
from
excommunication
within
a
year
he would
be
invited to a new assembly to deposed, and the Pope was in Augsburg, in February, 1077, at which the whole Ger meet man politicaland religioussituation should be considered. It became a Henry was in great danger of losinghis throne. of vital importance to free himself from excommunica matter Hildebrand tion. refused all appeals;he would settle the ques tions at Augsburg. and dramatic resolved on a step of the utmost Henry IV now Hildebrand would before the He meet political significance. Pope could reach the assembly in Augsburg and wring from He crossed the Alps in the winter him the desired absolution. in northern Italy,through which the and sought Hildebrand Pope was passingon his way to Germany. In doubt whether in peace or war, Hildebrand sought refugein the Henry came strong castle of Canossa, belongingto his ardent supporter, the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, the daughter of Beatrice (ante, 1
Henderson,
pp.
373-376.
Henderson, pp. 376, 377 ; Robinson, 1 : 281, 282. to The letter seems Henderson, pp. 372, 373 ; Robinson, 1 : 279-281. often which it is to to rather than assigned. belong here, January, 1076, 2 3
HILDEBRAND
226). Thither
p.
AND
Henry went,
IV
HENRY
there
and
231
presentedhimself
days, barefooted as a companions pleaded for him, and on released from excommunica January 28, 1077, Henry IV was it was tion. In man^ a political triumph for the King. ways before the castle gate on penitent. The Pope's
had
He
three successive
his German
thrown
opponents into confusion.
had
He
prevented a successful assembly in Augsburg under papal lead ership. The Pope's plans had been disappointed. Yet the in men's recollection as the deepest has always remained event of the humiliation of the mediaeval empire before the power church.1
enemies, without Hilde1077, Henry's German brand's instigation, of Swabia, as counterchose Rudolf, duke claim ensued, while the Pope balanced one King. Civil war ant againstthe other,hoping to gain for himself the ultimate decision. Forced at last to take sides,Hildebrand, at the Roman synod in March, 1080, a second time excommunicated In
March,
and
seldom can deposed Henry.2 The same political weapons be used twice effectively. Sentiment had crystallized in Ger and this time the Pope's action had littleeffect. Henry many, answered by a synod in Brixen in June, 1080, deposing Hilde brand,3 and choosing one of Hildebrand's bitterest opponents, Archbishop Wibert of Ravenna, as Pope in his place. Wibert called himself in
Clement
battle,in October
than
before.
ever
III
He
Henry invaded gainedpossessionof and
to the victorious
Rome.
it
army
offer no
porters 1
The
so
burned
best account
387 ; Robinson, 1
:
2
Henderson,
8
Ibid,,pp. 391-394.
pp.
388-391.
Hildebrand.
In
before
he
The
resistance.
thirteen of the
cardinals,turned ruler and his Pope. In March, 1084, crowned
Hilde
Henry Emperor. still held
any
the
castle of San
compromise.
In
May a rough sup
but these relief, plundered Rome, that he had
is that of Hildebrand 282-283.
Germany
by the overwhelming political supporters
to Hildebrand's
and
in
years
permanently effective
less than
German
came
upon
forces,Hildebrand's
brand, apparently a beaten man, Angelo, and absolutelyrefused Norman
three
was
Pressed
enthroned, and
was
to be rid of
Italy,but
Lombard
proved too weak to Roman people,and Wibert
determined
of Rudolf
death
left Henry stronger following,
1081
German
(1080-1100). The
himself.
to
Henderson,
with-
pp.
385-
232
APPARENT
draw
with
DEFEAT
them, and
he died in Salerno,
by
in the account
be
sufficient to
May
Erance.
of this
painfulexile,
1085.
25,
other
countries
conflict with
in the
such
to
his control.
bring
to
He
Henry with
extreme
an
attempted
He
under
year
CONTINUED
have
been
passed
of his great strugglewith Germany. It may similar,though so en say that his aims were
he grossed was pushed matters where
nearly a
relations to
Hildebrand's
and
after
on
WORK
BUT
caused
the the
IV
that
he
never
Kings of England high clergy every
extensive
codification
of
He enforced clerical celibacyas not law to be made. Church. rule of the Roman only the theoretical but the practical church
If his methods
doubtedly
and
misfortune
no
were,
ever
unscrupulous,as caused
him
to
moral in apparent defeat he won a ideals that he had established for the papacy were
claims, and The
worldly
were
long after
even
they abate
un
his
victory. to
live
him.
SECTION
STRUGGLE
THE
XII.
ENDS
IN
COMPROMISE
Hildebrand, the cardinals faithful to him chose as his successor Desiderius,the able and scholarlyabbot of Victor III (1086of Monte Cassino, who took the name the outlook that he long refused 1087). So discouragingwas honor. When at last he accepted it,he quietly the doubtful On
the death
of
efforts at extremer world-rulership, dropped Hildebrand's with utmost of investiture though renewing the prohibition lay but a few days. vigor. He was, however, able to be in Rome in the hands of Wibert, and before the end That cityremained of 1087
Victor
of Hildebrand
III
was
seemed
no
more.
The
situation
well-nighhopeless. After
of the party hesita much
and chose tion,a few of the reform cardinals met in Terraciria, French a Cluny monk, who had been appointed a cardinal bishopby Hildebrand, Odo of Lagary, as Pope Urban II (1088of Hildebrandian convictions,without Hilde 1099). A man brand's skilful.
genius,Urban He sought
party among
was
with
the German
and politically conciliatory create to a friendly great success monks the clergy,aided thereto by far
more
He stirred up dis of the influential monastery of Hirschau. Yet it was affection for Henry IV, often by no worthy means. not
tillthe close of 1093
of possession
Rome
and
that Urban
drive out
able to take effective His rise in power Wibert. was
thence
was
CONTINUED
STRUGGLE
THE
rapid.
1095, he sounded
At
in
great synod held in Piacenza
a
of
the note
At
crusade.
a
March, in No
Clermont
brought the Crusade into being Urban rose (p.239). On the flood of the crusadingmovement of European leadership.Henry IV and to a ppsition at once achieved had Wibert a him, but the papacy might oppose compared with which they had nothing to popular significance of the
vember
same
he
year
offer.
Though Paschal ter.
were
men
(1099-1118), made
II
Henry
IV's
bellion,headed abdication
of the
weary
last
by
in 1105.
days
long strife,the
matters
his son, Henry V His death followed
V's
positionin Germany
had
been, and he
unscrupulous.
more
was
rightsof investiture was 1110 Henry V marched
the next
as on
insistent
as
ever
assertion of his
that of his father. Paschal II
in force.
Rome
Henry
year.
his father's
His
re
his
(1106-1125), forced
stronger than
was
bet
successful
A
disastrous.
were
than
rather
worse
Pope,
next
was
In
pow
Pope and resignhis right Germany should relin
of a Hildebrand. without the courage agreed (1111) that the King should
erless and
Henry now of investiture, providedthe bishops of quish to him all temporal lordships.1That revolution
that
would
have
reduced
poverty, and
the protest raised in February, 1111, showed it
on
its
The
would
the
German
have
been
church
a
to
promulgationin Rome,
impossibleof accomplishment. Henry V then took the Pope and the cardinals prisoners. Pas chal weakened. In April,1111, he resignedto Henry investi him Emperor.2 The Hil and crowned ture with ring and staff, debrand ian party stormed in protest. At the Roman synod of March, 1112, Paschal well hold
was
wrung
withdrew from
him
his agreement, which he could by force. A synod in Vienne in
Henry and forbad lay investiture, and this action the Pope approved. Yet the basis of a compromise wras already in sight. Two French church leaders,Ivo, bishop of Chartres, and Hugo of and 1099 1106, had argued that Fleury,in writingsbetween church and state each had their rightsof investiture, the one with spiritual, the other with temporal authority. Anselm, the famous archbishop of Canterbury, a firm supporter of reform principles (1093-1109), had refused investiture from Henry I September excommunicated
1
Henderson,
2
Henderson,
pp.
pp.
405-407
407,
408.
;
Robinson,
1
:
290-292.
CONCORDAT
THE
234
OF
WORMS
of
England (1100-1135), and -led to a contest which ended in the resignation by the King of investiture with ring and staff, while retainingto the crown investiture with temporal posses sion by the receptionof an oath of fealty. These principles and of the controversy. precedents influenced the further course The in 1122, in the Concordat of Worms, compromise came arranged between Henry V and Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124). By mutual agreement, elections of bishops and abbots in Ger the
to
were
many
Emperor
be free and at
in canonical
the choice
election he should
form, yet the presence of allowed, and in case of disputed
was
consult with the
metropolitanand other bish ops of the province. In other parts of the empire, Burgundy and Italy, mention made of the imperialpresence. The no was investiture with ring and staff, i. e., with Emperor renounced the symbols of spiritual authority. In turn, the Pope granted him the right of investiture with the temporal possessionsof the office by the touch of the royal sceptre, without demand of from the candidate. This imperialrecognitionwas payment to take place in Germany before consecration,and in the other thereafter.1 The effect parts of the empire within six months that in Germany at least a bishop or abbot must be accept was able both to the church and to the Emperor. In Italy the imperialpower, which had rested on control of churchly ap It was of the outcome pointments, was greatly broken. an strugglewhich would but partiallyhave satisfied Hildebrand. Yet the church had won much. If not superiorto the state, it had vindicated its equalitywith the temporal power. SECTION
XIII.
THE
GREEK
CHURCH
AFTER
THE
PICTURE
CONTROVERSY
The the
Isaurian dynasty in
internal conflicts caused
severe
controversy, which of the the
church
from
loss of Rome
renewed
(717-802),witnessed Constantinople
in
was
a
measure
by the picture-worshipping for the freedom a struggle
imperialcontrol (ante,p. 162). and
of the
Exarchate, and
the
It beheld
rise of the
Charlemagne. The periodsof the Phrygian (820-867) and Macedonian dynasties(867-1057) marked notable revival of were that, intellec so learning, by a The patually,the East was decidedlysuperiorto the West. Western
1
empire
Henderson,
pp.
under
408, 409
;
Robinson,
1
:
292, 293.
SCANDINAVIAN
THE
236
to seek
(p.249). Driven
LANDS the Saracens, some~secthe borders of the empire in
refugeamong
tions of the Paulicians harassed
century, and
penetrateddeeply into it,tilltheir was activity, militarysuccess, though not their religious per in the Emperor, Basil I, 871. manently checked by the ninth
even
ninth
latter half of the
The
and
the tenth centuries
was
a
for the Eastern empire, espe revived militarypower under John Tzimiskes (969-976) and Basil II (976-1025). cially
periodof
latter, Bulgariaand Armenia
the
By
dissensions and
empire in
the eleventh
it
found
Turks
fear of
a
usurping militarism
century,
unprepared.
In
great loss
a
hundred
from
to be
weakened
the
Turks
conquered
established themselves
1080
miles
Christianitywas
to
the
1071
Internal
the rise of the Seljuk
that
so
largepart of Asia Minor, and in Nicsea, less than
conquered.
were
one
a
in
Constantinople.This of the causes leading
the Crusades.
to
XIV.
SECTION
and
tenth
The
THE
SPREAD
OF
centuries
eleventh
were
extension of Christianity.Ansgar's work lands (ante,p. 213) had left few results.
CHURCH
THE
an
epoch
of
large
in the Scandinavian Scandinavian
Chris-
and
Unni, archbishop gradual process. but without of Hamburg Ansgar, (918-936), great forward carried The work was by Archbishop Adaldag success. Bluetooth of (937-988). Under his influence,King Harold and Danish Denmark bishopricswere accepted Christianity, Harold's Under established. was Sweyn, heathenism son, but he was brought to favor the church in again in power; by King Canute completed in Denmark 995, and the work was also ruled England and, for a the Great (1015-1035), who time, Norway. The story of Norway is similar. Some Christian beginnings tianization
slow
a
was
imitated
were
sent
under
made
by
Harold
Hakon
Bluetooth
I
(935-961), and
of Denmark.
missionaries
were
in Christianity
Nor
permanently established till the time of Olaf I (995-1000), who brought in English preachers. The work extended to the Orkneys, Shetland, Hebrides, Faroe, was now possession. Iceland, and Greenland, then in Scandinavian way
was
not
Olaf
II
such
extreme
(1015-1028) enforced measures
that he
Christianity in Norway was
deposed and
Canute
with
gained
control;
lie
yet
Christianity konung
turies
who
and
various
the
organizer
1038),
history
cepted
St.
as
in
King
Ansgar,
Olaf
Skottthe
work
till
about
Yet
overthrown
reached
till
two
cen
in
the
Russia
of
patriarch
The
957.
work
last
Vladimir
I
(980-1015),
and
compelled
his
subjects
nominated
placed Kiev,
Vladimir,
at
the from
and
the
by
head
of
which
in
been
made
1325
the it to
to
follow
patriarch
Moscow.
his of
Russia.
The
by
time Rus
A
example.
his to
Grandin
baptism
1299
Chris
the
as
Constantinople,
in
this
Constantinople
to
with
in
of
established
church,
transferred
of
(866).
received
Latin
lies
early
visit
a
the
spread
as
definitely who
Russian was
on
of
conversion
Photius
baptism at
was
work
the
I
1124-1128.
Church
for
Constantinople
duke
politan,
the
ac
archbishopric till
the
lives
Boleslaus
an
Greek
Efforts
received
Olga,
Queen,
the
by
have
to
seem
with
were
of
who
King
1000
(997-
Mieczyslaw,
Christianized
considered
obscure.
are
in
not
extension
duke,
was
I
Stephen
monarchy,
church
accomplished
was
King
Polish
and
was
Christianity
century,
by
Polish
the
great
beginnings
tianity
in
(1035-
of
time
1008.
Hungarian
967,
just
and
period
in
in
tenth
The
Stephen.
movements
The
the
the
Pomerania
Church.
sian
by
not
were
Hungary
of
organized
Gnesen. The
in in
Christianity
(992-1025)
of
I
Magnus
the
fully
not
was
efforts
established
Its
from
baptized
Lapland
effectively
in
237
later.
After
in
Olaf.
established
was
heathenism
Finland
1100.
St.
as
beginnings
effectively
(994-1024), and
RUSSIA
work. many
was
slow,
tradition
in
the after
Sweden,
In
was
lives
completed
1047)
AND
POLAND,
HUNGARY,
see
the
988,
metro was
speedily city
of
PERIOD
V.
SECTION
Crusades
THE the
phenomena
The
historian
claim a
as
main
even
of the
counted.
worse.
Misery
at
the
had
as
downfall
and
Stimulated
by
age
made
period
a,
took feeTmgi ItT^mnifestations
It of
characterized
was
by
misery of earth increasing religiouszeal the
and
the
had
been
were
The
widely. such
more
migrations
Germanic
invasions
The
desire
of
same
to
of
sense
ascetic
and
forms.
"other-worldliness,"
blessedness
of
heaven.
forge which
the
the
religions
deepening
monastic
strong
a
conditions
conditions, doubtless,
economic
eleventh_jcentiirywa,a
century
felt.
however,
these
well
may
forty-eight famine
the
empire.
of
many.
eleventh
impossible in
Western
was,
the
1095
to
were
influences
prevailed
exhibited
the
causes
1040
1085
unrest
been
environment
change whole
of
and
970
remarkable
most
Their
Ages.
From
of the
conditions
nations
Middle
Between
source.
of
the
ways
who
were
settled
many
CRUSADES
emphasizes economic of unusually trying conditions
the
years
in
are
THE
I.
AGES
MIDDLE
LATER
THE
hnd
This
reformed
supported antagonism to simony and the empire. the long struggle with Nicolaitanism, and nerved had shone Those brightest, regions where the reform movement with the which into closest relations had reforming or come the recruit and southern France, Lorraine, Italy,were papacy, The jpjety nf fjip ing-grounds of the chief crusading armies. time rpljcs and placecLgreat vain** pilgrimages,and what nobler pilgrimage more precious relic could there be, or what shrine, than the land hallowed by the life,death, and resurrec had been tion of Christ? That land an object of pilgrimage had been since the days of Constantine. Jerusalem Though in Moslem been, save possession since 638, pilgrimages had for brief intervals, practicallyuninterrupted. They had never the
papacy,
and
had
nn
been
more
conquest capture
than
numerous
of much
of Asia
of Jerusalem,
ip nnd
by
in
the
Minor,
eleventh from
1071
the Seljuk Turks,
dpfifrrRted *b? 238
ho
century,
onward, mnde
till the and
the
pilgrimage
OF
CAUSES
CRUSADES
THE
239
profoundly impressed with the spiritual of these things came. advantage of pilgrimagesthat the news The was witnessingsuccessful contests with time, moreover, It
to
was
an
age
Between
Mohammedanism.
Jtaly
southern
of
Under
Ferdinand
1060
wrested
had
I of Castile
and
1090
Sicily from
the
Normans
the
Moslems.
(1028-1065) the effective Chris
had begun. tian reconquest of Spain from the Mohammedans The later eleventh century is the age of the Cid (1040?-1099). could dispossess The feeling was wide-spreadthat Christianity Love
Mohammedanism.
of
adventure,
desire for territorial advancement the Crusaders doubteoUymoved
and with
hopes
for
plunder,
religioushatred,
un-
earthly impulses.
very
should wrong them, however, if we did not recognizewith doing something equal clearness that they thought they were We
of the The
highestimportance for their souls and first impulse to the Crusades came
for Christ. from
an
appeal
of
Hildpbrand Vli (lU(^-1078),.t,n the~Easternt Emperor^Michael for
That Seljufes. ^ip^a^ajinstjthe
seemed
to
promise the
dom, took the
matter
reunion up
in
great Pope, to whom
of Greek
1074, and
and was
Latin
this
Christen
able to report to
were ready to Henry IV of Germany that fiftythousand men the proper leadership. The speedy outbreak of the go under investiture strugglefrustrated the plan. It was effectively in Urban the of be revived heir directions to II, by so many
Hildebrand. f
Alexius
I
(1081-1118), a stronger ruler than his immediate
predecessorsin Constantinople,felt unable to cope with the perilswhich threatened the empire. He, therefore,appealed II for assistance. Urban received the imperialmes to Urban at the synod in Piacenza, in northern Italy,in March, sengers 1095, and promised his help. At the synod held in Clermont, Urban in eastern France, in the followingNovember, now proclaimed the Crusade in an appeal of almost unexampled The enterprisehad magnified in his concep consequence. tion from that of aid to the hard-pressedAlexius to a general of the holy places from Moslem hands. H" called on rescue all Christendom tn giVpnpssj^sins
to
take
a.11 and
part in the work, promisingforfall fitprimllifp to thos^ wfrn shniiM
immediate in theenterprise. The message found and enthu the popular preachers who took it siastic response! Among than famous Peter the Hermit, a monk was more up none
THE
240
CRUSADE
FIRST
its vicinity.Early legend attributed to him of which he was the originof the Crusade itself, unquestionably Amiens
from
of the
one
or
effective
most
attributed
the distinction thus the
Crusade,
leadershipor Such
to
does
deserve
his conduct
was
to
not
do
on
credit to his
to his courage.
even
the
He
him, nor started,such as
it had
once
proclaimers.
enthusiasm
in France, engendered, especially of peasants, with some that largegroups knights among them, the lead of Walter the set forth in the spring of 1096, under Penniless;a priest,Gottschalk, and Peter the Hermit himself. of these wild companies many Jews were massacred By some cities. Their own in the Rhine disorderlypillageled to savage That under Peter reprisalsin Hungary and the Balkans. almost entirelydestroyedby reached Constantinople,but was was
the
Turks
not
share
and
in
real work from
the moral
Baldwin
of the
First
Crusade
was
himself did
crusading force, accomplished by
hero of the Crusade, since he commanded
his
to
though
not
the respect to its aims,
single-mindedand unselfish devotion its ablest general. With Godfrey were
and
Eustace.
led by Hugh
were
Peter
raised. nobilityof Europe. Three great armies were Lorraine and Belgium included Godfrey of Bouillon,
the feudal
due
Nicsea.
this catastrophe,joined the main survived the perilsof the expedition.
The
That
to reach
attempt
an
armies
Other
of Vermandois
and
from Robert
his
northern of
brothers, France
Normandy.
large force under Count Raimond of Toulouse, and from Norman Italy a well-equipped and his nephew Tancred. of Taranto led by Bohemund army No single The earliest of these forces started in August, 1096. Urban II had commander led the hosts. appointed Bishop Ademar of Puy his legate; and Ademar designatedConstan tinopleas the gatheringplace. Thither each army made its best it could, arrivingthere in the winter and spring as way little difficulty of 1096-1097, and causing Alexius no by their From
southern
disorder and
France
came
a
demands.
began the siegeof Nicsea. Its surrender On followed in June. July 1 a great victory Asia the Turks over near Dorylseum opened the route across losses through Minor, so that Iconium was reached, after severe hunger and thirst,by the middle of August. By October the That before the walls of Antioch. city crusading host was In
May, 1097, the crusadingarmy
Longl
it captured only after
days
the
later
CRUSADE
FIRST
THE
241
June
difficult siege, on
a
Crusaders
besieged in
were
Three
3, 1098.
the
city by
the
The crisis of the Crusade Kerbogha of Mosul. this time of periland despair;but on June 28 Kerbogha was Yet it was not till June, 1099, that was completelyf defeated. Jerusalem reached, and not till July 15 that it was was cap The tured and its inhabitants complete put to the sword. Ascalon defeat of an Egyptian relieving on August near army Turkish
ruler
12, 1099, crowned On
the
chosen
completion
Protector
1100, and lished
a
Baldwin
the
Latin I
of the
of the
succeeded
was
of the Crusade.
success
work, Godfrey of Bouillon He
died
Holy Sepulchre. by his abler brother, who
county in Edessa, and
(1100-1118). The
was
in
had
July, estab
took the title of
now
Crusaders
from
were
King
the feudal
divided and organizedin full feudal West, and the country was fashion. It included,besides the Holy Land, the principality of Antioch, and the counties of Tripoliand Edessa, which were
practicallyindependent towns important Italian of the knights were most Latin
rite in
of
the
business French.
and bishoprics,
ten
Under
a
but
patriarchof
the
into four arch
monasteries
numerous
the
up;
sprang
divided
was
In
Jerusalem.
settlements
Jerusalem, the country
bishopricsand
of
King
were
established. The
greatest support of the kingdom
soon
came
to
be the
militaryorders. Of these,that of the Templars was founded the by Hugo de Pay ens in 1119, and granted quarters near site of the temple hence II their name by King Baldwin (1118-1131). Through the hearty support of Bernard of Clairthe order received papal approval in 1128, and soon vaux won wide popularity in the West. Its members took the usual monastic and pledged themselves, in addition, to fight vows for the defense of the Holy Land and to protect pilgrims.They not clergy,but laymen. In some were respects the order was like a modern missionary society. Those who sympathized with the Crusade, but were debarred by age or sex from a personal share in the work, gave largelythat they might be Since represented by others through the order. property in the became was land, mostly Templars soon great land holders in the West. Their independence and wealth made them objectsof royal jealousy,especially after their original purpose had been frustrated by the end of the Crusades, and "
"
their
led to
ORDERS.
MILITARY
THE
242
suppressionin
brutal
France
CRUSADES in
the Crusades
(1285-1314). While
Philip IV
LATER
1307
lasted
by King they were
kingdom of Jerusalem. Much the same thing may be said of the great rivals of the Charle Templars, the Hospitallersor Knights of St. John. had founded de a hospitalin Jerusalem, which was magne Refounded stroyed in 1010. by citizens of Amalfi, in Italy, a
it
bulwark
main
of the
before
in existence
was
for the church
the
of St. John
First
Crusade, and
named
was
which it stood. Baptist,near This foundation made into a militaryorder by its grand was du Puy (1120-1160?), though without master, Raymond neg lectingits duties to the sick. After the crusading epoch it maintained a strugglewith the Turks from its seat in Rhodes
(1310-1523), and later
order
Germans
then that
was
in 1190.
the
from
(1530-1798). A third and
Malta
of the
Teutonic
Its chief
but, from 1229 known, East Prussia,where Palestine
work, however, was onward, in Prussia, or it
was
a
founded
Knights,
not as
by
to be
it is
in
now
pioneer in civilization and
Christianization. In was
the kingdom of Jerusalem spiteof feudal disorganization fairlysuccessful till the capture of Edessa by the Mo
hammedans Bernard a
in of
Clairvaux, now
Crusade
new
it of its northeastern
robbed
1144
enlisted Louis
and
and
the Emperor Conrad In 1147 the Second 1146.
III
littleof the fieryenthusiasm
of
the
West
toward
the Eastern
failure, rightlyor wrongly, was One the
of the
reason
quarrelsof
success
fame, proclaimed (1137-1180)
(1138-1152) from
Germany
forth; but it showed its forces largely its predecessor,
such to
as
take
reached
Palestine
Damascus,
In 1171
were
in 1148.
It
feelingin princes that
bitter
a
empire, to whose charged. of the Latin kingdom had
the Mohammedans.
in
set
failure,and its collapseleft
disastrous
a
his
of France
VII
Crusade
perished in Asia Minor, and badly defeated in an attempt was
heightof
at the
bulwark.
the Kurdish
been gen
of Egypt; by 1174 he had eral,Saladin, made himself master secured Damascus, and by 1183 Saladin's territories surrounded A united the Latin kingdom on the north, east, and south.
Mohammedanism At
Hattin
had
the
Latin
loss of Jerusalem
lowed.
The
news
and of
now
to
be met.
Results
soon
followed.
July, 1187. The of most of the Holy Land speedilyfol this catastropheroused Europe to the
army
was
defeated
in
LATER
Crusade
Third
CRUSADES
(1189-1192). None
243
of the Crusades
was
more
led by the elaboratelyequipped. Three great armies were (1152-1190), the first soldier Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of his age, by King PhilipAugustus of France (1179-1223), and by King Richard "Cceur de Lion" of England (1189-1199). was* accidentallydrowned in Cilicia. His army, Frederick deprived of his vigorous leadership,was utterly ineffective. The quarrelsbetween the Kings of France and England, and Philip'sspeedy return to France to push his own political rendered the whole almost abortive. Acre schemes, expedition was recovered, but Jerusalem remained in Moslem possession. Fourth
The
Crusade
(1202-1204)
engaged, but
of
consequences.
Its forces
were
France
as
as
numbers
known
of Jerusalem
was
small
affair
from
and
the
far
religious
districts of northern
Blois, and
that the true
as
from
Flanders.
to the recovery
route
the
therefore
Crusaders
a
and important political
Champagne convinced
had become
Men
was
preliminaryconquest of Egypt. The bargainedwith the Venetians for trans
portationthither. Unable to raise the full cost, they accepted the proposition of the Venetians that,in lieu of the balance due, Zara from Hungary for they stop on their way and conquer This they did. A much Venice. now greater proposal was made should and assist to them. at They Constantinople, stop in
dethroningthe imperialusurper, Alexius III (1195-1203). Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac II, promised the Crusaders and large payment help on their expeditionprovided they would
and the usurper, crafty Venice saw bright hatred Western of the Greeks prospects of increased trade. contributed. Though Pope Innocent III forbad this division overthrow
of purpose, the Crusaders easilydriven from his throne to
keep
his
tians, in
were
persuaded.
Alexius
; but the other Alexius
promises to the Crusaders, who
now
1204, captured Constantinople,and No
booty
was
III
was
unable
with the Vene
plundered its
eagerlysought than the relics in the churches,which now went to enrich the placesof worship of the West. Baldwin of Flanders made was Emperor, and a largeportion of the Eastern empire was divided, feudal fash Western ion,among knights. Venice obtained a considerable A Latin patriarchof Constanti part and a monopoly of trade. made nople was appointed,and the Greek Church subjectto the Pope. The Eastern empire still continued,though it was
treasures.
was
more
CRUSADES
LATER
244
regainConstantinopletill 1261.
not
to
was
disastrous.
It
greatlyweakened
This
Latin
conquest
the Eastern
Greek
empire, and Christianity.
and between augmented the so-called "Children's Crusade" A melancholy episodewas A shepherd boy, Stephen, in France, and a boy of of 1212. Cologne,in Germany, Nicholas,gatheredthousands of children. Stragglingto Italy,they were largelysold into slaveryin Egypt. Other crusading attempts were An expeditionagainst made. initial success, in but ended Egypt, in 1218-1221, had some failure. It is usually called the Fifth Crusade. The most Sixth the curious was (1228-1229). The free-thinking Emperor the hatred
Frederick
II
showed
haste to fulfilhis
but
no
in 1215, but At last,in 1227, he started,
(1212-1250), had
put back.
soon
He
seems
Latin
taken
vows.
to
the
cross
have been
Gregory IX (1227-1241), believinghim a other grounds of hostility, excommunicated
but Pope reallyill, deserter,and having him.
spiteof"
In
forward in 1228, and the next year ban, Frederick went secured, by treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, possessionof and a Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth path to the coast. the
Jerusalem
permanentlylost.
was
in Christian
more
once
was
The
spent, though Louis IX a
disastrous
taken
was
Edward, and
in 1271
of France
(St. Louis, 1226-1270) led
againstEgypt expedition a nd attack on an prisoner,
Palestine
was
continued
to
soon
In
1272.
in 1248-1250, in which he Tunis in 1270, in which
that of last considerable expeditionwas I of England (1272-1307), to be Edward
he lost his life. The Prince
keeping till1244, when it was now crusadingspirit well-nigh
1291, the last of the Latin holdingsin
lost. The talk of
new
Crusades
were
over,
though
for nearlytwo expeditions
men
centuries
more.
Viewed
from
the aspectof their purpose
the
Crusadesjvgre
failures^ Thgy_^made no permanent conquest of the Iloly be "doubted whether they greatlyretarded the LancL It may advance
of Mohammedanism.
and treasure costjnjjyes
Their
of devotion, high spirit their methods not those which modern at best were Christianity regards as illustrative of the Gospel, and their conduct was disgracedthroughout by quarrels,divided motives, and low standards of personalconduct. Whpnjfrpir indirect resistsare was^enormous.
Though initiated in
examinerljhowever orth.
a ;
^zery
a
is taJba-mad^-of
differentestimate
Civilization is the result of
so
complex
factors
245
CRUSADES
THE
OF
RESULTS
Europe that it is hard to assignprecisevalues to singlecauses. would have made progress during this periodhad there been no that remarkable the changes wrought are But so Crusades. that the largestsingleinfluence
is unavoidable
the conclusion
that of thd Crusades.
was
Itiie
which
commerce
and
of
great
the
stimulated
Crusades
the
trade route
the
cities
over
impnrtanpp JBy the sacrifices of political feudal lands and property which they involved, a new third estate ""was preatlv a element, that__oi.Jhglowns" and
the_J]hinp
down
r'."s^
t"
"
stimulated,
Thgjmpntal esp^iallyJnFrance.
of the
horizon
who
Thousands iVnorance
narrow-mindedness
and
were
period wit,npgse^ the
Thf
awakening. development,of It
the church.
the
"
"
highest theological
that of Scholasticism. It in and outside of movements, religious A
Middle
the
great popular
beheld
Kveryw^pr^
East.
civilization of the
UPS
"
the development of the universities.
saw
In it
transforming influence. to flourish. A-great artisvernacular literaturej)egan
study_ of RomarT
Modem
law
became
the national tic_develoipmerit,
a
architecture of northern
France,
The
Europe and enlightenedcom of the periodof the Crusades wras awake pared with the centuries which had gone before. Admitting but one factor in this result, that the Crusades were they were misnamed
worth
the'
Gothic, now
its glorious career.
all their cost.
II.
SECTION
The
ran
epoch of the
NEW
MOVEMENTS
RELIGIOUS
First Crusade
was
one
of
increasing religious
earnestness, manifestingitself in other-worldliness,asceticism, mysticalpiety,and emphasis on the monastic life. The long battle
againstsimony
and
Nicolaitanism
had
turned
popular ordinary religious
sympathies from the often criticised "secular,"or of the clergy,to the monks as the true representatives ideal. Cluny had, in a measure, spent its force. Its very associations had led to luxury of living. New religious success that of the important was were arising,of which the most Cistercians as
Cluny
"
an
order
which
had the eleventh.
dominated
the
twelfth
century
CISTERCIANS.
THE
246
Like Cluny, the Cistercians dictine with
BERNARD
were
of French
monk, Robert, of the monastery
of
origin. A Bene Montier, impressed
of contemporary ill-discipline
the
monasticism, founded a monastery of great strictness in Citeaux, not far from Dijon, in 1098. the first,the purpose of the foundation From of Citeaux
cultivate
to
was
a
life. self-denying
strenuous,
Its
the surroundingsof worship, were of buildings,utensils,even the plainestcharacter. In food and clothingit exercised great that of Benedict, but its self-denial austerity. Its rule was far beyond that of Benedictines was generally. Under its third abbot, Stephen Harding (1109-1134), an Englishman, the sig Four affiliated monasteries nificance of Citeaux rapidlygrew. founded were by 1115, under his leadership. Thenceforth its was rapid throughout all the West. By 1130, the progress houses numbered Cistercian thirty;by 1168, two hundred and and a century later six hundred and seventy-one. eighty-eight, Over all these the abbot of Citeaux had authority,assisted by a yearly assembly of the heads of the affiliatedmonasteries. Much devoted attention was littleto to agriculture, relatively The ideals were withdrawal from the teachingor pastoralwork. world, contemplation,and imitation of apostolicpoverty." Not a littleof the earlysuccess of the Cistercians was due to the influence of Bernard (1090-1153),the greatest religious force of his age, and, by common of the chief one consent, deemed of mediaeval saints. of knightly ancestry in Fontaines, Born near a Dijon, he inherited from his mother deeply religious With nature. some thirtycompanions, the fruit of his powers of persuasion,he entered the monastery of Citeaux, probably "
in 1112.
monastery
Thence
he went
forth in 1115
of Clairvaux, abbot
of which
to found
he
the Cistercian
remained, in spite
A preferment,tillhis death. his prime motive was of the utmost man self-consecration, a love in spiteof extreme monastic to Christ,which self-mortification, found so evangelical an expressionas to win the heartyapproval of Luther and The Calvin. mystic contemplation of Christ his highest spiritual was joy. It determined not merely his own type of piety,but very largelythat of the age in its nobler in Bernard admired force, a moral expressions.Above all,men a consistencyof character,which added weight to all that he of
splendidoffers
said and Bernard
of ecclesiastical
did. was
far too
much
a
man
of action to be confined
RADICAL
248
REFORMERS
influential till the accession Arnold remained city. There the only English IV of the vigorous Hadrian (1154-1159) who has Hadrian, in occupied the papal throne. ever man to expel Arnold 1155, compelled the Romans by proclaiming interdict forbidding religiousservices in the city ; and bar an German Barbarossa sovereign, Frederick gained with the new of Arnold the price of im as (1152-1190), for the destruction Arnold In 1155 hanged and his body perial coronation. was burned. Though charged with heresy, these accusations are the
"
and
vague
offense the
his attack
was
radical
more
had
in the
of
been
opening years whose origin or early
ceticism tion
he
combined
of the
Lord's
ceremonies the as
the
upon
riches
and
Arnold's
temporal
real of
power
church.
Far
of
little substance.
had
have
to
seem
and
the
also in St.
date, probably between
disciple,but Lausanne,"
hardly once
a
burned
1120 so
to
and
be
Benedictine
rather
Christ
dead.
the
himself
was
With
Bruys,
strict
a
as
baptism, the rejec form, the repudiation of all any buildings, and the rejection of
which
for
France, of
Peter
"
of infant
condemned
be
through
prayers
Gilles,he
in
of church
should
instrument
opposed
denial
the
even
century
southern
life little is known.
Supper
which
cross,
twelfth
the
in
preacher
a
had
Having by
the
mob
honored
than suffered.
Peter
burned at
crosses
uncertain
an
Reputed to Henry, regarded was monk, who preached, 1130.
be
Peter's
called with
"of
large
and following, from 1101 till his death after 1145, in western Above France. all, a preacher of ascetic especially southern spiritthe validity righteousness,he denied in ancient Donatist of sacraments administered by unworthy priests. His test of worthiness ascetic life and By this apostolic poverty. was standard he condemned the wealthy and power-seeking clergy. been have Arnold, Peter, and Henry proclaimed Protestants before Their carried
the
conception to
a
radical
extreme
manifestation
was
do
so
is to
misunderstand
them.
They essentiallymediaeval. criticism of the worldly aspects a con widely shared and had its more
of salvation
of clerical life which
servative
To
Reformation.
in the
was
life and
teachings of
Bernard.
WAL-
Empire, of which
later Roman
the
of
Manichseism
AND
INQUISITION
THE
DENSES.
The
CATHARI
SECTS.
ANTICHURCHLY
III.
SECTION
249
CATHARI
THE
adherent (ante,pp. 107, 176), seems an Augustine was f once in the West. It was stimu absolutelyto have died out never lated by;the accession of Paulicians and Bogomiles(ante, p. 235) whom the persecuting policy of the Eastern Emperors drove intercourse with the East fos from Bulgaria,and by the new Manichseism. The result was a new tered by the Crusades. called Cathari,as the "Pure," or Albigenses, Its adherents were from
Albi,one
of their chief seats in southern France.
enthusiastic
ascetic and
Cathari
Crusades, the
the
impulsewhich rose
to
With
the
caused and accompanied
great activity.Though
in many parts of Europe, their chief regionswere Spain. In Italy, and northern France, northern
to be found
southern
southern France, Bernard himself labored in vain for their con version. \Vith the criticism of existingchurchly conditions consequent upon the disastrous failure of the Second Crusade with great rapidity.In 1167 (ante,p. 242), they multiplied
they de
were
able to hold
Caraman,
near
Toulouse
; and
the support of a of the populationof southern
they had
won
princes. In northern Cathari
in Florence
the inhabitants.
France
alone in 1228 year
before the end of the century
largesection,possiblya majority,
Italy they
By the
council in St. Felix
widely attended
a
1200
and
were
the
very
counted
they were
of protection numerous.
its
The
nearly one-third of an exceedingperil the ascetic spirit
the movement and criticism of the wealth of the age found full expression, satisfaction in complete rejection and power of the church saw for the Roman
of its clergyand
Church.
In
claims.
dualists. The Like the ancient Manichses, the Cathari were of the Cathari of Italyheld that the good Bogomiles and many the elder re of whom God had two sons, Satanel and Christ the leader of evil. The Cathari of France belled and became "
generallyasserted two eternal powers, the one good,the other malign. All agreed that this visible world is the work of the evil power, in which souls,taken prisonersfrom the realm of the good God, are held in bondage. The greatest of sins,the and Eve, is human sin of Adam reproduction, whereby original is the number is of prison-houses increased. Salvation by re-
250
THE
CATHARI
pentance, asceticism,and
baptism
in the
the
"consolation."
This
rite,like
church, works
forgivenessof sins and restora It is conferred by laying kingdom of the good God. of hands on by one who has received it,togetherwith placing the Gospel of John the head of the candidate. It is the on succession. One who has received the "con true apostolical solation" becomes but lest he lose the grace, a perfectus; perfect, he must henceforth eschew marriage,avoid oaths, war, posses sion of property, and the eatingof meat, milk, or eggs, since they the sin of the of reproduction. The are product "perfect," called in France, the bons hommes good men or, as they were the real clergy of the Cathari, and there are notices of were of a "Pope" among "bishops" and even them, though exactly what the gradationsin authoritywere it is impossibleto say. By a convenient belief the majority of adherents, the credenti tion to the
"
or
allowed
"believers,"were
joy
the
good
to
hold
marry,
"
property, and
things of this
en
world, even outwardly should Church, that, they receive the "consolation" before death, they would be saved. Those who died unconsoled would, in the opinion of most of the Cathari, be reincarnated in human, or even animal, bodies till at last to
the
Roman
to conform
assured
The they, too, should be brought to salvation. not always to have been fullyinitiated into seem the system. The Cathari
made
"believers" the tenets
of
which they trans Scripture, lated and in which they claimed to find their teachings. Some rejectedthe Old Testament entirelyas the work of the evil others accepted the Psalms and the prophets. All be power, lieved the New Testament from the good God. to come Since all thingsmaterial are of evil,Christ could not have had a real body or died a real death. They therefore rejectedthe cross.
great
use
of
The
evil. The sacraments, with their material elements, were good God is dishonored by the erection of churches built and ornamented
with
services of
the
material Cathari
creations
were
simple.
the Gospel of John, read, especially
all. A
of the
as
The the
evil power.
The
Scriptureswere of most spiritual
then knelt preached. The "believers" and adored the "perfect" as those indwelt with the divine Spirit. The "perfect,"in turn, gave their blessing.Only the Lord's Prayer was used in the service. A common meal, at which the bread was held in many consecrated, was places sermon
was
THE
once
a
month,
as
a
WALDENSES
Supper. The student of the extremely interestingsurvivals of
kind of Lord's
will find in it
movement
251
ancient Christian rites and
ceremonies, orthodox
heretical.
and
and women the "perfect"seem to have been men general, moral steadfast of uprightness! earnestness, and courageous in persecution.Of their effectiveness in gainingthe alle ness walks of life, from the humbler gianceof thousands, especially be no question. there can in no conscious Unlike the Cathari, the Waldenses originated In
to the church and, had they been treated with skill, hostility have separatedfrom it. In 1176 Valdez, would probablynever of Lyons, impressedby the song of Waldo, a rich merchant or wandering minstrel recounting the sacrifices of St. Alexis, a The clergy asked a master of theology"the best way to God." man quoted that golden text of monasticism : If thou wouldst be perfect, go, sellthat thou hast,and giveto the poor, and thou "
shalt have
treasure
in
heaven; and
come,
follow Me."1
Val
into practice.Providingmodestly dez put this counsel literally for his wife and daughters,he gave the rest of his means to the He determined to fulfil the directions of Christ to the poor. the raiment there desig Apostles2absolutely. He would wear He would live by what was nated. given him. To know his duty better he procured a translation of the New Testament. his friends. Here, they His action made a deep impressionon true "apostolicpoverty." By 1177 he was thought, was and the little company and women, joinedby others, men further Christ's directions by preaching undertook to carry 3 in Spirit." repentance. They called themselves the "Poor appealed to the Third Lateran Council, in 1179, for They now permissionto preach. The council did not deem them heret ical. It thought them ignorantlaymen, and Pope Alexander
(1159-1181) refused
III
This
consent.
led to decisive action.
of his later historyas Valdez, who appears in what is known determined,not to say obstinate,felt that this refusal was the He and his associates con voice of man againstthat of God. tinued preaching. As disobedient,they were, therefore, ex communicated, in 1184, by Pope Lucius III (1181-1185). These unwise acts of the papacy not only forced the Wal denses out of the church againsttheir will,they brought to
them 1
a
Matt.
considerable accession. 1921.
2
Matt.
10.
The
Humiliati 3
were
a
company
Probably from Matt.
53.
THE
252 of
in and of penance to hold separate
and
associated themselves
had
who
lowly folk
about
Milan.
meetings, or
excommunicated
were
WALDENSES
for
These, too, to
in 1184
a
life
common
forbidden
were
preach, by Alexander for disobedience.
III,
A
very
Humiliati considerable part of these Lombard now under the control of Valdez. Waldenses, and came
joined the The early characteristics of the Waldenses now rapidlydeveloped. Chief the New that the Bible, and especially the principle of all was Testament, is the sole rule of belief and life. Yet they read it to them a through thoroughly mediaeval spectacles.It was book
of law
"
of minute
to prescriptions,
be
followed
to
the
In accordance learned by heart. letter. Large portionswere with what they believed to be its teachingsthey went about,
by two, preaching,clad in a simple woollen robe, bare footed or wearing sandals, livingwholly on the giftsof their hearers,fastingon Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,reject ing oaths and all shedding of blood, and using no prayers but the Lord's and a form of grace at table. They heard confes sions,observed the Lord's Supper together,and ordained their members as ministry. As unbiblical,they rejectedmasses a for the dead, and denied purgatory. They held and prayers invalid if dispensedby unworthy priests.They the sacraments effective than in church. believed prayer in secret more They and defended women. They had lay preaching by men and deacons, and a head, or rector, of the bishops,priests, Valdez himself; later appointment society. The first was the societyproper, by election. Besides this inner circle, was they soon developed a body of sympathizers, friends" or "be the societywas recruited,but who re lievers,"from whom with the Roman Church. mained outwardly in communion of this development seems to have been immediately sub Most two
"
to
sequent
their excommunication
in 1184.
Much
of it
was
Cathari
and example, yet they opposed justlyregarded themselves as widely different. Certain conflicts of opinion,and a feelingthat the govern led to the secession of the Lom of Valdez was ment arbitrary, that attempts at reunion in breach bard branch a by 1210 due
to
the
Catharite
"
1218, after Valdez's
death, failed
to
heal.
The
two
bodies
estranged. The able Pope, Innocent III (1198-1216), improved these disputesby countenancing in 1208 the organ
remained
ization of pauper
es
which catholici,
allowed
many
of the prac-
Waldenses
tices of the
siderable numbers
253
strict churchly oversight. Con
under thus
were
CATHARI
THE
AGAINST
CRUSADE
back
won
to
the church.
Never
to be body spread. Waldenses were found in northern Spain, in Austria and Germany, as well as in their original homes. gradually repressed,till They were of their chief seat came to be the Alpine valleys southwest At the Reformation Turin, where they are stillto be found. and became fullyProtes they rea'dily accepted its principles, freedom Under modern tant. they are laboringwith religious of heroic in many success parts of Italy. Their story is one honorable history and they endurance of persecution a most still survives,though with the only mediaeval sect which are
theless,the Waldensian
"
"
wide modification the
By ern
and
Spain
and
methods.
the thirteenth century the situation of the in southern France, northern Italy,and north
dubious.
was
Waldenses
measures
ideals original
openingof
Church
Roman
of their
had
Missionary efforts largelyfailed. It was A
needed.
were
crusade
was
to convert
felt that
ordered
as
Cathari
sharper early as
(1159-1181), againstthe viscount of Beziers as a supporter of the Cathari, but it accomplished broke. little. Under III (1198-1216) the storm Innocent of the the murder After having vainly tried missionaryefforts, papal legate,Peter of Castelnau, in 1208, induced Innocent to 1181
by Pope Alexander
III
against the heretics of southern France. The attack was agreeableto the French monarchy, which had These found the nobles of the regiontoo independent vassals. interests of Pope and King led to twenty years of combined of the destructive warfare (1209-1229),in which the power southern nobles was shattered and cities and provincesdevas tated. of the Cathari defenders rendered impo The were tent or compelled to joinin their extermination. The termination of the strugglewas followed by a synod of proclaim
much
crusade
a
importanceheld
Waldenses
had
fore, forbad
made
the
in Toulouse
much
use
in 1229.
Cathari
and
synod, there the Scriptures,except the contained in the breviary,
of the Bible.
laity to possess portions as are
The The
psalterand such and especiallydenounced all translations. The decree was, indeed,local,but similar considerations led to like prohibitions in Spain and elsewhere. No universal denial of Bible reading by the laitywas issued duringthe Middle Ages. A second act of significance the synod of Touwhich marked
THE
254
louse
the
was
INQUISITION
beginningof
a
The systematicinquisition.
tion of the
punishment the earlier Middle Ages. There of death, generallyby fire, at the
or
The
had
ecclesiastics of
mob, but
been
been
a
the hands
identification of the Cathari
good
of
the
in
instances
many
rulers,churchmen,
high standing had with
ques
undetermined
opposed.
Manichseans, against
Emperors had denounced punishment the sanction of
the
later Roman
the
whom
had
of heretics
death
Roman law. penalty, gave such of heretics Peter II of Aragon, in 1197, ordered the execution by fire. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) held that heresy,as of even than treason against God, was greater heinousness of heresy was not treason againsta King. The investigation as yet systematized. That task the synod of Toulouse under took. Its work was speedilyperfectedby Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241), who intrusted the discoveryof heresy to inquisi order tors chosen a body formed chieflyfrom the Dominican As speedilydeveloped,the inquisi with very different aims. formidable Its proceedingswere tion became most a organ. of his accusers not given to the prisoner, were secret, the names liable to torture. who, by a bull of Innocent IV, in 1252, was "
The
of the convict's
confiscation
property
was
of its most
one
economically destructive features,and, as these this feature undoubt shared by the lay authorities, spoilswere edly kept the fires of persecutionburning where otherwise they and other would have died out. Yet, thanks to the inquisition, more shortlyto be described,the Cathari praiseworthymeans than a of a little more were utterlyrooted out in the course greatly repressed. This earlier century, and the Waldenses for the tenacitywith which success accounts, in largemeasure, in the Reformation the Roman Church clung to the inquisition odious
and
age.
SECTION
THE
IV.
DOMINICANS
AND
FRANCISCANS
profoundly affected the medi them Out of an aeval church. by preachers attempt to meet of and and of equal devotion,asceticism, zeal, greater learning, the In the order of the Dominicans. same atmosphere grew of "apostolicpoverty" and literal fulfilment of the commands The
Cathari
of Christ
had
and
in which
their birth.
Waldenses
the In
Waldenses
these
two
flourished,the Franciscans orders
mediaeval
monasticism
DOMINIC
256
THE
DOMINICANS
that of the followingyear, the constitution of the "Or
ter, or der of
AND
Preachers/'or Dominicans, At
the
as
head
they
popularlycalled, "master-general,"chosen were
was a developed. for life. The field was di by the generalchapter,originally vided into "provinces,"each in charge of a "provincialprior," elected for a four-yearterm by the provincialchapter. Each The general monastery chose a "prior,"also for four years. the "master-general," the "provincial chapter included priors,"and an elected delegate from each province. The that combined ingeniouslyauthority system was one, therefore, and representative It embraced monasteries for government. and nunneries for women, not to though the latter were men, preach, but ultimatelydeveloped largeteaching activities. Dominic died in 1221. The order then numbered sixty divided the of Tou houses, Provence, eight provinces among louse, France, Lombardy, Rome, Spain, Germany, and Eng land, and for years thereafter it increased rapidly. Always zealous for learning,it emphasized preaching and teaching, became sought work especiallyin universitytowns, and soon widely representedon the universityfaculties. Albertus Mag and Thomas and Tauler, nus Aquinas, the theologians ; Eckhart the mystics; Savonarola, the reformer, are but a few of the that adorn the catalogue of Dominicans. Their great names learningled to their employment as inquisitorsa use that formed no part of Dominic's ideal. The legendswhich represent him as an inquisitor did baseless. He would win men, are as his example, Paul, by preaching. To achieve that result he would sacrifice or asceticism that would undergo whatever his preachers acceptable to those whom make they sought. Yet it is evident that lowly,self-sacrificing and democratic as Dominic's were aims, the high intellectualism of his order tended to give it a relatively aristocratic flavor. It represented, however, an emphasis on work for others, such as had ap Its ideal was not peared in the Waldenses. contemplation was
"
apart from Great it
as
the was
access
to
men
the honor paid to Dominic
in their needs. and
the
Dominicans,
by the popular homage given to the Francis arid especially The austere to their founder. preacher, cans, of blameless youth, planning how he may and best reach men, to that end, is not so winsome adopting poverty as a means a that of the careless all who sacrifices man figureas gay, young was
exceeded
world, but
OF
FRANCIS his fellows,and
for Christ and
257
ASSISI
adopts poverty the only means as
of his message, but mendation In Francis of Assisi is to be his Master.
saints,but
greatestof mediaeval
Bernadone
Giovanni
being like merely the
not
seen
in
universal.
church
1182, the
or
Assisi,in central
of
cloth merchant
recom
through his absolute all thingshumanly pos
born in 1181
was
a
as
of
who
one,
of desire to imitate Christ sincerity sible,belongs to all ages and to the
not
To
of
son
the
a
the
Italy. boy and Francesco Francis nickname was soon given, sup planted that bestowed on him in baptism. His father,a seri of business,was littlepleased to see the son man leading ous and in the mischief revelry of his young companions. A in Perugia,followinga year'sexperiencesas a prisonerof war defeat in which he had fought on the side of the common people of Assisi,againstthe nobles,wrought no change in his life. A serious illness began to develop another side of his character. He joined a militaryexpeditionto Apulia, but withdrew, for His conversion was is not evident. what reason a gradual proc "
"
"
When
ess.
look
to
I
the
upon
them, and
among
easy."l which
This
of
note
to
he
Rome
cloth from
thought
of God.
Assisi.
near
compassion was first responded.
he heard
his father's warehouse
Damian,
When
them.
bitter had become
me
nature
the fallen house
restore
to
lead
did
Himself
bitter
too
me
me
I left and
sweet
that
Christ-like
Francis's renewed
grimage
of St.
seemed
to
seem
lepers,but the Lord I had compassion upon
had
them, that which
sins it did
yet in my
was
On
a
the divine command
to
pil to
he sold Taking it literally, to rebuild the ruined
church
father,thoroughly dis
Francis's
took him before the gusted with his unbusinesslike ways, now bishop to be disinherited;but Francis declared that he had
henceforth
father
no
probably in
was
For
the next
1206
two
but or
years
the
the
was
to action. 1
He
Testament
poses. 2
to
him, would
107-14.
event
in and
about Assisi, restoringchurches, of which his
Francis wandered
of Christ to the
the
Apostles,2read
they had to Valdez, preach repentance and
as
Highly illuminative of Francis. Robinson, Readings, 1 : 392-395.
Matt.
This
Portiuncula, in the plain outside
There, in 1209, the words service,came
in heaven.
1207.
aiding the unfortunate, and favorite
Father
as
to
as
a
the his
town.
in the
trumpet-call kingdom of spiritand
pur
FRANCIS
258
God, without
might
be
Christ's
before
him.
deference
Most
plainestof garments, eatingwhat He would imitate Christ and obey
in absolute
commands,
in humbled "The
in the
money,
set
ASSISI
OF
the
to
poverty, in Christ-like love,and
priestsas
His
representatives. that I ought to live to me holy Gospel." Like-minded as
revealed
High Himself
according to the model of the For them he drafted a "Rule," sociates gathered about him. composed of little besides selections from Christ's commands, and with it,accompanied by eleven or twelve companions, he appliedto Pope Innocent III for approval. It was practically the same request that Valdez had preferredin vain in 1179. of the Waldenses for But Innocent was now tryingto win some church, and
the
Francis
called themselves
1216, Francis
had
substituted
they
Francis's association love and
henceforth
were
was
a
Assisi,a
that of the
union
The
associates for
name
Minor, to
utmost
or
now
which, by Humbler,
be known.
of imitators of
the practising
thus, he believed,could the world followed.
refused.
the Penitents of
Brethren, by which
togetherby
not
was
Christ,bound
poverty, since only
be denied
and
Christ really
by two, they went about preachingrepentance, singingmuch, aidingthe peasants in their work, caringfor the "Let those who know trade learn one, no lepersand outcasts. of receivingthe priceof their toil,but but not for the purpose for their good example and to flee idleness. And when we are let of the the table not given the priceof our resort to work, us bread door Soon widefrom to door." 1 Lord, begging our formed, which the rapidgrowth reachingmissionaryplans were of the association made possibleof attempting. Francis him self,prevented by illness from reaching the Mohammedans through Spain,went to Egypt in 1219, in the wake of a crusading expedition,and actuallypreached before the Sultan. littleof an organizer. The free associa Francis himself was tion was were increasingenormously. What adequate rules for a
Two
handful
a
of like-minded
ing
in any talents
ory
IX
(1227-1241), who
appointment Under
several
were
insufficient for
soon
Change would have It was event. hastened, however, by the organiz of Cardinal Ugolino of Ostia, the later Pope Greg
body numbering
come
brethren
Francis
thousands.
had
secured
and influence, Ugolino's 1
befriended as
Francis, and
"protector"
that of Brother
Testament.
of the
whose
society.
Elias of Cortona,
FRANCISCANS
THE
the transformation
of the association
259 into
full monastic
a
order
From the time of Francis's absence in rapidlyforward. Egypt and Syria in 1219 and 1220, his real leadershipceased. A new rule was In the adopted in 1221, and a third in 1223. latter,emphasisfwas no longer laid on preaching,and begging established as the normal, not the exceptional, was practice. Already,jn 1219, provinceshad been established,each in charge of a "minister." in 1220, had prescribedobe Papal directions, went
dience
to the
costume,
and
established officers,
order's
irrevocable
a
novitiate,a fixed
vows.
of these
inevitable. They were Probably most changes were unquestionablya griefto Francis,though whether so deeply as has often been contended is doubtful. He was always deferen tial to ecclesiastical authority,and to have seems regarded with regret than with actual opposi these modifications more tion. He withdrew from the world. He was much increasingly in prayer and singing. His love of nature, in which he was far in advance
of his age,
body, he longed
to
was
manifest.
more
never
be present with
Christ.
He
Feeble bore
in
what
How believed to be the reproductionof Christ's wounds. have been received is an unsolved, and perhaps they may insoluble,problem. On October 3, 1226, he died in the church
men
of Portiuncula.
Two
years
later he
proclaimed a saint by Christian historyhave more was
in Few Pope Gregory IX. men richlydeserved the title. In organization, by Francis's death, the Franciscans were like the Dominicans. At the head stood a "minister general" chosen for twelve years. Over each "province" was a "pro vincial
each group minister,"and over a "custos," for, unlike the Dominicans, the Franciscans did not at first possess houses.
As
the Dominicans, provincialand generalchapterswere held by which officers were chosen and legislation achieved. with
Like
the
had almost from Dominicans, also, the Franciscans the first, their feminine branch the so-called "second order." That of the Franciscans instituted by Francis himself,in was "
1212, through his friend and
(1194-1253). The
growth of rapid, and though they soon scholars, they were always more
Clara disciple, the
Franciscans
counted
many
democratic, more
the poor, than the Dominicans. The and Dominicans Franciscans,known
Sciffi of
Assisi
extremely distinguished
was
the order of
respectivelyas
THE
260
TERTIARIES
exercised an Gray Friars in England, soon almost unbounded popular influence. Unlike the older orders, they labored primarilyin the cities. There can be no doubt that their work resulted in a great strengtheningof religion the laity. At the same time they undermined the in among fluence of the bishops and ordinary clergy,since they were absolve privileged to preach and anywhere. They thus strengthenedthe power of the papacy by diminishingthat of the ordinary clergy. One chief influence upon the laitywas the development of the "Tertiaries" "third orders" or a first in connection with the which phenomenon appeared the tradition which it with connects Franciscans, though Francis himself is probably baseless. The "third order" per mitted men and women, stillengaged in ordinaryoccupations, life of fasting, to live a semi-monastic prayer, worship,and be nevolence. A conspicuousillustration is St. Elizabeth of Thuorders de ringia(1207-1231). Ultimately all the mendicant the system tended to on veloped Tertiaries. As time went become almost complete monasticism, from which the mar an ried were be regarded as a very successful It must excluded. the religious ideals of an age which regarded attempt to meet Black
Friars
and
"
the monastic
as
the true
Christian
life.
The
pietyof the twelfth and thirteenth centuries found many and Francis expressionsother than through the Dominicans One important manifestation,especially in the Nether cans. lands,Germany, and France, was through the Beguines associ ations of women fashion,but not bound livingin semi-monastic received their name to have by irrevocable vows. They seem from those hostile to them in memory of the preacherof Liege, Lambert le Begue, who was regarded as having been a heretic; and the Beguine movement undoubtedly often sheltered antichurchlysympathizers. It was in the main orthodox, however, and spread widely,existingin the Netherlands to the present. Its loose organizationmade effective discipline difficult, and, in general,its course of deterioration. A parallel, was one that of though less popular,system of men's associations was the Beghards. The divisions in the Franciscan order, which had appeared in Francis's lifetime between those who would emphasize a simplelifeof Christ-like poverty and those who valued numbers, "
power,
and
influence,were
but intensified with
his death.
The
The
astical
FRANCISCANS
261
Leo, the looser in Elias papal policyfavored the looser,since ecclesi
stricterparty found of Cortona.
THE
AMONG
DIVISIONS
leader in Brother
a
be
politicswould
by
advanced
solidation of the order
the
and
growth
con
lines of earlier monasticism.
the
along The use of gifts embittered. The quarrelbecame increasingly secured by the laxer party on the claim that and buildings was they wene held not by the order itself but by "friends." Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254),in 1245, allowed such use, with the the property of the Roman reservation that it was Church, not tendencies
These
of the order.
stricter party itself fell into dubious
that party
opposed.
But
full power
in 1260.
the
vigorously
orthodoxy. of Floris,in extreme southern Italy (1145?-1202),a Joachim Cistercian abbot who had been reputed a prophet,had divided the historyof the world into three ages, those of the Father,the in to come Son, and the Holy Spirit. That of the Spiritwas "the
eternal
It
Gospel" allyinterpreted.Its sixth decade
Franciscans
was
be
a
new
not
"
of the
to
age of
these
men
who
understood
Gospel,but the old, spiritu
of life was
form
thirteenth
adopted
an
to
be monastic.
century many
views
and
of the
In the
stricter
persecuted not merely by the laxer element, but by the moderates, who ob tained leadership when chosen generalmin Bonaventura was These stricter friars of prophetic faith were ister in 1257. nicknamed "Spirituals."Under Pope John XXII (1316-1334) of the party were burned by the inquisitionin 1318. some the further quarrel arose to whether as a During his papacy complete. John XXII poverty of Christ and the Apostleswas decided in 1322 in favor of the laxer view, and imprisonedthe great Englishschoolman, William of Occam, and other asserters The of Christ's absolute poverty. irreconcilable, quarrelwas and finally X (1513-1521) formally recognizedthe Pope Leo division of the Franciscans in 1517 into "Observant," or strict, and "Conventual," or loose sections,each with its distinct officersand generalchapters. SECTION
The
V.
educational work
alreadybeen banus Maurus imitative and
noted
EARLY
SCHOLASTICISM
of cathedral and
in connection
(ante, pp.
were
monastic
schools has
Bede, Alcuin, and Hra200, 207, 210). It was long simply
reproductiveof
the
with
teachingof
the
Church
Fa-
BEGINNINGS
THE
262
of Augustine and thers,especially the
of John
case
SCHOLASTICISM
OF
Scotus
the Great.
Gregory
Erigena (ante,p. 210), it
Save
showed
in
little
original. Schools, however, increased,especiallyin in the eleventh century, and with their multiplication France of logic,or of dialectics, an came applicationof the methods of theologicalproblems which resulted in to the discussion fresh and fertile intellectual development. Since it originated that
was
schools,the
in the Most
of the
rived
from and
ings
movement
was
known
"Scholasticism."
as
of dialectic method
knowledge
first de
at
was
portionsof Aristotle's writ Porphyry's Isagoge,both the work of Boetius
scanty translations of
of
(480?-524).
development of Scholasticism was inaugurated and ac of "universals" companied by a discussion as to the nature and species a debate that is as to the existence of genera occasioned by Porphyry's Isagoge. Three positionsmight be The taken. extreme "realists,"followingPlatonic influences The
"
"
existed
(ante,p. 3), asserted that universals antecedent
the individual
anterior to and
was
man
to
objects "
under "realists,"
and
i. e., the genus of the individual man.
ante
determinative
apart from
rem,
guidance of Aristotle (ante, with p. 4), taught that universals existed only in connection The individual objects in re. "nominalists," followingStoic for only abstract names precedent,held that universals were moderate
The
the
"
of
individuals,and
had
other
existence
the
resemblances
than
only real existence for them This quarrel between "realism" the "nominalism" continued throughout the scholastic period conclusions. profoundly influenced its theological
was
and and
thought post rem. individual object.
in
The of the
"
dispute once
Ratramnus
as
to
held
in Tours
ceptionthat actual body
Paschasius
was
about
blood
1049, attacked are
changed
of Christ.
as
the to
a
renewal
Radbertus
of Christ's presence Berengar (?-1088), head
the elements and
between
controversy
and
in the Lord's
the nature
Supper (ante,p. 211). dral school
The
scholastic
first considerable
no
of the cathe
prevalent con
substance
into the
His
positionwas essentially nominalist. immediately opposed by Lanfranc Berengar was (?-1089), then prior of the monastery of Bee in Normandy, and to be William the Conqueror's celebrated archbishop of at the Roman synod of Canterbury. Berengar was condemned 1050.
He
conformed
and
was
restored in 1059.
About
ten
ANSELM
264
AND
ABELARD
to make times, has nothing wherewith good past disobedience. Yet, if satisfaction is to be made at all,it can
all
at
ence
rendered
be
Himself
Such
yet
shares
God
as
being is the
a
blessedness
eternal
theory
rests
there is such
could
has
an
of His
human
Not
reward.
brethren.
is
of infinite value
something
God-man. a
nature, who
only is His
That
Anselm's
sacri
reward
is the
widely influen
ultimately on the realistic conviction that objectiveexistence as humanity which Christ
assume.
Anselm
of devout
was
explanation could "I
who
one
it deserves satisfaction,
a
tial
and
man,
to offer.
fice
only by
but
believe,that I
buttress
the
doctrines
understand," is
may
The
his attitude.
spirit, fullyconvinced
that dialectic of the that
motto
a
church. expresses
realist
maintained positionwas by William of Champeaux (1070 ?-1121),who brought the school of St. Victor, near Paris, into great repute, and died as bishop
high
same
of Chalons. The
ablest
made
was
in
Abelard
by
vanity,and
of the dialectic method
use
(1079-1142), a
critical spirit, but
by
Pallet,in Brittany,he studied
Champeaux, both of whom surpassedin ability. On the he took a positionintermediate of
and
teacher
the realism
the nominalist
side.
was
's life
was
teaching with
1115
he
was
such
as
no
Heloise
"
a
canon
niece
under
irreligion.Born
Roscelin
and
William
he
opposed and undoubtedly far vexed question of the universals the nominalism
between
of
one
other, though leaningrather to Only individuals exist,but genera and Hence
he
is
universals
gave
usually called
greater value
of Notre
Dame,
had
enjoyed.
yet
of his fellow
with
canon,
a
He
a
than
By the age of twenty-two stormy. Paris. great followingin Melun, near
lecturer
the
of
means
of the
than names. speciesare more though he "conceptualist," mental mere conceptions. Abelard
no
man
in the twelfth century of irritating method,
he
By
followingin
Paris
fell in love
with
Fulbert
"
a
of
woman
With her he entered into a secret singulardevotion of nature. marriage. The enraged uncle, believinghis niece deceived, emasculated, and thus revenged himself by having Abelard barred
from
monk.
To
resumed
clerical advancement. teach
was
his breath
lecturing. A reply to
far in the
other direction that
Abelard of
now
became
however, and he life,
Roscelin's his enemies
tritheism
charged
a soon
leaned him
so
with
ABELARD his views
Sabellianism,and Soissons
in
made
St. Denis
His
1121.
of that hostility,
Yet
of
gaged head
of
founded
His
at
a
traditional
criticisms had
in
career
of
uncomfortable life. Students
little settlement
a
synod
which
he
aroused,however, the
leader of the age, the powerful religious traditionalist Bernard, and he now sought refuge as the rough monastery in Rhuys, in remote Brittany. most
he left this retreat in
criticisms of the
and
called the Paraclete.
abbot
condemned
were
the monastery of St. Denis an and he now sought a hermit's
place of abode, gathered about? him
orthodox
265
lecture for
correspondencewith
a
a
to
little nunnery
record teresting
at
the
of affection
while in Paris,and
a
Heloise,who
had
Paraclete,which
become
en
the
is the most
in
the part of Heloise on especially which the Middle Ages has preserved. Bernard procured his condemnation at the synod of Sens in 1141, and the rejec tion of his appeal by Pope Innocent II. Abelard a was now "
"
broken
He
man.
the abbot
made
submission
and
found
a
friend in
Peter,
he died in
of
of the monasteries Cluny. In 1142 one under Cluny jurisdiction. Abelard 's spiritwas critical. Without essentially rejecting the Fathers or the creeds,he held that all should be subjected to philosophical examination, and not lightlybelieved. His Yes and No work, Sic et non settingagainst each other "
contrary passages without attempt
"
from at
the
harmony
Fathers or
on
the
great doctrines,
explanation,might
well
arouse
of doubts. His doctrine of the feelingthat he was a sower almost Sabellian. His teachingthat man has in Trinitywas herited not guiltbut punishment from Adam was contrary to the Augustinian tradition. His ethical theory that good and evil inhere in the intention rather than in the act, disagreed with current feeling. His belief that the philosophersof an a
tiquitywere
sharers of divine
with
Christian
ancient
revelation,howrever
consonant
opinion,was not that of his age. Nor Abelard less individual,though decidedlymodern, in his was Like Anselm, he rejectedall conception of the atonement. to the devil; but he repudiated Anselm's doctrine of ransom satisfaction no less energetically. In Abelard 's view the in carnation and death of Christ are the highest expressionof God's love to men,
the effect of which
is to awaken
love in
Abelard, though
open
of his age,
profoundlystimulatingspirit.His direct
was
a
to
much
criticism from
the
us.
standpoint fol-
AND
HUGO
266 lowers
few, but his indirect influence
were
impulse given by him inquiryfar-reaching. A combination
of St. Victor
Hugo was
of
uneventful.
to
Paris,where
Victor,near
quiet,modest
is to
be
seen
(1097?-1141). A German 1115 he
of
the
theological
of the dialectic method
use
mysticism
About
great, and
was
dialectic method
the
moderate
a
Neo-Platonic
intense
LOMBARD
PETER
in the
with
work
by birth,his
of life
he entered
the monastery of St. of its school. A to be head
rose
of profound learningand piety,his influence
man,
remarkable.
enjoyed the intimate friendshipof Ber works were his commen nard. Probably his most significant tary on the CelestialHierarchy of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (ante,p. 171) and his treatise On the Mysteriesof the Faith. In true mystic fashion he pictured spiritual progress in three the of formation as stages cogitation, sense-concepts; meditation, their intellectual investigation; contemplation,the intuitive penetrationinto their inner meaning. This last at tainment is the true mystical vision of God, and the compre hension of all things in Him. No of originalgenius,like Abelard and Hugo, but a man was
He
"
great intellectual service to his
own
age,
and
held in honor
till
the
Peter of the Reformation, was Lombard, "the Master Sentences" in humble in circumstances (?-1160?). Born northern Italy,Peter studied in Bologna and Paris,in part at least aided
the
In Paris he became generosityof Bernard. ultimatelyteacher of theology in the school of Notre Dame, and near the close of his life, in 1159, bishop of the Parisian he was Whether see. ever a pupil of Abelard is uncertain; but he was evidentlygreatlyinfluenced by Abelard's works. Under Hugo of St. Victor he certainlystudied,and owed that teacher which
by
much. his fame
well-accustomed and
the Fathers
fresh
that
Between rests
"
1147 the Four
and
1150
Books
of
he wrote
the work
Sentences.
fashion,he gathered citations from on
he
the several Christian
doctrines.
After
on
the
the creeds What
was
proceeded to explainand interpretthem by the dialectic method, with great moderation and good sense, and with constant reference to the opinionsof his contempo raries. He showed the influence of Abelard constantly, though critical of that thinker's extremer He more was even positions. indebted to Hugo of St. Victor. Under the four divisions, God, Created Beings, Salvation,Sacraments and the Last Things, was
handbook
which
remained
till the
of
round
he discussed the whole
fully met
so
267
UNIVERSITIES
THE
OF
RISE
Reformation
result
theology. The
the
needs
the
main
of the basis
age
of
was
a
that
it
theological
instruction. of the
middle
the
Witn
Scholasticism but activity,
was no
over.
twelfth century the first periodof The schools continued in increasing
creative
geniusesappeared. however, by distinguished,
the century was to the West, which
The the
last half of
introduction
Aristotle,of the greater part of his works and of much Greek philosophybesides, by the Jews of Spain and southern France, who, in turn, derived had
far had
thus
little of
Latin conquest of Constantinople, in 1204 (ante,p. 243), led ultimatelyto direct translations from and greater out the originals.The result was to be a new the Arabs.
The
them
from
burst
of scholastic activityin the thirteenth century.
SECTION
VI.
Cathedral and monastic than
in the twelfth
gatheringabout
UNIVERSITIES
THE
schools
century.
Teachers
were
flourishing multiplyingand
more
Anselm, Abelard, William
students.
them
never
were
of
sim were Champeaux, Hugo of St. Victor,and Peter Lombard ply the most eminent of a host. Students flocked to them in from all parts of Europe. Paris and Oxford large numbers for theology,Bologna for church and civil law, famed were Salerno
for medicine.
sities developed in
a
these
Under manner
which
circumstances
the univer
it is difficult exactlyto date.
of change which they implied was not the establishment had been before,but the association of teaching where none students and teachers into a collective body, after the fashion of a trade guild,primarilyfor protectionand good order, but also for more efficient management and the regulationof ad mission to the teachingprofession. In its educational capacity, such a group often called a studium was generate. The begin nings of universityorganization which must be distinguished of teaching may be placed about from the commencement
The
"
"
the year 1200. By the close of the twelfth two
"universities,"or
dents.
The
for northern
mutual
organizationin
Europe.
century there
were
in
Bologna
protectiveassociations Paris
became
of stu
normal, however,
Its earliest rules date from
about
1208,
THE
268 and
its recognition as
UNIVERSITIES a
III of about
Innocent
legalcorporationfrom In Paris there
1211.
the union
formed by originally versity," and the more private schools into
struction
four
"arts," in which
faculties
the
of the
letterof Pope a
single"uni
of the cathedral school
city,and
divided
preparatory, that
one
"
was
a
for in
the
of
trivium
(grammar, rhetoric,and logic) the quadrivium (astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and and music) were taught; and the three higherfaculties of theology, Over each facultya dean presided. law, and medicine. canon Besides this educational organizationstudents and professors also grouped, for mutual aid, in "nations," each headed were in the several institu by a proctor. These varied in number four the French, the Picards, the tions. In Paris they were Normans, and the English. by lecture and by constant debate, Teaching was principally which, whatever its shortcomings,rendered the stu a method of his knowledge, and dent ready master brought talent to similar to an light. The first degree,that of bachelor, was second admission to apprenticeshipin a guild. The degree, in workman that of master or doctor, resembling the master carried with it full authorityto teach in the institution a guild, for the graduates of the it was where conferred, and soon, to teach anywhere. The use of Latin as largeruniversities, the sole language of the classroom made possiblethe assembly of students from all parts of Europe, and they flocked to the "
famous
more
The
needs
universities in immense of these
students,many
poverty, early aroused '
the
influential and
the
most
was
that formed
in Paris
oldest
by
provided a home dents, under the guidance 1252.
interest
It
known
of whom
were
of extreme
of benefactors.
foundations
Robert and
numbers.
de Sorbon
thus
of
established
(1201-1274) in
specialteaching for
of "fellows"
One
poor
of the house.
stu
Such
"colleges," rapidlymultiplied, shelter to the great majority of students, rich and and gave The system still survives in the English universities. poor. identified with theological the Sorbonne So prominently was instruction that its name to be popularly, came though errone in That uni Paris. the of attached to faculty theology ously, the leader of Europe, as versityranked till the Reformation in the theological studies. especially of which were short-lived, Universities, sprang up many
establishments,soon
as
SCHOOLMEN
GREAT
THE
269
regarded as ecclesiastieal authorization by the Pope being almost essential. The most conspicuousearlylay approval was that of Naples, in 1225, by tli"Emperor Frederick II. great rapidity. In general,they
with
were
"
SECTION
The
HIGH
VII.
of the mendicant
and the devotion versities, ushered
in
tury, and Middle it
as
a
period of Scholasticism
new
The
and
development.
Platonic
series of great
Yet
much
Aristotle,made
much to
Aristotle
met
even
of
use
the
Alexander
mately
a
of Haies
Franciscan, who
of theology in the the Scriptureis to him ment
period of Scholasticism is apparent than in the nominalism realism and ander
was
the mind
a
of
moderate
God, in
a
(?-1245),
of the
theology," opposition,especially the Augustinian Neomuch hostility.A orders, made
mendicant
171, 266).
Englishman
an
taught in Paris, was lightof the whole of the only final truth. broader
due
and
ulti
the treat
Aristotle. With
Yet
this
new
of intellectual interest
range
earlier, though the old problem between continued realist.
re
cen
they, while relyingprimarilyon Plato as reflected in Augustine
the Pseudo-Dionysius (ante,pp.
To
learning,
in the thirteenth
this "modern
adherents
thinkers,all from
his victorysecure. and
without
not
traditionalists
from
toward
movement
called,was
was
orders to
the highestintellectual achievement
marked
Ages.
THEOLOGY
ITS
of Aristotle,the rise of the uni
of the whole
recovery
AND
SCHOLASTICISM
its
pre-eminence.
Universals
exist ante
Alex in
rem
things themselves, and -post rem followed by Albertus this he was
in the
understanding. In Magnus and Aquinas. and a Dominican, Albertus Magnus (1206?-1280), a German studied in Padua, and taught in many places in Germany, but principally in Cologne. He served as provincialpriorfor his order,and was, for a few years, bishop of Regensburg. The learned man of his age, his knowledge of science was most really remarkable. His acquaintance not merely with Aristotle,but with the comments of Arabian scholars,was profounder than in
our
that
of Alexander
piler and
of Hales.
He
was,
however,
a
great
com
originaltheological genius. That which he taught was brought to far clearer ex Aquinas. pressionby his pupil,Thomas commentator
rather
than
an
THOMAS
270
AQUINAS
Thomas
Aquinas (1225?-1274) was a son of Landulf, count about Rome and half-way between Aquino, a small town
of
Connected
Naples.
with
and
staufen
againstthe
was
with the German
Dominican
that
of
imperialhouse
Tancred, the Norman
of Hohen-
Crusader, it
of his parents that Thomas entered the in 1243. His spiritual aware superiorswere
wishes
order
promise,and sent him to Cologne to study under Albertus took his pupil to Paris. On receivingthe Magnus, who soon Thomas returned to Cologne in degree of bachelor of divinity, 1248, and now taught as subordinate to Albertus Magnus. These into were years of rapid intellectual growth. Entrance the Paris facultywas of jealousy long refused him on account of the mendicant orders,but in 1257 he was given full standing there. From 1261 for some years he taught in Italy,then once from 1272, in Naples. He died, on in Paris,and finally, more of Lyons, in 1274. his way In these crowded to the Council of teaching Thomas was constantly consulted on im years active in portant civil and ecclesiastical questions,and was as preaching; yet his pen was busy with results as voluminous was they were important. His great Summa Theologies begun about 1265, and not fullycompleted at his death. Personally he was Intellectually a simple, prayerfulman. deeplyreligious, his work marked and a a. logical was by a clarity, consistency, the few great breadth of presentation that places him among of his
of the church.
teachers has
ceased.
never
1 903)
,
In the Roman
Ms
communion
influence
^Pope_Leo XIIJ (1878JSyldeclaratioji^Qf -is-theJbasis._pj pre_s_ejit_JJieoJogi
in_1 871L_hi a work
instruction .
Closelyassociated with
Aquinas in friendshipand
for
a
time
teaching activities in the Universityof Paris,was John Fidanza Bonaventura. Born in as (1221-1274),generallyknown Bagnorea, in the States of the Church, he entered the Franciscan order in 1238, risingto become A year its "general" in 1257. in
before his death he
was
made
a
cardinal.
Famed
as
a
teacher
in
of for his administration distinguished the Franciscan Much order and for his high character. less influenced by Aristotelian than Aquinas, he was an especially the Neo-Platonic teachingsof Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius. He was a essentially mystic. By meditation and prayer one rise into that union with God which brings the highest may knowledge of divine truth. Yet, though a mystic, Bonaven-
Paris,he
was
even
more
272
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
and
"spirit."The
and
will.
and
enjoyment
soul of
his natural
a
Man's
It is immaterial. As
of God.
is
man
intellect unit,possessing highestgood is the vision
created originally
had, in
man
superadded giftwhich en abled him to seek that highestgood and practisethe three Christian virtues lost by faith,hope, and love. This Adam sin,which also corrupted his natural powers, so that his state became but a posi not merely a lack of original righteousness, Sin is,therefore,more lower aims. tive turning toward than merely negative. In this fallen state it was impossiblefor this corruptionwas Adam transmitted to to please God, and still has the power all his posterity. Man to attain the four natural virtues,prudence, justice, and self-control; courage, but of temporal these, though bringing a certain measure honor and happiness,are not sufficient to enable their possessor addition
to
a
powers,
"
attain the vision of God.
to
restoration is possibleonly through the free and
Man's
merited sins
of
grace
God, by
forgiven,and
infused.
No
act
power
of his
which
to can
man's
practisethe win
of Christ
could
God
it. That a
won
love.
was
choose, and involved
work
merit
which
and
wisest
whole
man's
a
virtues
redemption
reward.
developed and
Anselm
"
efficient method
most
satisfaction for man's
deserves
thus
Aquinas
the
three Christian
differed from
"
work
changed, his
this grace. While God could sins and granted grace without
conceivablyhave forgivenman's here Aquinas the sacrifice of Christ the
is
nature
un
is based
sin,and
It also
combined
moves
on
Christ men
to
views
presented Christ's satisfaction superabounds by Anselm and Abelard. man's sin,and the reward which Christ cannot personallyre to the advantage ceive,since as God He needs nothing,comes Christ does for men what of His human brethren. they can not
do for themselves.
Once now
redeemed, however, the good works
enables
to
man
do
deserve
has power of the Gospel
(ante,p. 103). He
tion,of which
the chief would
now
monastic can
add
of Christ
by
to
fulfilnot
life. He his mite and
the grace
the
can
not
and
that
receive
a
only the precepts
God's
reward.
but
grace
Man
the counsels
of supereroga be the faithful fulfilment of the can
merely
do works
fit himself
for heaven
; he
the treasury of the superabundant merits saints. Yet all this is made possibleonly
to
of God.
Aquinas
thus
finds
full
room
for the
piety
mediaeval
dominating conceptionsof
two
273
THEOLOGY
AQUIXAS'S
and
grace
"
merit. does
Grace
not
Here
alone.
of definition than
all sacred
that
actions
placed five in
were
Peter this
Whether
seven.
The
sacraments
ancient
Abelard
and
of St. Victor
the
defined
Lombard
clearly category
sacraments
him
originalwith
reckoningwas
feeling
stillalive in the
was
conspicuously sacramental
more
a
others, and
than
has its
are
previouslyexisted.
had
century, but Hugo
twelfth
It indiscriminately.
men
the sacraments, and the sacra Scholasticism attained far greater clearness these
definite channels and ments
to
come
as
is still
it at once unsolved problem ; nor was universally accepted. the day. As influence of his Sentences ultimatelywon The an
are Lombard, the sacraments extreme confirmation, the Lord's Supper, penance,
by
enumerated
matrimony. All were through the Apostles,and
ordination, and
directlyor
Christ the head church.
/livery
baptism,
Peter
Without
to
sacrament
in Aristotelian terms
all convey from grace of His mystical body, the
the members
them
there is
no
consists of two of form
and
unction, instituted by Christ,
union
true
elements
matter
with
which
Christ,
are
defined
a
material
(ante,p. 4) "
portion(water,bread,and wine, etc.); and a formula conveying its sacred use ("I baptizethee," etc.). The administrant must have the intention of doing what Christ and the church ap of have, at least in the case pointed,and the recipientmust sincere desire to receive the those of years of discretion, a the sacra These conditions fulfilled, benefit of the sacrament. ment by the fact of its reception that is ex grace conveys "
is the this grace God itselfis the instrumental cause.
operate. Of
opere
sacrament
which
It is the
means
the
by
the virtue of Christ's passionis conveyed to His members. baptism the recipientis regenerated, and originaland
By previouspersonal sins sin is not use
principal cause;
obliterated.
are
Man
pardoned, though the tendency to is now given the grace, if he will
it,to resist sin,and the lost power
virtues.
to
attain the Christian
baptism had become the universal practice, but in the time of Aquinas immersion was stillthe more preva lent form, and had his approval. in The sole recognizedtheory regarding Christ's presence the Supper was that which had been taught by Paschasius Radbertus (ante,p. 211) and Lanfranc (ante,p. 262), and had Infant
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
274
since the firsthalf of the twelfth century
been known
It had
as
transub-
given full dogmatic authorityby the Council in 1215. Fourth Lateran Aquinas but added clear of consecration by the priest of definition. At the words ness of God, so that while the the miracle is wrought by the power "accidents" (shape,taste, and the like)remain unaltered, the is transformed into the very body and blood of "substance" stantiation.
been
Christ. also
accepted (Aquinas body blood
and
and
developed the view that the whole
of Christ
is present in either element. It was with the increasing him, but had grown
originalwith of the laityto partake of the bread only. A withdrawal custom of the cup instigated by the clergy did not take place. The of the cup was rather a layman's practicedue to abandonment fear of dishonoringthe sacrament by misuse of the wine. Such itself as early as the seventh century anxiety had manifested of dippingthe bread in in the adoption of the Greek custom the wine a practicerepeatedlydisapproved by ecclesiastical By the twelfth authority,but supported by lay sentiment. avoiding the use of the wine altogether, century the laitywere apparentlyfirst of all in England. By the time of Aquinas in the bread alone had become prevalent. lay communion Similar considerations led to the generalabandonment by the far from
"
Church, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of the practiceof infant communion, which had been universal,and Western
which
continues
Supper.
of repetition the
the
in need
passion,the
to God, pleasing
on
earth
the present. reach their highestpointin the to
It is the continuation
the evidence of recipient,
rificewell
Church
pietyand worship
Mediaeval Lord's
in the Greek
and
Penance, though
of
source
his union
Him inclining
of the
the incarnation, spiritual upbuilding to
with
Christ,and
to be
a
sac
graciousto those
in purgatory.
not
reckoned
a
sacrament
of
equal dignity
reallyof great, if not baptism or the Lord's Supper, was prime, importance in mediaeval practice. Mediaeval thought regarding the personalreligiouslife centred about the two conceptionsof grace and merit. Baptism effected the forgive of previous sins ; but for those after baptism penance was ness has always been inclined to view The Latin mind necessary. in terms of definite acts rather than as sin and righteousness with
states, and
therefore to look upon
man's
relations to God
under
275
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
the aspects of debt and credit though holding that the only These tendencies basis of credit is the effect of God's grace. than in the scholastic period. They marked more never were "
representedwide-spreadpopular views which the rather than originated. explainedtheologically,
schoolmen
involves four elements, conAccording to Aquinas, penance Contrition Itrit and absolution. is satisfaction, ion,"confession, for the offense againstGod and a determination sincere sorrow
J
not
to
convey
repeat it. Yet grace,
a
penance
that, as all sacraments begun in "attrition,"that is,in fear
Aquinas
holds
by infused grace become a real contrition. Private confession to the priesthad made gradual progress since its advocacy by the old British missionaries (ante,p. 197). of opinion that a true con Abelard and Peter Lombard were without priestly followed by divine forgiveness, trition was even confession, though they thought such confession desirable. The Fourth Lateran Council, in 1215, required confession to of all laymen of age of discretion. the priestat least once a year Alexander of church law. confession thereby became Such and Aquinas gave it more Hales argued its necessity, logical exposition. It must be made to the priestas the physicianof the soul,and include all "deadly" sins the catalogueof which much was now largerthan in the earlychurch (ante,p. 100). Though God forgivesthe eternal punishment of the penitent, of sin. certain temporal penaltiesremain as a consequence This distinction was clearlymade by Abelard and became the These current temporal penalties property of the schoolmen. far as it is in his the offense God sinner's so against satisfy to do so. They also enable him to avoid sin in the future. power They are the "fruits of repentance." It is the business of the which, if not adequate in priestto impose these satisfactions, will be completed in purgatory. this life, for sin,confession,and a willing On evidence thus of sorrow the priest, God's minister or agent, to givesatisfaction, as ness
of
punishment, may
"
absolution.
pronounces
the
Church
guiltyafter
one
was
the
great control of
laitytillthe Reformation, and in the to the present. Without priestlypardon no of baptism of a "deadly" sin has assurance
priesthoodover
Roman
Here, then,
the
salvation. A
great modification
rapidlygrowing in
the
of these
century and
satisfactions a
was,
half before
however,
Aquinas.
A
276
remission of
of all of these
portion or
a
could be obtained.
Such
remission
Bishops had long exercised where
cases
circumstances
services to the church Peter
Damiani
astery
or
a
not
have
were
the
was
rightto
"temporal" penalties an indulgence." in satisfactions abridge "
called
indicated unusual held to deserve
contrition. such
church full
affordingsuch occasions. indulgence system, however.
as
originatedin southern
undisputed,instance
France,
is about
and
the year
Great
consideration.
(1007 ?-1072) regarded giftsof land for
constitute the to
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
These
a
mon
did not
That
seems
the earliest, though Their
1016.
first
II conspicuous employment was by a French Pope, Urban (1088-1099),who promised full indulgenceto all who engaged in the First Crusade, though Pope Alexander II had given similar privileges on a smaller scale for battle againstthe Sara in Spain about Once 1063. cens begun, the system spread with great rapidity. Not only Popes but bishops gave indul constantlyeasier terms. Pilgrimagesto sacred gences, and on placesor at specialtimes, contributions to a good work, such as deemed de a bridge or a road, were buildinga church or even The financial possibilities of the sys servingof such reward. tem were soon perceived and exploited. Since "temporal" included those of purgatory, the value of an indulgence penalties was though undefined, and the tendency to substi enormous, human to which tute it for a real penance nature readily was one responded. Such was the practiceto which Aquinas now gave the classic interpretation.Following Alexander of Hales, he taught that the superabundant merits of Christ and of the saints form a treasury of good works from which a portionmay be transferred to by the authorityof the church, actingthrough its officers, the needy sinner. It can, indeed,avail only for those who are in whole in part, reallycontrite,but for such it removes, or the "temporal" penaltieshere and in purgatory. Indulgences sin. They were amelioration were never a license to commit an of penalties and regretted. justlydue to sins alreadycommitted be no doubt to the But, however interpreted,there can as moral
harmfulness
of the system, of which it was an
or
that it grew
worse
tillthe
Reformation, immediately inducing cause. At their deaths, according to Aquinas, the wicked pass im mediately to hell,which is endless,and from which there is no release.
Those
who
have
made
full
use
of the grace
offered in
the church who
to
once
The
heaven.
of Christians
mass
of imperfectlyavailed themselves of the means in purga undergo a longeror shorter purification
but
have must
grace
at
go
277
SCOTUS
DUNS
1
tory. church
The
is
gatory. ; When
whether
one,
heaven,
when
in pur does one
unity of
the church
earth, or
on
suffers,all suffer
member
one
in
On
well,all share in his good work.
this
;
bases prayers to the saints and for those in purgatory. To be subjectto visible church requiresa visible head.
Aquinas The
for salvation. To the Pope, Pontiff is necessary definitions of faith,and also, belongs the right to issue new the
Roman
Aquinas impliesthe doctrine of papal infallibility. It was Aquinas'sgood fortune that his philosophyand his in the greatest of medi theology alike found a hearty disciple eval poets, Dante (1265-1321),whose Divina CornAlighieri media in these respects,almost wholly in Aquinas's moves, realm of thought. Aojiinaswas_j^nmiriiVa.n, and their natural rivalrysoon drew
his system the criticism of Franciscan scholars, critic was Such of English birth. of whom were a
upon
many
Richard
famons-of (?-1300?); but the most grpn.fpstnf the-schoolmen, w^as-lohn-Huas
of Middletown
all,angLon"-nf
^
spiteof
In been
an
he appears to have Oxford, where he became
Educatedjn Eriglishjnan.
name
teacher, hfi remn'vftd_"Q _Par4S~in-1304. Four lajer the generalof the order sentjiim to Cologne, where
its most years
his
famous
he died justas his work there had be^un. The keejiest-critic ablest diale^jciajXjoLjtlLthe schoolmen, he -attacked arid the
Aquinas^vvith the
the worYof
utmost
He
acumen.
positiona~si authoritative teacher in the
Franciscan
ilar to that of Aquinas in the Dominican,
and
the
rivalriesjof the-Thomists and-Scotists^ontinucd
to
attained order
a
simf
theological
rage-till^the
Reformation.
Aquinas had,
held that
is arbitrar
will.
the
essence
The
did what
of God
will in God He
saw
is being. Xo and man is free.
.to be
right. -To
fact of willing. right by the mere Scotus_what_Godwills_is^ modified realist, .he laid ThoughTTTkeAquinaTTScotus was a
CTiphasisonthe
individual
rather
than
on
the uniyjersal. To
theTncTTvi^ualis the more perfectform. God is absolute Since will,the sacrificeof Christ has the value
Kim
278 which
God
with
say,
had
the
that
"
held that
fit
seen
so
regard it.
to
Christ's death
was
be to limit God's chosen
the way
by
have been suffi Nor
can
the wisest way will. All we can
God.
"
the infusion of grace became contrition. Scotus "attrition" is sufficient by divine appointment to
by
fitness for
secure
other act would
Scotus Similarly, for salvation. Aquinas repentance necessary "attrition" contrition or an fear of punish
demanded
ment
God
would
That
affirm is that it was
minimized
Any
Aquinas, that
of salvation.
has
it.
puts upon
cient for salvation we
SCOTUS
DUNS
pardon.
It is followed
and by forgiveness,
the infusion of grace by which a man is enabled to'do has been pleased to attach merit. certain acts to which God
that
by
The
sacraments
conditions
do
of themselves
not
appointed by
God
convey
but
grace,
the
are
which, if fulfilled, grace
upon
is
bestowed. The
is one
of attitude.'
ment
between
the
difference between
fundamental
most
latter to
Aquinas
Aquinas there could be no theology and philosophy,however To
all the
reach
truths
of the
and Scotus
real
disagree inadequate
former.
To
Duns
in
improbable, yet must theology is philosophically accepted on the authorityof the church. The breakdown had been to show Scholasticism had begun, for its purpose much
dispute which and
Thomists
roused
church
Yet
it "
Scotists
was
doctrine
that
Pius
(1846-1878) in 1854.
IX
radicaHn
Scotus's
was
a
by Pope more
the
loudest controversy between
the
regarding the "immaculate ception" of the Virgin Mary. Aquinas had taught that shared in the original sin of the race. Scotus held that she
free from
of
of Christian truth.
reasonableness The
be
to
was
his divorce
of
orOccam pupil^Wiliiam
be
declared
that
she was
of the
philosophy from theojngy (7=1349?). AnJEnglish
lype, he o"-Ghrist Paris, defendejd_"he-complete-^""er-ty taughtjin mnst
con
parr^st
and
(ante,p. 261), Buffered Pope John XXII Apostles~agajnsjt ijytoo escape_Jn 1328 and Jind refuge with miy Louis of Bavaria^jhgnIn gnarrplwifTT thp Pgpp. Por the rest lifehe defended the indepejgidejijre-^"4he-st^^ qfjhis the
siasticalauthoritywitff the
steadfastness.
utmost
~
"
~~~
dividual
is
objects exist.
Any
purelymental, having no
association in genera
objectivereality. It
Only inor
is
species simply a
ECKHART
280
AND
TAULER
Air ..important ret"F4^euLtatLve of
tin's mystical
spirit
"
Dominican, Mebter-'-LKckhart ^3^1327)^ a, German studied in Paris, served as provincialprior of the Saxon
trict,lived for At
time,. in
a
and Strassburg.
tn
declared
for
his readiness
to
judgment of the church, but two of his teachings wrere condemned true
Neo-Platonic
fashion
real in all thingsis the divine.
In
He
heresy.
opinions to
after his death
years
Eckhart
his
submit
dis
lightin Cologne
th^QS"_oLhis4i"eJ""^
himself
who
the
number
a
In by Pope John XXII. taught that that which is the soul of man is a spark
All individual realityin all men. are izingqualities essentially negative. Man should,therefore, lay them aside. His struggleis to have God born in his soulj
of God.
that
That
is to enter
is the true
into full communion
with
the control of the
and
to
under
come
this effort Christ is the
pattern and
In indwellingGod. Godhead example, in whom
all fulness.
With
soul is filled with
dominant
God
the
dwelt
righteousness.Churchly observances value, but the springsof the mystic life are and
union
with God It is the
eous.
in
may
in
humanity be
of
love some
far
deeper and its direct. Good works do not make right already righteousthat does good works.
more
soul
is all-importantmatter of union with God. privilege Perhaps the most eminent The
that
the
soul enters
of Eckhart's
into its full
was disciples
John
(?-1361), a Dominican
preacher who worked long in Strassburg,of which he was probably a native,in Cologne and in Basel. times in Germany The were peculiarlydifficult. The long contest for the empire between Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria, and papal interferences therein,wrought confusion. The bubonic well as political as religious plague of in England as the "black death/' devas 1348-1349, known tated the population. To his distressed age Tauler was a whose sermons have been widely read preacher of helpfulness, since. In them ever are thoughts,which "evangelical" many Tauler
aroused
claim
the that
admiration he
was
a
of
Luther, and
Protestant
have
before
often
led to
Protestantism.
the He
and condemned emphasized the inward and the vital in religion, His real dependence on external ceremonies and dead works. positionwas that of a follower of Eckhart, with similar mystic emphasis on union with the divine,on "God being born within,"
though
he
avoided
the extreme
statements
which
had
led to
281
MYSTICS
OTHER
of Eckhart's opinions. A less practical churchlycondemnation tendencies of the same but widely influential representative writ the ascetic Dominican, Henry Suso (?-1366), whose was further this mystic point of view. ings did much'to Through these influences a whole group of mystic sympa raised up in southwestern thizers was Germany and Switzerland, called themselves
who
"Friends
of
God."
These
included
and a considerable clergy,but nuns the laymen, Rulman of laity. Among number Merswin, influential. Origi the most of Strassburg (1307-1382), was intimate with Tauler, nally a banker and merchant, he was
only
not
of the
many
all the latter part of his mystifiedhis contemporariesand
views he shared, and life to religious labors. He
devoted
whose
posterityby to
letters and
from
come
a
which
books
"great Friend
he set forth purporting in the
of God"
Highlands (i.e.,
whose existence was long believed real,but now Switzerland), is practically proved to have been a fiction of Merswin himself. the The most important work of these Friends of God was "German Theology," written late in the fourteenth century and unnamed priestof the Deutschby an otherwise unknown Haus
Herrn be
to
of Frankfort, which
printedby
in 1516
him
and
was
to
influence Luther, and
1518.
mystics all leaned stronglytoward pantheism. They all,however, representeda view of the Christian life in a transformingpersonalunion of the its essence which saw soul with God, and they all laid little weight on the more ex ternal methods of ordinarychurchly life. This mystical movement furthered in the Netherlands was influenced by by John of Ruysbroeck (1294-1381), who was of Tauler Eckhart's writingsand enjoyed the personalfriendship of God. and other of the Friends Ruysbroeck's friend,in German
These
turn, who
Gerhard
was
his
upon
Groot
brilliant scholar, the most influ 1374, became
(1340-1384)"
conversion, about
a
A more conserva popular preacher of the Netherlands. much less tive churchly thinker than Ruysbroeck, Groot was of great practicalgifts, radical in his mysticism. A man led shortly after his death the foundation Groot's work to Florentius Radewyn (1350-1400), of the Breth by his disciple,
ential
ren
of the Common
house
Was
Groot's
association,of which the first in Deventer, grew of the union of out
Life.
established
converts
for
a
This
warmer
religiouslife. They grouped
BRETHREN
282
OF
themselves
in houses
all.
houses
COMMON
THE
of brethren
and
LIFE
of
who lived es sisters, life under common a monastic rules,but without per sentially manent exercises,copying books of engaged in religious vows, a nd i n edification, especially teaching. Work was requiredof These
teenth
much
wide-spreadin the Netherlands to promote popular piety in
and
in
the fif
century.
The the
did
and
Germany,
were
of the
Brethren of
Common
Life
non-monastic
were
in
Groot's
preaching led to an influential for those who preferredthe monastic movement life, though it, full form till take his did after not death. This also, shortly foundation the of the famous was monastery of Windesheim, which of affiliatedconvents about it, soon gathered a number and became a reformatory influence of power in the monastic and Germany. In both these move life of the Netherlands the mystic influence was ments stronglypresent, though in a much the immediate more ehurchly form than among disciples matter
vows.
of Eckhart. The
noblest product of this simple,mystical,ehurchly piety is the Imitation of Christ a book the circulation of which has "
exceeded
that
of
other
any
of
product
the
Middle
Ages.
its
Though
authorship has been the theme of heated contro it was unquestionably the work of Thomas a Kempis versy, A of the Brethren the of Common Life (1380?-1471). pupil of his long life was in Deventer, most spent in the monastery St. Agnes, near This of Mount foundation Zwolle. was a of the Windesheim member congregation,of which Thomas's older
brother, John,
outwardly the
was
understood,
as
did
was
most
of the
one
uneventful
founders. conceivable
Thomas's ; but
few
life have
he, the languageof simple,mystical devo
tion to Christ.
The which Such
mysticalmovement broke was
with
that
all
had
its reverse
ehurchly
of Amalrich
and
side in
even
of Bena
all
pantheism moral teaching.
(?-1204),
a
a
teacher
in
led by the writingsof John Scotus Paris, who was Erigena Neo-Platonic (ante,p. 210) and the extreme opinions of the Spanish Mohammedan expositorof Aristotle,Averroes (11261198), to the conclusions that God is all,that He is incarnate in the believer as in Christ, and that the believer cannot sin.
He
also held that
as
the Jewish
law
ished by the coming of Christ, so
and
ritual had
been
abol
that of earlier Christianity
EXTRAVAGANCES
MYSTICAL was
done
now
Amalrich left
Similar
the
coming by Pope
recant
of the
Holy Spirit.
Innocent
III,but he
of followers.
extravagances and
Germany
by
compelled to
was
number
a
with
away
283
the
kept cropping out
Netherlands, where
the
its chief
described had
regionsof mysticism already it was simply ways in the
following. In many It was that mysticism carried to a pantheistic extreme. usu with one believingthat the soul could become ally quietist, God of that union its by contemplation,and in consequence acts could no longer be sinful,since it is controlled by God. and penances, All sacraments even superfluous. prayer, become These
views
united into
not
were
constitute
their holders
a
a
compact
system,
sect, though they have
did
nor
often been
so
the "Brethren and Sisters of the Free regarded and named rather fre Spirit.'1Undoubtedly, however, such notions were quently to be found in monasteries and nunneries,where mys the Beguines, ticism was practisedextravagantly,and among whom not only they brought into doubtful repute. They were but were opposed by the greater repressedby the inquisition, has been given. account an mystic leaders of whom
SECTION
The of
one
IX.
MISSIONS
periodbetween the gainsand losses for
AND
Crusades
and
Christendom.
DEFEATS
the Reformation In
tian forces
was
Spain the Chris against the Mo
struggledwith increasingsuccess hammedans. Gradually,four Christian states dominated in 1085, defeated peninsula. Castile conquered Toledo Moslems
Las
at
Leon
into
both
sides of the
a
Navas
strong
state
de
Tolosa
in 1230.
Pyrenees.
in 1212, and Little Navarre
In the East
the
with
stretched
on
Aragon on the east winning their independence, the peninsula was on power
Portugal on the west were that by 1250 Mohammedan so confined to the kingdom of Granada, whence in 1492. The Spanish Christian kingdoms real power of Spain was not to be manifest and
the
Meanwhile
and
of Ferdinand
united
the
it was
to be driven
were
weak.
The
tillthe
jointreign Aragon in 1479. great Mongol empire, which began with the
Isabella united
conquest of northern
Castile and
China
in 1213, stretched across northern of what is now European Russia between
Asia, conqueringmost 1238 and 1241, and reachingthe borders
of Palestine in 1258.
tral Asia
(ante,p. 149)
was
first rush
of conquest
was
control
till the
be
to
accessible
was
TO
MOSLEMS
nineteenth
Church
annihilated.
almost
central Asia
over,
it had
as
and
AND
Nestorian flourishing
the
this devastation
By
CHINA
TO
MISSIONS
284
century.
About
Polo, made
cen
Yet
after the
under
Mongol
before and
been
never
in
1260
two
not
was
Venetian
the
long journeyby well received by the Mongol land to Peking, where they were Khan, Kublai. Returning in 1269, they started again in 1271, entered the famous Marco, who taking Nicolo's more son, merchants, Nicolo
Khan's
service.
in Venice. John
It
established
for
a
Pope
archbishopwith
had
six
China
return
that the Polos an
Italian
V
were
back
Franciscan,
Peking,where 1300. Christianityflourished (1305-1314) appointed John an
started in 1291
about
Clement
end, however, when
pelledfrom
their
church
a
till 1295
not
Corvino,
he
time.
was
before
Even
of Monte
Maffeo
for
The work came to an bishopsunder him. the Mongols and other foreigners were ex by the victorious native Ming dynasty in
1368. Efforts tle
was
Francis
success.
Egypt
made
were
to reach
the
Mohammedans,
of Assisi himself
preached to
but with the Sultan
lit in
famous as a missionary (ante,p. 258). More Lull (1235?-1315), a native of the island of Ma
in 1219
Raimon
converted in 1266, wholly worldly life he was and now studied Arabic, as a missionarypreparation,writing also his Ars Major, which he intended as an irrefutable demon stration of Christianity.In 1291 he began missionary work He labored in Tunis, only to be expelledat the end of a year. to induce the Pope to establish schools for missionarytraining. His He went to Africa and was more once again driven out. eloquence persuaded the Council of Vienne in 1311 to order teaching in Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, in Avignon, Paris,Salamanca, Bologna, and Oxford, though this remained he went Back to Tunis a missionaryin 1314, as a pious wish. He had and met a martyr's death by stoningthe next year. of mission little to show of missionaryachievement, but much ary inspiration. the loss of The prevailingcharacteristic of this period was
jorca.
once
From
Christian
a
territories.
The
last of the
conquests of the
A passed out of their hands in 1291. Turks. Mohammedan force was new arisingin the Ottoman Sprung from central Asia, they attained an independent posi-
Crusaders
in Palestine
TURKS
THE
OF
SPREAD
285
they invaded the Euro portion of the Eastern empire, capturing Adrianople in pean lands. the Balkan 1361, and graduallyspreadingtheir rule over Con till 1453, when of the empire remained But a fragmeiit The end. at an stantinoplefell and the Eastern empire was victorious
In
in 1300.
tion in Asia Minor
of the Turks
career
1354
them, in the Ref
to carry
was
Europe. Christians ruled by nearly half across them rights,though Christian wor deprived of political were ship and organizationcontinued, under conditions of much oppression. The Greek Church, which had stood higher in cul till the thirteenth century, was ture than the Latin, certainly now largelyrobbed of significance.Its daughter in Russia was not conquered,however, and was growing rapidly in strength and importance. With it lay the future of the Eastern Church. ormation
age,
SECTION
The ended
between
contest
by
PAPACY
THE
X.
quarrelhad involved The later disputeswere
a
ITS
DECLINE
by
empire was
thereafter
one
means
Hildebrand's
far less.
purification.
great question of church
plaincontests for supremacy. Frederick "Barbarossa" (1152-1190),of the house
staufen,was
no
(ante,p. 234). The religious
of Worms
strugglewas
AND
HEIGHT
ITS
and
papacy
the Concordat
interest in the
AT
of the ablest of the
of Hohen-
Holy Roman aspiredto a
Emperors.
similar con Charlemagne, and he trol of churchlyaffairs. A vigorousruler at home, no sovereign In of Germany than he. had been more thoroughly master controlled the he practically of Worms spiteof the Concordat bishops. On the other hand, his appointment of German resistance from the cities of northern claims met with energetic induced by growing strong on the commerce Italy,which were he at first successfully This hostility the Crusades. overcame.
His
With
model
was
Alexander
mounted
III
(1159-1 181) Frederick's
most
The cardinals were papal throne. minority elected a an imperialistic
the
choice,and
called himself
Victor
IV, and whom
bishopspromptly supported.
Frederick
Alexander's
difficult. In 1176, however, Frederick
was
able enemy divided in the
rival and
Pope, who
the German
positionwas long at Legnano
defeated
forced to by the Lombard league of Italian cities,and was Frederick's attempt to control the papacy recognizeAlexander. the German had been shattered,but his authorityover bishops
HENRY
286
II AND
scarcelydiminished.1 the papacy, in 1186, by the heiress of Sicilyand papal states from north
Frederick
was
Alexander II
III
also
THOMAS
BECKET won
a
further
success
over
the
marriage of his son Henry with southern Italy,thus threateningthe
and
won
south. at
least
an
apparent
success
over
of the ablest of
EnglishKings. That the English monarch, in order to strengthen his hold over church, secured the election of his apparentlycomplaisantchan cellor,Thomas Becket, as archbishop of Canterbury, in 1162. Once himself a determined in office, Becket showed upholder of ecclesiastical claims. Henry now, in 1164, secured the en of the Constitutions of Clarendon2, limitingthe right actment of appeal to Rome in ecclesiasticalcases, restricting the power of excommunication, subjectingthe clergyto civil courts, and putting the election of bishops under the control of the King, do homage. Becket to whom now openly broke they must with the King. In 1170 a truce was brought about, but it was of short duration, and a hasty expressionof anger on the part of Henry led to Becket 's murder just at the close of the year. used the deed skilfully.In 1172 Becket Alexander was can Henry
(1154-1 189),one
till the
continued
onized, and
popular of English saints. Constitutions Yet
Reformation
Henry
Clarendon, and do
of
was
forced
penance
of the
one
to
most
abandon
at Becket's
the grave.
in
spiteof this apparent papal victory,Henry continued his control of English ecclesiastical affairs much before. as Frederick He
"Barbarossa"
the Third
Crusade.
(1190-1197),who, in by 1194, obtained full possessionof his wife's inheritance in Sicily and southern Italy,and developed ambitious plans of greatly with both ends of The papacy, extending his imperialsway. in great sovereign,was Italy in the possessionof the German relieved by the early political danger; but the situation was in death of Henry VI in 1197, and the accession to the papacy Innocent III of its ablest mediaeval representatives, 1198 of one was
succeeded
died in 1190, on his son, Henry VI
(1198-1216). "Innocent and
III
piety,but
1See
"Peace
was no
of
of personalhumility unquestionablya man Pope ever had higherconceptionsof the papal
Venice," Henderson,
Select Historical
Documents,
pp.
425-430. 2
Gee
68-73.
and
Hardy,
Documents
Illustrative of English Church
History, pp.
288
THE
AT
PAPACY
ITS
HEIGHT
OF
TOWER
humiliatingsubmission to the Pope, in 1213, but acknowledged his kingdom a fief of the papacy, agreeingto pay a feudal tax marks to the Pope of a thousand annually.1 Yet when the barons and clergy wrung Magna Charta from John in 1215, denounced it as an injuryto his vassal. Innocent Innocent's In the internal affairs of the church policy was He claimed for the the stronglycentralizing. rightof papacy He asserted sole decision in all disputed episcopalelections. authorityto sanction the transfer of bishops from one see to another. His crusade against the Cathari has already been noted
The
(ante,p. 253).
great Fourth
Lateran
Council
of
declared an article of was 1215, at which transubstantiation also was faith,and annual confession and communion required, The
Constantinopleby the Fourth Crusade (ante,p. 243), though not approved by Inno of the Greek Church to promise the subjection to cent, seemed papal authority. reached the summit of its worldly In Innocent III the papacy The succeeding Popes continued the same struggle, power. but with decreasingsuccess. The Emperor Frederick II,ruler of Germany, as well as of northern and southern Italy and of much political abilityand of anything but Sicily,a man mediaeval piety,though put in office largelyby Innocent III, soon proved the chief opponent of the world pretensionsof the Under Gregory IX (1227-1241), the organizerof the papacy. and the patron of the Franciscans (ante, inquisition pp. 254, 258), and Innocent IV (1243-1254) the papal contest was carried on bitterness and with very againstFrederick II,with the utmost Frederick was excommunicated, and rivals worldly weapons. raised up against him in Germany by papal influence. were seemed convinced that only the destruction of the The papacy Hohenstaufen line,to which Frederick belonged,would assure its victory. On Frederick's death in 1250 it pursued his son, Conrad IV (1250-1254), with the same and gave his hostility, of England, heritagein southern Italy and Sicilyto Edmund A new of King Henry III. influence,that of France, was son making itselffelt in papal counsels. Urban IV (1261-1264) was cardinals. He now Frenchman and appointed French a gave, brother Charles of in 1263, southern Italyand Sicily to Anjou, This of King Louis IX of France (1226-1270). was. a turninga
papal triumph.
1
conquest
Henderson,
pp.
of
430-432.
POWER
PAPAL
LIMITING
FORCES
NEW
289
and with it the dependence of the papacy pointin papal politics, also a Frenchman, France reallybegan. The next Pope was on IV Clement Conradin, the (1265-1268). During his papacy of Conrad IV, asserted his hereditary claims to son young He was southern excom Italy and Sicilyby force of arms. municated by Clement IV and defeated by Charles of Anjou, in Naples, in 1268. With beheaded by whose orders he was the line of Hohenstaufen, which the Popes had so him ended to think that strenuouslyopposed, though there is no reason the Pope was responsiblein any way for Conradin's execution. These long quarrels and the consequent confusion had of the Holy Roman Empire. greatly enfeebled the power
Thenceforward,
to
of far more the Reformation, it was a group effective single an sovereignty. It was able
feeble states than to offer little resistance to papal demands.
however, arisingthat would a
world
sovereigntyas
Other
inevitablymake
Innocent
III had
forces were, such impossible,
exercised.
One
such
which caused men nationality, feel that, as Frenchmen or Englishmen, they had common Such the Pope himself. terests against all foreigners, even of unity had not existed in the earlier Middle Ages. sense especiallyin France and England was rapidly developing,
force
was
the
new
of
sense
the latter half of the thirteenth the
rise in
middle
wealth, intelligence,
A
century. and
second
cause
x
to
in a
It in
was
influence of the political
in the cities. These class,especially
\vere
restive under
ecclesiastical interference in temporal affairs. Closely asso the growth of a body of lay ciated with this development was law. These lawyers and the renewed study of the Roman were men graduallydisplacingecclesiastics as royal advisers, and developingthe effectiveness of the royal power by prece the Roman which knew nothing of dents from a body of law mediaeval ecclesiastical conditions. There was also a growing conviction that such thoughtful and religiousmen among had followed were incon worldly aims as the recent papacy "
"
sistent with
the
true
interests of the
growing forces with which of the papacy,
the papacy
must
church. reckon.
These The
were
weak
that it worldly point of view, was had no adequate ph$*icalforces at its disposal. It must bal off one ance competitoragainstanother, and the wreck wrought in Germany left the door open to France without forces which could be matched againsther. ness
from
a
Papal X
VIII
BONIFACE
290
in
interference
(1271-1276) ordered
AND
PHILIP
Germany
the German
THE
continued.
FAIR
Pope Gregory
in 1273, electors,
to choose
King, under threat that the Pope himself would make the appointment if they failed. They chose Rudolf I, of Habsthe concessions to burg (1273-1291), who promptly renewed made which had been once the papacy by Otto IV and Fred a
erick II.
Quite otherwise
it speedilywith France.
was
The
power
of
rapidlygrowing, and in Philip IV, had a King of absolute un"the Fair'' (1285-1314), France obstinacy,and high conceptionsof royal au scrupulousness, held was thority. In Boniface VIII (1294-1303) the papacy there of as loftyaspirations to world-rule as had ever by a man been represented. Neither participantin the strugglecom had arisen between much mands France, sympathy. War Scotland, and England which compelled the English King, Edward I (1272-1307), to rallythe support of all his subjects of the Commons to take a place by invitingthe representatives in Parliament, in 1295, thus giving them a permanent share The in the English national councils. strugglealso induced and England to tax their clergyto meet the Kings of France The its expenses. clergycomplained to Pope Boniface, who, in 1296 issued the bull Clericis laicos,1 excommunica inflicting demanded tion on all who or paid such taxes on clerical prop erty without papal permission. Philiprepliedby prohibiting from France, thus striking the export of money at the revenues The latter moved of the Pope and of the Italian bankers. Boniface to modify his attitude so that the clergycould make allowed that, in great neces voluntary contributions,and even It was the King could lay a tax. a royalvictory. sities, Philip and Boniface Comparative peace prevailedbetween In 1301 the struggleagain began. Philip for a few years. the Pope had had Bernard Saisset,bishop of Pamiers, whom recentlysent to him as nuntius, arrested and charged with The high treason. Pope ordered Bernard's release and cited the French bishops,and ultimatelyKing Philip himself, to Statesthe first French Rome. In reply,Philip summoned were General, in which clergy,nobles, and commoners rep This body, in 1302, sustained the King in his atti resented. tude of resistance. The Pope answered with the famous bull, that
monarchy
1
had
been
Henderson,
pp.
432-434
;
Robinson,
1
:
488-490.
It affirmed
civil powers.
over
acy
of
sanctam,1the high-watermark
Unam
AVIGNON
TO
REMOVES
PAPACY
THE
291
papal claim
that
to suprem
temporal
powers
are
authority,which is judged in the per subjectto the spiritual It declared,followingthe opin of the Pope fby God alone. son ion of Aquinas (ante,p. 277), "that it is altogethernecessary human to salvation for every being to be subjectto the Roman affirmation the exact
pontiff" an "
has led to
of which
scope
with new a subsequent discussion. Philip answered charged with an absurd series assembly, where the Pope was of crimes, involvingheresy and moral depravity,and appeal much
issued for
was
Pope might be
therefore
He
Nogaret,
sent
his
Pope
consent.
to
juristvice-chancellor,William
able
himself
joined to
who
the
force
would
He
threat.
mere
no
the
that this should
determined
Philipwas
be tried.
before which
of the church
generalcouncil
a
Boniface's
ancient
family
Together they gathered a force and about to Boniface made a prisonerin Anagni, just as he was proclaim Philip'sexcommunication, in 1303. Boniface was Sciarra Colonna.
enemy,
him, but
freed
soon
would
He
courageous.
make
friends
His
concessions.
later he died.
month
a
no
temporal claims that Philip's It was of the papacy. not primarily representa tives had held Boniface for a short time a prisoner. A new force had arisen,that of national sentiment, to which the King the spiritual and against which had appealed successfully, had been of little avail. The of the papacy papal weapons in temporal affairs had proved impos hope of world-rulership These
events
were
a
to the
realization.
sible of permanent for the
Worse
staggeringblow
death of Boniface's
follow.
speedilyto
was
papacy
After
the excellent Benedict
successor,
the
XI
(1303de Gouth,
Frenchman, Bertrand of weak who took the title of Clement V (1305-1314). A man moral faults,he was of character and grave fullyunder ness He declared Philip the influence of King PhilipIV, of France. innocent of the attack on Boniface VIII, and cancelled Boni face's interdicts and excommunications, modifying the bull 1304), the cardinals chose
Unam
sanctam
to
please the King.
domination
that
of the seat
of the papacy,
Rhone
"
town
a 1
patent
was
not
a
to
pp.
in 1309, to
435-437
evidence
all the world
belongingindeed
Henderson,
An
;
to
Robinson,
the removal
was
Avignon
"
on
the French 1
:
of French
346-348.
the river
kingdom,
of the
establishment
to the
popularestimate amounting
in
but
Undoubtedly the troubled state of Italian At Avignon something to do with this removal. its seat till 1377 to have a period so nearly was
in France.
papacy
had politics
the papacy equal to the traditional
"
exile of the Jews
Babylonish Captivity.
of the
Nor
to
as
the
was
the
earn
name
of Clement's
cup
King compelled him the cruel destruction of the Templars (ante,p. 242). V's pontificate is interesting marking the con as
humiliation
cold-blooded
yet filled. The
join in
to
LAW
CANON
292
Clement
clusion,to the present, of the official collections of church law.
"canon"
The
their
Middle
famous
was
teacher
of
decisions,the decrees of synods of which collections, Ages had seen many
canon
1241) caused
ing
and
that
of
em
Popes.
the most
gathered, probably in 1148, by Gratian, a law in Bologna. Pope Gregory IX (1227-
officialcollection to be formed, in 1234, includ
an
decrees
new
product
early councils,and
since the
of the historyof the church braced
the
great body of authoritywas
That
or
to
up
his time.
Pope
Boniface
VIII
(1294-
in 1298, and Clement V 1303), published a not pub (1305-1314) enlargedit in 1314, though his work was similar
lished till 1317, under The
addition
his successor,
John
XXII
(1316-1334).
erected through the great structure, thus laboriously
turies,is domains from
a
of ecclesiastical jurisprudenceembracing all
mass
of ecclesiasticallife.
Clement
church
Pius X
V
to
century, the
twentieth
the
officialcollections ceased
Though
creation
in all ages, and the recent (1903-1914), in 1904 ordered the codification and
law
cen
has
of the plification
continued
whole
body
of
law by
canon
a
of
Pope, sim
commis special
sion.
SECTION
XI.
THE
PAPACY THE
The
Popes, while the
Frenchmen.
It seemed
IN SCHISM
papacy
was
if the papacy association caused as
CRITICISM.
AVIGNON,
in
Avignon,
had
become
were a
all
French
greatly increased rest in nations which, lessness in view of papal claims, especially of this like England, were with France at war during much period,or Germany on which the still continuinginterference of the papacy bore hard. The ablest of the Avignon Popes double was (1316-1334). The unquestionably John XXII institution.
This
CRITICS
OF
imperialelection
Germany,
supporters of Louis
between
of Austria.
Frederick
*
in
THE
PAPAL
CLAIMS
in 1314, had the Bavarian
293
divided
that land
(1314-1347), and
John
XXII, supported by King Philip V of France (1316-1322),thought the occasion ripeto diminish German influence in Italyfor the benefit of the States of the He declined to recognize either claimant, and Church.; deq^redthat the Pope had rightto administer the empire during Louis interfered in Italian affairs the Pope When vacancies. him, and
excommunicated
lasted tillLouis's death.
which
issued the famous
tors
confirmed the
by
empire
needs
same
year,
approval
was
that
from
continuation
or
elec
Rense, which
the
no
on
ensued
papacy
the German
of 1338, in
for full entrance
whatever
papacy
declaration
of the
the
In its course
Reichstag in Frankfort
the
head
chosen
with
contest
a
the
in the
duties of his office. These
attacks
the state
upon
aroused of these
considerable
significance.One Alighieri(1265-1321). poet, Dante Monarchy, is not surelydated, but was and
Dante
1318.
It
mankind.
holds
that peace
defenders literary the
was
His
Latin
great Italian
treatise,On
composed between is the
best
of
1311
condition
of
is most
effectivelysecured by an Emperor. The power of empire rightfully It is as neces to Rome. came for man's is to guide temporal happinessas the papacy sary Each is directlyfrom to eternal blessedness. men God, and neither should interfere in the province of the other. Dante the papal interpretation of the Bible carefullycontroverts and
texts
the
state
Dante
was
historical instances were no
based.
on
which
All this is the
free-thinker but
claims more
of theologically
to
control
over
impressivesince most
impeccable
orthodoxy. Much
radical
than
vastly influential on later political theories were several treatises produced in France. The Dominican, John of Paris (1265?-1306), taught that both based the sovereigntyof the papal and royal powers are on people,and neither has a rightto interfere with the sphere of the other. The most important of these works was the Defensor Pacts
more
of Marsilius
(?-1328)~ It
is the
of Padua
Dante, and
"1-1342?)
and
John
of Jandun
modern treatise that the startlingly produced. Its principalauthor, Marsilius, was long a age teacher in Paris,where he was of the university in 1313, rector and was The DefensorPacis regarded as learned in medicine. most
MARSILIUS
294
PADUA
OF
in 1324, in the controversy between Pope John the Emperor Louis the Bavarian. Its radical views
written
was
and
XXII
caused its authors
to
protectionfrom
seek
the
Emperor, which
hesitation,for the rest of their they enjoyed,though with some excommunicated lives. They were in 1327, by John XXII VI declared,in 1343, that he had never and Pope Clement a
heretical book.
worse
According to Marsilius,who was deeply versed in Aristoi the basis of all power is the people; in the state the whole body of citizens ; in the church the whole body of Christian believers. rulers in church and They are the legislative ; by them power state
appointed,and
are
to
them
these
executive
officers
are
responsible.The
only final authority in the church is the of physicalforce New Testament; but priestshave no power sole duty is to teach,warn, to obey it. Their to compel men and reprove. The Testament New teaches that bishops and priestsare equivalentdesignations, yet it is well, as a purely human constitution,to appoint some clergy superintendents This others. over appointment gives no superiorspiritual has nor one bishop spiritual authorityover another, or power, all. Peter had no the Pope over higher rank than the other evidence that he was Apostles. There is no New Testament The New Testament in Rome. to ever gives no countenance the possessionof earthlylordshipsand estates by clergymen. No bishop or Pope has authorityto define Christian truth as contained
in the be
New
Testament,
or
binding laws.
make
done
body of the only by the legislative of Christian believers, church the whole company represented in a generalcouncil. Such a council is the supreme authority
These
acts
can
"
in the
church.
church
are
as
Since the Christian
the Christian
and
state
coterminous, the executive of the Christian state, representinga body of believers,may call councils,appoint
bishops,and
control church fruit in the
to bear
were
Revolution age.
; but
Their
time
silius himself. could
they
Reformation, and
were
too
later,and
was
He
property.1 Here
was
a
Because
of 1
a
zeal which
See, for
some
even
in the French
greatlyto impress their something was lackingin Mar
radical
cool thinker
theory into action largeleadership. translate
ideas that
were
rather
in such
than
fashion
Marsilius lacked, and
extracts,Robinson,
1
:
491-497.
a
man
as
to
who create
of ideas not
THE
296 No cism
PAPAL
TAXES
feature of the Avignon papacy so
Crusades
largelyas had
of money,
been
and
its offensive
contributed
taxation
accompanied by great increase
in
a
of church
much
to its criti
life. The
readier circulation
Europe was passingrapidlyfrom barter to money Money taxes, payments. rather than receiptsin kind, were everywhere increasing. It natural that this cha"ngeshould take place in church ad was ministration also ; but the extent to which taxation was pushed the of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by Popes was a it and much when the removal of the scandal, was aggravated to Avignon largelycut off the revenues from the papal papacy estates in Italy without diminishingthe luxury or expensiveof the papal court. This period saw the extensive devel ness of the annates, opment, in imitation of secular feudal practice, that is a tax of one less,from each new or year'sincome, more appointment. Since the reservation of posts to exclusive papal time immensely extended, this at the same appointment was became of revenue. The income of vacant bene a largesource of papal receipts. Taxes fices, also,became a significant source for bulls and other papal documents, also rose rapidlyin amount and productivity. These were but a portionof the papal exac the impressionthat the papal tions,and the total effect was administration was heavily and increasinglyburdensome on the clergy,and through them the This on people. feelingwas the ruthless in which manner augmented by churchly censures, such as excommunication, were imposed on delinquent tax The seemed extravagant in expenditure and payers. papacy offensive grow
worse
in
a
taxation, and
commerce.
its repute in both
respects
was
to
tillthe Reformation.
The
in Italy,for which the collapseof the imperialpower and the transfer to Avignon, was largelyresponsible, papacy left Italyto the wildest political confusion. Nowhere the was situation
worse
than
in Rome.
In 1347
Cola
di Rienzi
headed
popular revolution against the nobles and established a driven out, but parody of the ancient republic. He was soon in 1354 was in power in the parti again,only to be murdered san struggles.Innocent VI (1352-1362) sent the Spanish car dinal Albornoz (?-1367) as his legateto Italy. By Albornoz's militaryand diplomatic abilities the papal interests in Rome and much V Italy generallywere improved, so that Urban (1362-1370) actually returned to the Eternal City in 1367. a
THE
The
death
in 1370
of Albornoz
the papacy
once
XI
by Gregory (1347-1380) urged
distracted
The
papal
state
interests
ferred the papacy
to
of his chief support, and in Avignon. Urban V was
more
(1370-1378), whom in the
of the to
were
297
deprived him
was
succeeded Siena
SCHISM
of God
name
St. Catherine to return
of
to Rome.
cityalso counselled his presence preserved. Accordingly he trans
be
Rome
in
1377, and
there died the
if
next
year.
The
sudden A
Rome.
turned
to
death
of
found
XI
Gregory
French, and
majority were Avignon. The
Roman
the
would
cardinals
gladly have
re
determined
people were
in
to
in Rome, and to that end to have an Italian keep the papacy Pope. Under conditions of tumult the cardinals chose Bartolommeo Prignano the archbishop of Bari, who took the name Urban nate
VI
(1378-1389). A tactless
French
influence
man,
who
desired to termi
the papacy, and effect some reforms had the hostility of all the cardinals.
over
papal court, he soon They now got together,four in the
months
election,declared their choice void since dictated by mob violence,and elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII (1378-1394).
A
few
months
later Clement
VII
after his
and
his cardinals
were
settled
rival Popes before, but Avignon. There had been many Here two were they had been chosen by different elements. body of cardinals. The Popes, each duly elected by the same objectionthat Urban VI had been chosen out of fear had little force,since the cardinals had recognizedhim without protest for several months; but they had done all they could to undo the choice. Europe saw two Popes, each condemning the in
other. and
There
was
no
power
the several countries
that
followed
could the
one
decide or
between
the other
them, as
their
affinities dictated. The acknowl Roman political Pope was edged by northern and central Italy,the greater part of Ger Scandinavia, and England. To the Pope in Avignon, many, France, Spain, Scotland, Naples, Sicily,and some parts of It was Germany adhered. a fairly equal division. The great schism had begun. Europe was pained and scandalized,while the papal abuses, especially of taxation,were augmented, and Above two be maintained. courts must all,the profound now that the church must be visibly offended. The feeling was one sank enormously in popular regard. papacy In Rome Urban VI was succeeded by Boniface IX (1389-
WYCLIF
298
1404), and he by Innocent VII (1404-1406), who was followed VII was by Gregory XII (1406-1415). In Avignon Clement followed by a Spaniard, Peter de Luna, who took the name Benedict
XIII
(1394-1417). SECTION
The
WYCLIF
has also
been
already working in
the
HUSS
AND
the encroachments
Englishoppositionto
papacy were
XII.
noted
of the
(ante,p. 295).
island.
Of
these
Avignon
Other
that
forces
of Thomas
Bradwardine
of the most (?-1349) was one potent in the in tellectual realm. Bradwardine, who was long an eminent the ologianin Oxford, and died archbishop of Canterbury, was a leader in the revival of the the decline
of
study and Scholasticism,
of
Augustine,which
was
to
marked
in influence till
grow
it
He taught predesti profoundly affected the Reformation. nation in most positiveform; like Augustine,he conceived re of God and the soul, ligionas primarilya personalrelationship and emphasized grace in contrast There were to merit. now,
therefore,other nominalistic
intellectual
Scholasticism
traditions
in the
besides
Oxford
of
those
of later
Wyclif's student
days. John
born in Hipswell in Yorkshire. Wyclif (?-1384) was details of his early life are known. Few He entered Balliol ultimatelyfor a short College,Oxford, of which he became time "master." In Oxford he rose to great scholarlydistinc tion, lecturingto large classes,and esteemed the ablest theo he was in con a realist, logianof its faculty. Philosophically nominalism of his age. He was trast to the prevailing deeply influenced by Augustine, and through Augustine by Platonic known outside of Ox conceptions. Wyclif graduallybecame ford. In 1374 he was presented,by royal appointment, to the rectory of Lutterworth, and the same one year was King's commissioners probably theologicaladviser "
in
"
of the to
at
of Pope Gregory XI Bruges with the representatives an adjustment of the dispute regarding "provisors" (ante, far these appointments were due to the pow p. 295). In how erful son of King Edward III,John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancas ter, is uncertain,though he probably regardedWyclif as likely church to be useful in his designs on property; but Wyclif's if entertained in 1374, cannot then have been widely opinions,
tempt
WYCLIF known.
There
abuses
his trust
299
Pope yet looked on him that his re has shown with distrust,and recent investigation formatory work did not begin in 1366, as formerlysupposed. By 1376, however,it was the wealth of the church and cleri that of the Popes, in political cal interference, life, especially his He lectured that in Oxford that afoused opposition. year On Civil Lordship. Wyclif's view of ecclesiastical office and He was curiouslyfeudal. God is the great overlord. privilege civil and spiritual, fiefs,to be held on as gives all positions, condition of faithful service. They are lordships,not prop erty. God gives the use but not the ownership. If the user loses all claim
is no
evidence
that the
he forfeits his tenure. the
a
bad
ecclesiastic
temporal possessionsof un worthy clergymay well be taken from them by the civil rulers, God has given the lordshipof temporal things,as He to whom has that of thingsspiritual This doctrine,ad to the church. vanced in all simplicity and sincerity, was undoubtedly pleas of nobles who hoped ing to John of Gaunt and his hungry crew less satis for enrichment from church spoliation.It was no who had long been critical of the factoryto many commoners, and often lack of character of the too wealth, pretensions, not to the mendicant orders, who clergy. It was displeasing had always,in theory at least,advocated apostolicpoverty." Wyclif'steachingaroused the oppositionof the high clergy, the property-holding In 1377 he orders, and of the papacy. summoned before the bishop of London, William to answer was Courtenay. The protectionof John of Gaunt and other nobles rendered the proceeding abortive. The same Pope year Gregory XI issued five buj^ orderingWyclif'sarrest and ex amination.1 the protectionof a strong Yet Wyclir"enjoyed popular favor, so that further pro party at court and much ceedingsagainsthim by the archbishopof Canterbury and the frustrated in 1378. bishop of London were Wyclif was now rapidlydevelopinghis reformatoryactivities in a flood of treatises in Latin and English. The Scriptures, he the The church itself is taught,are only law of the church. not, as the common man imagined, centred in the Pope and the cardinals. It is the whole company of the elect. Its only certain head is Christ,since the Pope may be one of the not elect. Wyclif did not rejectthe papacy. The church may to
office,and
Hence
"
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
105-108.
WYCLIF
300
earthlyleader,if such a one is like Peter, and strives for the simple conditions of earlyChristianity.Such a Pope would be presumably one of the elect. But a Pope who worldly power and is eager for taxes is presumptively grasps non-elect,and therefore antichrist. With his deeper knowl attacked the mendicant orders, edge of the Bible, Wyclif now him which had supported in his assertion of apostolic poverty, and the main regardingthem as without Scripturalwarrant He was now pillarsof the existingpapacy. fightingcurrent churchly conditions all along the line. constructive efforts. Con Wyclif now proceeded to more vinced that the Bible is the law of God, Wyclif determined to 1382 and give it to the people in the Englishtongue. Between translated from the Vulgate. What 1384 the Scriptures were is impossibleto say. share Wyclif had in the actual work It has been usuallythought that the New Testament from was well have
an
of Hereford. his pen, and the Old from that of Nicholas At all events, the New translation was Testament vivid,readable, and
forceful,and
did
service of fundamental
importance for the English language to say nothing of English piety. The whole revised about was 1388, possiblyby Wyclif s disciple, John Purvey. Its circulation was large. In spiteof severe and fifty repressionin the next century, at least one hundred manuscripts survive. To bring the Gospel to the peopleWyclif began sending out his "poor priests." In apostolic poverty, barefoot,clad in long two robes, and with staff in the hand, they wandered by two, Franciscan had the earlyWaldensian or as preachers. Unlike Their the latter,they were bound by no permanent vows. a
"
success
great.
was
But
events
lamed
soon
the Lollard
movement,
as
the follow
that the elect ing of Wyclif was popularlycalled. Convinced true are a priesthood,and that all episcopalclaims are unof exclusive human scriptural, Wyclif saw in the priestly power what
he
tacked
deemed
this doctrine have
substantiation.
It
seems
in 1381. been was
was
His
own
main He
buttress of therefore at
of Christ's pres later known as con-
view
that essentially his positiveassertions,but not
attack,however, that aroused substantiation
a
priestlyclaim.
erroneous
to
ence
of transubstantiation
in the miracle
agency
to touch
one
resentment, of the most
for to
oppose
his tran
popularlycherished
WYCLIF.
LOLLARDS
THE
301
Ages. That attaek cost Wyclif many action. followers and roused the churchlyauthorities to renewed This tide of oppositionwas strengthenedby events in 1381, for in no which responsible.The unrest of the Wyclif was way had been growing since the dislocation of lower orders,which of 1348-1350, culminated black death the labor market by the with difficulty in 1381 in a great peasant revolt,which was put This bloody episode strengthened the party of con down. In 1382 the archbishop of Canterbury held a servatism. by which twenty-fourWyclifiteopinionswere synod in London condemned.1 Wyclif was no longerable to lecture in Oxford. He was arrested. His "poor priests"were too strong in popu lar and courtlysupport, however, to be attacked personally, in of his pastorate Lutterworth and he died still possessed on the last day of 1384. that he was No small element in Wyclif s power was thought scholastic equal in contemporary to have no England. Men hesitated to cross intellectual swords with him. Equally con and his his intense deep piety. He patriotism spicuouswere of foreignpapal taxation and voiced the popular resentment Biblical greed, and the popular longing for a simpler,more beliefs of the later Middle
"
"
It
faith.
his misfortune
was
to carry spicuousability out the reignof Richard
he left
that
his work
on
II
in
follower
no
England.
Yet
(1377-1399) the Lollard
of
con
through
movement
of the
usurping house of Henry IV (1399-1413),the King, in the person of Lancaster the pas anxious to placatethe church, was persuaded to secure continued
sage
to
in 1401
of Lollards
number
in
highlaystation. their most
Cobham,
De
of the statute
a
der him
the accession
With
grow.
a
man
dition and
his son,
so
conspicuousleader,Sir John Oldcastle,Lord whom of the sternest religious tra principles,
dramatic
license
into
rebellion,and
figureof executed
of Lollard y significance political in England was in continued at an end, though adherents secret tillthe Reformation. Wyclif's chief influence was to be in 1417.
in Bohemia
Bohemia cal
With
his death
into the
transformed
condemned, driven
FalstafT,was
which
Henry IV spared Lollards Henry V (1413-1422). Un
burned.
were
Not
hasreticocomburendo,2under
rather had
and
in the land
undergone
development
'Gee
than
the
Hardy,
a
remarkable
in the fourteenth pp.
108-110.
of his birth.
intellectual and
century.
The
Holy
politi Roman
-Ibid.,pp. 133-135.
BOHEMIA.
302
Emperor, Charles IV and
(1346-1378)
for that land.
did much
HUSS
JOHN
also
was
he secured
In 1344
of Bohemia,
King
the establish
of
Bohemia from ec releasing Prague as an archbishopric, clesiastical dependence on Mainz. Four years later he procured of a universityin Prague. In no the foundation country of largelya landholder,or the clergy Europe was the church more Charles IV was not unfriendly more worldlythan in Bohemia. reform. to moral During and followinghis reign a series of preachersof power stirred Bohemia, attackingthe seculariza ment
tion of the church.
Such
Milicz
(?-1374), Matthias
of Kremsier
were
Conrad
of Waldhausen of Janov
(?-1369), (?-1394), and
Stitny (1331-1401). These all opposed clerical cor ruption,emphasized the Scripturesas the rule of life,and sought a more frequent participationin the Lord's Supper. Milicz and Matthias at hand, and taught that antichrist was in an manifest had little was unworthy clergy. These men direct influence on Huss, but they stirred Bohemia to a readi to accept his teachings. ness Bohemia was torn, furthermore, by intense rivalrybetween the Germanic and the Slavonic (Czech) elements of the popu lation. The latter was marked by a strong desire for racial of
Thomas
and
supremacy
Bohemian
autonomy.
Curiously,also,Bohemia, England, was brought into the marriage of the Bohemian ard
II, in 1383.
Bohemian
hitherto
so
connection
little associated with with
that
princess,Anna, students
were
to
attracted
country
King to
by
Rich
Oxford,
brought Wyclif s doctrines and writingsinto their native land, especially to the Universityof Prague. The great of Bohemian in be John to Huss, Wyclifism was propagator to have an whom, also, all Czech national aspirationswere and pa ardent advocate. this combination of religious It was triotic zeal that gave Huss his remarkable of leadership. power and
thence
John whence
Huss he
was
derived
completed in the Universityof Prague, where he became of Bachelor of Theology in 1394, and Master Arts two he was ordained to the priest years lateiVr::^n-'1401 hood, still maintaining a teaching connection with the univer Huss had sity,of which he was "rector" in 1402^ Meanwhile become intimately acquainted with Wyclif's philosophical with the "realism" of which he sympathized. Wyetreatises, 1373.
His studies
born, of peasant parentage, in Husinecz, his name by abbreviation,about the year were
lifiteopinionsin to
AT
HUSS
304
them
root
CONSTANCE
by whom protested,and
Bohemia, and Huss
out.
he
commissioned
was
excommunicated
was
The result was by Zbynek in 1410. great popular tumult in than national hero. more ever a Prague, where Huss was In 1412 Alexander V's successor, King Wenzel supported him. (1410-1415), promised indulgenceto all who Pope John XXIII should take part in a crusade againstKing Ladislaus of Naples. Huss opposed,holdingthat the Pope had no rightto use physi cal force,that money payments effected no true forgiveness, the indulgencecould be of no and, unless of the predestinate, value to a man. The result was The Pope's bull an uproar. burned was by the populace. Huss, however, lost many strong supporters in the universityand elsewhere, and was excommunicated, while Prague was more placed under once persuaded Huss, late in 1412, to papal interdict. Wenzel now into exile from Prague. To this period of retirement is go due the composition of his chief work a essentially reproduc tion of Wyclif" the De Ecclesia (On the Church). In 1413 a synod in Rome formallycondemned Wyclif s writings. The great Council of Constance (seep. 308) was approaching, "
in Bohemia
the confusion
and
sideration.
Huss
asked
was
was
to
certain
demand
to
present himself
its
before
con
it,and
promised a "safe-conduct," afterward received, by the Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund. Huss, though he felt his life in to go, partly believingit his duty to peril,determined grave the truth,and partlyconvinced bear witness to what he deemed that he could bring the council to his way of thinking. Shortly he was after his arrival in Constance imprisoned. Sigismund his His Bohemian enemies safe-conduct. promised disregarded On May 4, 1415, the council laid bitter chargesagainsthim. condemned Wyclif, and ordered his long-buriedbody burned. could hope for no favorable hearing. Yet, in the end, Huss the struggleresolved itself into a contest of principles.The council to
maintained
its decisions.
papal sisted was
schism
error.
every
Only by
which
so
the
was
Christian
was
holding could
of heroic Some
accusations
positionshe could He
would
not
not
submit
he
modify
hope
to to
of Christendom.
scandal
The complete submission. mould. He would play no of the
bound it
Bohemian
Huss's
on
science. Other
that
tricks with
declared
false
unless convinced
his conscience
to
submit end
the
It in reformer his
con
charges. of their
the overruling
BOHEMIA
IX
REVOLT
305
judgment of the council. On July 0, 1415, he and burned, meeting his death with the most
condemned
was
steadfast
cour
age.
While
prisoner in Constance his followers in Prague began administeringthe cup to the laityin the Lord's be Supper" an action which Huss approved and which soon the badge of the Hussite movement. The news of Huss's came the utmost death aroused in Bohemia, to which resentment fuel
was
Huss
*vas
added
when
of the cup
a
the Council
by laymen;
and
of Constance
caused
Huss's
Bohemia Prague, to be burned in 1416. Two partiesspeedilydeveloped there an its principalseat in Prague, and known (communion in both bread and wine),and its
use
Jerome disciple,
of
in revolution.
was
aristocratic, having
"
called from
forbade the
the
as a
Utraquists
radical, democratic,
the Taborites. fortress,
The
Utraquistswould forbid only those practiceswhich they deemed prohibitedby the "law of God," i. e., the Bible. They demanded free preaching of the Gospel, the cup for the laity, apostolicpoverty, and strict clerical life. The Taborites re could not be pudiated all practicesfor which express warrant found in the "law of God." Fierce quarrel existed between these factions,but both united to resist repeated crusades directed againstBohemia. Under the leadershipof the blind Taborite general,John Zizka, all attempts to crush the Huss ites were bloodily defeated. Church largely property was confiscated. successful
Great
Nor
after
the
Some
of the
opponents
Zizka 's death
Hussites
Bohemia.
the
were
in
carried the
compromise
1424.
seemed
Under
beyond
war
Hussites
more
Prokop the
the
borders
unavoidable.
The
of
Coun
cil of Basel
(see p. 310), after long negotiation, therefore,met
the
wishes
of the
use
of the cup,
above.
The
and
in 1433, granting the the other demands outlined
Utraquistspart in
Taborites
a
measure
resisted and
way
were
almost
swept away
by the Utraquists,in 1434, at the battle of Lipan, Prokop was killed. The triumphant Utraquistsnow an
with
agreement
terms
were
Yet, in void.
1462
The
Bohemian
the Council
of
Basel, in 1436, and
in which came on
to
these
communion. nominally given place in the Roman Pope Pius II (1458-1464) declared this agreement Utraquists,nevertheless,held their own, and the
Parliament, in 1485
equalitywith
the Catholics.
and
1512, declared
At the Reformation
a
their full considera-
ble
portionwelcomed
the
ideas ; others then returned to
newer
the were representativesof Wyclifite principles of the general rather than the Utraquists. Out
real
The
Taborites Hussite
with
movement,
ites there
from
grew,
much
absorbed
about
that
the
became
elements
most
was
from
drawn
rather than
quists,and Waldenses,
and
HUSS
Church.
the Roman
pp.
AND
WYCLIF
306
Taborites,Utra
from exclusively
1453, the
Unitas
the Tabor
Fratrum, which
vital in the Hussite
movement, of the later Moravians (see
ancestor spiritual
502, 503).
Wyclif
and
styledforerunners of the designationis true if regard is had to their have
Huss
Reformation.
The
often been
protest againstthe corruptionof the church, their exaltation of the
their contribution
Bible, and
the
to
total of
sum
agita
their doctrines When ultimatelyresulted in reform. to belong rather to the examined, however, they appear are Middle Ages. Their conception of the Gospel was that of a "law." Their no place for faith was greater than in the Their thought of the church was communion. Roman a one sided development of Augustinianism. Their conception of the relation of the clergy to property is that common to the tion that
and
Waldenses
founders
the
of the
deep admiration, but in pointsof agreement with
Their
commands earnestness religious spiteof Luther's recognitionof many
owed
Huss, the Reformation
XIII.
SECTION
The
papal schism
termination ment
not
was
that
was
no
is answerable. must
and
THE
was
easy.
power
Yet
the
good
little to their efforts.
COUNCILS
REFORMING
scandal The
of
be
"
desired
fications
were
moral
were as
and
yet unwished
Wyclif might proclaim them esteemed
a
heretic.
Foremost
develop
to which the papacy on everywhere felt that the schism
earth
ended, and that the church must members" that is, in the papacy
forms
Christendom, but its
logic of mediaeval
exists men
orders.
great mendicant
be reformed
and
clergy.
in head The
re
Doctrinal modi
administrative.
by Christendom in England, but among
"
as
he
a was
whole.
A
generally
set themselves
those who
the teachers of to the task of healingthe schism were seriously the age, especially those of the Universityof Paris. Marsilius of
Padua
had there
proclaimedthe
supremacy
of
a
generalcoun*
OF
GROWTH cil in his
his arguments
tion rather than
It
conclusion. of
were
1390), who
advised
and
written treatises of 1379 a council,if calling
1380, to
doctor
a
(1320?-
(1364-1380),in unite with other princes
without
necessary,
by
of France
V
King Charles
clearness
of Gelnhausen
law, then in Paris,Conrad
canon
in
necessities of the situa rapidlyleadingto the same
presented first with
was
307
The
of 1324.
DefensorPacis
IDEA
CONCILIA!!
THE
the
of the
consent
Popes. Conrad went no further than to hold that such council was a by the necessities of an anomalous justified in such fashion situation. Conrad's proposal was reinforced, to rob him of the popular credit of its origination, by the as rival
treatise of another
German
scholar
at
the
Universityof
Paris
set forth in 1381. Langenstein (1340?-1397), of healing The thought of a general council as the best means the schism,thus launched,made speedy converts, not only in of Paris,but in the great school of canon law in the University
Heinrich
of
Bologna, and
even
the cardinals.
among
To
call
a
council
however, and the leaders at Paris difficulties, Peter of Ailli (Pierre d'Ailli) (1350-1420)and John Gerson famed for their mastery (Jean Charher de Gerson)(1363-1429),
presented many
of nommalistic
mystics,were vainlymade
tian were
1
theology,and
ranee
withdrew
the latter eminent
among
Chris
for years
the conciliar plan. Efforts to induce the rival Popes to resign.
from
Avignon Pope, without recognizing
slow
to
the
adopt
again in 1408; but its ex elsewhere. By 1408 d'Ailli and slightfollowing Gerson had come to see in a council the only hope, and were supported by Nicholas of Clemanges (1367-1437),a former who had been papal secretary teacher of the Parisian university Roman, ample found
the
in
Avignon
evil
in
The
from
1398
to
1403, and
from
1397
to
of 1405, to whom one great source the general neglectof the Scriptures.
the church
seemed
cardinals of both
Popes
were
now
convinced
of the
necessityof a council. Meeting togetherin Leghorn, in 1408, for such an assembly issued a call in their own names they now m Pisa,to gather on March 25, 1409. There it met with an the heads of the great attendance not only of cardinals, bishops, orders,and leadingabbots,but also of doctors of theologyand canon law, and the representativesof lay sovereigns. Neither its rightfulness. Both were Pope was present or acknowledged declared a deposed. This was practical assertion that the council was Its action,however,was superiorto the papacy.
COUNCILS
308 too
hasty,for
the person
OF
PISA
CONSTANCE
AND
instead of
of the
ascertaining, as proposed new Pope
the cardinals ceptable,
d'Ailli advised, whether would
generallyac Philarges, archbishop
elected Peter
now
be
of
Alexander V (1409-1410). The Milan, who took the name council then dissolved, leaving the question of reform to a future In
council.
respects the situation
some
Council
of Pisa met.
was
than
worse
before
Rome, Naples, and considerable
the
sections
of
Germany clung to Gregory XII. Spain,Portugal,and Scot land supported Benedict XIII. England, France, and some portionsof Germany acknowledged Alexander V. There were three Popes where before there had been two. Yet, though mark of progress. It mismanaged, the Council of Pisa was a had shown that the church was one, and it increased the hope that a better council could end the schism. This assembly had been called by the cardinals. For such invitation history had no precedent. A summons by the Emperor, if possible with the consent of one of the Popes, would be con or more with the practiceof the early church. that end To sonant those supportingthe council idea now labored. The new Holy Roman Emperor-elect,Sigismund (1410convinced of the necessityof a council. He recog 1437), was nized as Pope John XXIII (1410-1415), one of the least worthy of occupants Alexander V
culties with
jointaction to
meet
of that
who office,
in the
Pisan
had
been
chosen
successor
to
Sigismund used John's diffi from him King Ladislaus of Naples, to secure by which Emperor-electand Pope called a council
in Constance
brilliant and
line.
November
on
1, 1414.
There
the most
largelyattended
gathering of the Middle Ages assembled. As in Pisa, it included not only cardinals and of monbishops,but doctors of theology and representatives without votes. archs,though the lay delegateswere Sigismund present in person,
was
John
XXIII
To
this end
To
neutralize
the
hoped he
had
and to
also John
secure
brought
their votes
XXIII.
the indorsement with
him
the council
many
of the council. Italian
bishops.
organizedby "nations,"
English,German, and French, to which the Italians were forced to join as a fourth. Each "nation" had one vote, and one was assigned also to the cardinals. Despairing of the council's approval,John XXIII attempted to disruptits ses sion by flight, in March, 1415. Under Gerson's vigorouslead-
THE
CONSTANCE;
SCHISM
ershipthe council,however, declared
HEALED
309
April 6, 1415, that
on
as
"representingthe Catholic Church militant [it]has its power immediately from Christ,and every one, whatever his position if it be the papal dignityitself, is bound to obey rank, even or it in all those thingswhich pertainto the faith,to the healing of the schism, and to the generalreformation of the Church of On May 29 the council declared John XXIII God."1 deposed. XII 4 On The council had rid the Gregory resigned. July church of two Popes by its successful assertion of its supreme all in the church. It is easy to see authority over why its leaders insisted and p.
martyrdom 304).
Benedict
a
on were
full submission
from
contemporary with
Huss, whose these events
trials
(ante,
XIII
difficult. Sigismund himself, proved more therefore,journeyed to Spain. Benedict he could not persuade and that obstinate pontiffasserted himself tilldeath, to resign, in 1422 or 1423, as the only legitimate Pope. What Sigismund unable to effect with Benedict he accomplished with the was Spanish kingdoms. They and Scotland repudiated Benedict. The Spaniardsjoined the council as a fifth "nation," and, on July 26, 1417, Benedict, or Peter de Luna, as he was once more called,was formallydeposed. The careful action of the coun
cil,in
considerable
no
former
One
the haste in
to
contrast
Pisa, had
made
section of Christendom
it certain that
would
support
the
Popes. main
ministrative
purpose
of the council had
reform.
Here
been
moral
the
and
ad
of the several inter jealousies ests prevented achievement of real importance. The cardinals desired no changes that would materiallylessen their revenue. situation. England Italy,on the whole, profited by the existing had relative self-governmentalready in ecclesiastical affairs, thanks to its Kings. France with England, and at war was indisposedto unite with that land. So it went, with the result that the council finally referred the questionof reforms to the next Pope "in conjunctionwith this holy council or with the that is"each nation was left deputiesof the several nations" the best bargain it could. to make The council enumerated list of subjectsfor reform a discussion,which relate almost entirelyto questionsof appointment, taxation,or administra tion.2 As a reformatoryinstrument the Council of Constance "
1
Robinson, 1
:
511.
*
Ibid.,1
:
513.
AND
CONSTANCE
OF
COUNCILS
310
BASEL
was bitter disappointment. Its one great achievement In November, 1417, the cardinals, that it ended the schism. each nation, elected a Roman from with six representatives
a
was
cardinal,Otto Colonna,
took
He
Pope.
as
the
Martin
name
V
had Christendom more a once single (1417-1431). Roman the In April,1418, the council ended, new head. Pope prom isingto call another in five years, in compliance with the de of the council.1
cree
of Constance
Council
The
was
a
most
ecclesiasti interesting
cal experiment. It secured the transformation of the papacy The absolute into a constitutional monarchy. from an Pope to
was
lated by
church, but
the executive of the
remain
body, meeting legislative
a
at
to be regu
was
frequent intervals
and
in Christendom.
all interests representing
this great constitutional change had really council to meet accomplished. Martin V called the new that
It seemed
been
plague prevented any considerable of The attendance. Pope would gladly have had no more distressed Europe, however (ante, councils. The Hussite wars brought to bear on him that in was p. 305), and such pressure Pavia
in
in
The
1423.
January, 1431, Martin and
summoned
V
it.
Less
than
months
two
in
council to meet
Cesarini his
Giuliano
appointed Cardinal
duct
a
later Martin
V
Basel,
legateto was
dead
con
and
Pope. The council opened in Eugene IV (1431-1447) was Eugene ordered it adjourned,to July, 1431, but in December The council refused,and re-enacted in Bologna in 1433. meet superiorto the Pope. the declaration of Constance that it was the Thus, almost from the first,bad feelingexisted between be Mindful that jealousies Council of Basel and the papacy. had frustrated the reform plans in Constance, "nations" tween the council rejectedsuch groupings,and instead organizedfour largecommittees, on reform,doctrine,publicpeace, and general questions.It began its work with great vigor and promise of apparent reconciliation with the moder unity seemed re ate Hussites in 1433 (ante,p. 305). Roman stored. The Pope found little support and, before the close It made
success.
of 1433, assured. The
and
formally recognizedthe council.
Council
moral
an
of Basel
reforms
now
which 1
proceededto had
Its future
those administrative
failed of achievement
Robinson,
1
:
512.
seemed
at
Con-
FAILURE
312
OF
COUNCIL
THE
OF
BASEL
priestlymarriage, while the disputedfilioque clause of the creed was acknowledged by the Greeks, though add with the understanding that they would it to the not ancient symbol. Mark, the vigorousarchbishopof Ephesus, re fused agreement, but the Emperor and most of his ecclesiastical followingapproved, and the reunion of the two churches was joyfullyproclaimed in July, 1439. An event so happy greatly increased the prestigeof Pope Eugene IV. The hollowness of worship
of
the
and
achievement
not
was
at
apparent.
once
Reunions
with
Armenians, and with certain groups of Monophysites and also announced in Florence Nestorians, were or speedilyafter
the
the
council.
the occasion
The of
reconciliation of the Armenians famous
a
trine of the sacraments. On
opposed.
were
the
hero
of the
cardinal,had
papal bull definingthe Yet
the Greeks'
hour.
from
in 1439 mediaeval
the first the Oriental
return
Mark
Bessarion, whom he
of
Ephesus Eugene had
was
doc
monks became made
have
a
distin
to was a fly to Italy,where and ecclesiastical effi of literary service. No guished career cient militaryhelp came from the West, and the to the Greeks capture of Constantinopleby the Turks in 1453 permanently frustrated those political hopes which had inspiredthe union to
efforts of 1439. Meanwhile action able
under
and
the the
radical majority in Basel proceeded to more leadershipof its only remaining cardinal,the
excellent
but
dictatorial
Louis
d'Allemand
(1380?-
his as Eugene half-monastic Amadeus of Savoy, successor a layman, Duke who took the name Felix V. By this time, however, the Coun cil of Basel was fast losingits remaining influence. Eugene IV had won, and was succeeded in Rome by Nicholas V (1447The in 1449. 1455). Felix V laid down his impossiblepapacy council put the best face on its defeat by choosing Nicholas V his successor, and ended its troubled career. Though the coun cil idea stilllived and was to be powerful in the Reformation reallyruined the hope of trans age, the fiasco in Basel had forming the papacy into a constitutional monarchy or of effect ing needed reform through conciliar action. Yet if the council thus failed,individual nations profitedby its quarrelwith the papacy, notably France, where the mon archy was coming into new through effective resistance power to England under impulses initiated by Joan of Arc (1410?-
1450).
In 1439
it voted
IV
deposed, and
chose
BARGAINS
NATIONAL
313
1431). In 1438 King Charles VII (1422-1461),with the clergy of Bourges, by and nobles,adopted the "pragmatic sanction" the greater part of the reforms France enacted into law for France. which
from
-had
freedom
previousto
not
a
little to
the Reformation
with
do
in Basel
therefore
secured
and
pressingpapal taxes
the most
attempted
were
relief
and this interferences,
the
attitude of the land
age.
Germany. There the nobles in the of 1439 adopted an "acceptation" much Reichstag in Mainz resemblingthe French "pragmatic sanction"; but the divisions of the country gave room to papal intrigue, and weakness so Concordat limited the that its provisions were by practically Certain privileges of Aschaffenburgof 1448. were granted to princes;but Germany, as a whole, remained under particular the weight of the papal taxation. Throughout the periodof the councils a new force was mani festingitself that of nationality.The Council of Constance It had authorized the nations to make had voted by nations. had dealt with its religious Bohemia with the papacy. terms had asserted its national rights. France situation as a nation. With the failure of the councils Germany had tried to do so. to effect administrative reform, men began asking whether what they had sought might not be secured by national action. It to increase till the Reformation, and was a feelingthat was of that struggle. greatlyto influence the course Not
fortunate
so
was
"
XIV.
SECTION
The
most
THE
ITALIAN
outlook cedents. were
not
the
has
It is
treated
coming
uncharacterized
trol of the church
was
be
by
never
POPES
contemporary was
with
the be
great alteration in mental
That
too
to
ITS
Avignon and the schism
in
Renaissance.
been
AND
intellectual event
remarkable
the story of the papacy
ginning of
RENAISSANCE
often
as
without
recognizedthat
mediaeval the Middle
individual
that the initiative,
such
make
as
to
ante
Ages con
other-worldliness
of Latin wholly dominant, and that the literarymonuments The revival of Roman at least, were widely known. antiquity, law had begun contemporaneously with the Crusades, and had feature of attracted increasingattention to that normative ancient thought,firstin Italyand later in France and Germany. Yet when it remains true that all these elements are recognized,
OF
RISE
314
THE
the Renaissance
involved
world, in which
emphasis
and
satisfaction
on
hell,and
and
heaven
"
man
an was as man
on
RENAISSANCE outlook
new essentially
laid man
on "
as
an
its present rather than
object of
the
on
life,beauty, on
future
a
salvation
or
of
was by which this transformation wrought reappreciationof the spiritof classical antiquity,espe was a ciallyas manifested in its great literarymonuments. first found Renaissance The place in Italy. Its rise was which three,at least,were favored by many influences, among conspicuous. The two great dominating powers of the Middle and empire, were suddenly lamed, as far as Ages, the papacy Italywas concerned, by the collapseof the imperialpower in the
loss.
The
means
latter part of the thirteenth century and to Avignon earlyin the fourteenth. pacy
the removal The
commerce
of the pa of It
aly,fostered by the Crusades and continuingafter their close, had led to a higher cultural development in the peninsulathan intense division of Italian politics in Europe. The elsewhere elsewhere existent,ren to the cities a qualityof life not gave dering local recognitionof talent easy, and tending to empha size individualism. The
earliest Italian
in whom
force
Petrarch
dominating Avignon, and
was
the
Renaissance
spiritwas (1304-1374). Brought up
a
in
in the orders, his real interest was revival of Latin literature, especiallythe writingsof Cicero. he was the of letters, A diligent student, and above all a man in clerical
Scho and a figureof international influence. princes, lasticism he despised. Aristotle he condemned. Though really however in feeling, religious lacking in practice,his point of
friend of
view
was
very
unlike
the mediaeval.
He
had,
that
moreover,
vanity and profound seriousness,that egotistical worship of form rather than of substance which were
lack
of
characteristic
of much
of Italian
humanism;
but
he
that to
be
aroused
world-outlook. antiquityand a new Boccaccio Petrarch's friend and disciple (1313-1375), now was remembered for his Decameron, but greatlyinfluential in chiefly his own age in promoting the study of Greek, in unlocking the mysteriesof classical mythology, and in furtheringhumanistic studies in Florence and Naples. Greek have died out in southern never Italy,but its may humanistic cultivation began when, in 1360, Boccaccio brought About 1397 Greek Leontius Pilatus to Florence. was taught, men
to
a
new
interest in
city,by government of the same and translated Homer Chrysoloras (1355?-1415), who The Council of Ferrara and Florence (1438-1439) (ante,
the auspices of the
under Manuel Plato. p.
315
RENAISSANCE
THE
311) greatlyfostered this desire and
by bringing Greeks
the East
to
Latins
of
the treasures
master
together.
Bessarion
To the influence of (ante,p. 312) thenceforth aided the work. this Plethon (1355-1450),another Greek attendant Gemistos on due the founding of the Platonic Academy, reunion council,was de' Medici about 1442, by Cosimo (1389-1464), the real ruler There
of Florence.
later,under the Ficino,who became with his
pursued ardently, study of Plato was leadershipof Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499). combined earnest an Christianity a priest, the
platonicenthusiasm.
He
believed
a
return
to the Chris
feelingnot shared by the majority of Italian humanists, but to be profoundly influential beyond the Alps, as propagated by his admirers, Jacques Le Fevre in France and John Colet in England. Colet, tian
the
sources
in turn, transmitted Pico della Mirandola
knowledge
of the time
chief need
Almost
it to Erasmus.
(1463-1494), whose
of the Kabala
were
to
a
"
as
influential
zeal for Hebrew
influence
was
and
Reuchlin.
developed by Lorenzo Valla (1405of the Donation of Constantine 1457), who exposed the falsity (ante,p. 204) about 1440, and denied the composition of the Apostles'Creed by the Apostles. He criticised the rightfulness Historical
of monastic
criticism
vows,
was
and
laid the foundation
of New
Testament
comparison of the Vulgate with the Greek. that the An examination of the dates just given will show in full development before in Italywas Renaissance movement the fall of Constantinople,in 1453. By the middle of the fif teenth century it was dominating the educated class in Italy. of indiffer In general,its attitude toward the church was one It revived widely a pagan ence. point of view, and sought to reproducethe life of antiquityin its vices as well as its virtues. Few periodsin the world's historyhave been so boastfully cor studies,in 1444, by
rupt
as
a
that of the Italian Renaissance.
given wings by a great in that of printing from movable 1440-1450 vention, about Mainz or Strassburg,in Germany, or Haarlem type. Whether in Holland was of learned dispute. is stilla matter its birthplace The art spread with rapidity, and not only rendered the posses The
Renaissance
movement
was
"
sion of the
manv
the
books
which
had
heretofore
been
the
PATRONS
POPES
THE
316
property of the few, but, from made
thirtythousand
than
mention
No
of the Renaissance
Beginnings of
to
art.
in
Italybefore
RENAISSANCE
of copies, multiplication
the
indestructible. More learningpractically issued before 1500. publicationswere
results of
the
THE
OF
Giotto" (1267?-!337), and
was
Era
fail to note
things had
better
its influence
could
its services
been
made, indeed, felt. Cimabue (1240?-1302?), Angelico (1387-1455) belong to
is their work. With as pre-Renaissanceepoch, remarkable Masaccio (1402-1429), Filippo Lippi (1406-1469), Botticelli (1444-1510), and Ghirlandajo (1449-1494), painting advanced through truer knowledge of perspective,greater anatomical and more effective grouping to the full noonday of accuracy, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), a Raphael Sanzio a (1483their 1520), a Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), and mighty associates. Sculpture received a similar impulse in the
the work
of Ghiberti
while architecture
Donatello
(1378-1455), and transformed
was
Bramante
(1444?-1514), and of these great artists, however
Brunelleschi
by Michelangelo. classical in
(1386-1466) ; (1379-1446), of the work
Most
motive,
wrought
was
in the service of the church. The
conspicuousearly seat of the Italian Renaissance cities. With the Florence,though it was influential in many
was
most
of Nicholas
(1447-1455), it found, for the first time, became mighty patron in the head of the church, and Rome
papacy a
its chief home.
To
due.
next
was
took
the
The name
manism,
and
V
him
the foundation
Pope, Alfonso
Calixtus
III
of the Vatican
library Spaniard, who
Borgia, a
(1455-1458), was
no
friend of hu
intent on earnestlythough fruitlessly, a crusade that should drive the Turks from the recentlycon quered Constantinople. In Enea Silvio Piccolomini,who ruled as
In
Pius II
was
(1458-1464), the
papacy
had
a
remarkable
earlylife a supporter
at the Council
of the conciliar movement, of Basel, he had won distinction as
occupant. and
a
active
humanistic
writer of decidedlyunclerical tone. Reconciled to Eugene IV, he became cardinal,and ultimatelyPope, now a opposing all the conciliar views that he had once supported,and forbidding future appealsto a generalcouncil. His efforts to stir Europe
againstthe Turks were unavailing. Yet, in spiteof his chang ing and self-seeking attitude,he had the most worthy concep tion of the duties of the papal office of any Pope of the latter half of the fifteenth century. The succeedingPopes, tillafter
THE the
of the
dawn
PRINCES
ITALIAN
AS
POPES
Reformation,
artists,great builders who
were
adorned
317
patrons of letters and and
Rome
felt the full
the Renaissance.
impulse of Meanwhile
a
change had
the ideals and
stay in Avignon and
The
of the papacy.
over
come
the schism
ambitions had
ren
impossible. distracted by the contests of the people of Rome, They were and especially by the rivalries of the noble houses, notably and the Orsini. those of the Colonna Italy had gradually consolidated iijtofive large states, Venice, Milan, Florence, it was called, as Naples, or the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, smaller territories and the States of the Church, though many remained outside these largergroups, and were objectsof con of Italy became effort to The politics test. a kaleidoscopic and to match of the larger extend the possessions one powers, were murder, and duplicity againstthe other,in which intrigue, employed to an almost unexampled extent. of Italian politicsthe papacy Into this game now fully and the Its increase States consolidate desire to was plunged. Church and of the maintain political independence. Its ambi effective control in the States
dered
tions and
its aims
possiblythe
save
Pope
chosen
at
succeeded, in
a
The
like those of other Italian rulers.
were
secularized
became
papacy
of the Church
tenth
at
other
no
in
period in its history,
(1417-1431), the of Constance, himself a Colonna, Martin
century.
the Council measure,
as
V
papal authorityin restoring
Rome.
not so fortunate, Eugene IV (1431-1447), was in Florence. Nicholas and spent a largepart of his pontificate controlled Rome V (1447-1455),the humanist, effectively and con strengthened the papal authority a policy which was tinued by Calixtus III (1455-1458), Pius II (1458-1464), and Paul II (1464-1471). With Sixtus IV (1471-1484) political He ambition took almost complete control of the papacy. his warred with Florence,he sought to enrich and advance A he aimed to extend the States of the Church. relatives, he built extensively.The Sistine Chapel patron of learning, and his name. All these endeavors requiredmoney, preserves he increased papal taxation and the financial abuses of the
His
successor,
"
curia. that
He
made
into
indulgencesare
an
article of faith the
wide-spreadbelief
available for souls in purgatory by
a
bull
of 1476.1 1
Kidd,
Documents
Illustrative of the Continental
Reformation,p.
3.
POPES
THE
318 The
Pope, Innocent
next
ITALIAN
AS
VIII
PRINCES of weak
(1484-1492),was
notorious
the
and
in which
manner through pliant nature, open the fortunes of his children,his extrava he sought to advance and his sale of offices. He even received a gant expenditures, pensionfrom Sultan Bayazid II for keeping the latter'sbrother and rival,Jem, a prisoner. Innocent's Alexander successor, VI (1492-1503), a nephew of Calixtus III, and a Spaniard without not (Rodrigo Borgia), obtained the papacy bribery, unbridled of of and was considera man a immorality,though His his bas to advance ble political insight. great effort was his daughter,Lucrezia tard children,especially Borgia,by ad vantageous marriages, and his unscrupulous and murderous out a principality Borgia,by aiding him to carve son, Cesare His reign saw of the States of the Church. the beginning of the collapseof Italian independence through the invasion of
of France
Charles VIII
(1483-1498), in 1494, in claim
assert
the
French
King's
Sixtus
IV.
The
Orsini and
the
throne
an
attempt
to
of
Naples. In 1499 Louis XII of France (1498-1515), conquered Milan, and in 1503 Ferdinand the Catholic,of Spain (1479-1516), secured the wretched battleground of French Naples. Italy became and Spanish rivalries. Under the temporal power such circumstances to increase of the papacy achieved not easy ; but the task was was by the warlike of the Popes, Julius II (1503-1513), nephew of most Borgia their
driven
from
Venetian
to
Colonna
reconciled,Cesare
were
Italy,the cities of Romagna the
conquerors,
various
nations
freed
in
from
Europe
leagues,with the result that the French were, for Louis XII se the time, expelledfrom Italy. In this contest cured a parody of a generalcouncil in Pisa, which Pope Julius answered It by callingthe Fifth Lateran Council in Rome. from ordered it 1512 to 1517, and though reforms met were undoubt accomplished nothing of importance. Julius II was and edly a ruler of great talents,who led his soldiers personally, of animated by a desire to strengthenthe temporal power was in
grouped
the papacy, art and
Julius
the
name
tastes
he
a
rather than builder
II
he
to
was
among
succeeded
was
enrich
by
his relatives. the most
Giovanni
As
eminent de'
a
patron of
of the
Medici, who
Popes. took
(1513-1521). With all the artistic and literary of the great Florentine family of which he was a member, Leo
combined
X
a
love of
display and
extravagant
expenditure.
SAVONAROLA
320 His
outlook religious
invasion and
of 1494
Savonarola
was
led to
a
thoroughly mediaeval. The French popular revolution againstthe Medici,
became
now
the real ruler of
Florence, which
city. sought to transform into a penitential of inhabitants. the life was adopted by man}^
A semi-monastic
he
of 1496
seasons
burned.
were
and
1497, masks, indecent books the
For
At
time
being,the
the carnival and
pictures
life of Florence
was
aroused enemies. The radicallychanged. But Savonarola adherents of the deposed Medici hated him, and above all, Pope Alexander VI, whose evil character and misrule Savon him and de The arola denounced. Pope excommunicated manded his punishment. Friends sustained him for a while, but the fickle populace turned against him. In April,1498, he was arrested,cruellytortured,and on May 23 hanged and his Not the least of Alex body burned by the city government. ander VI's crimes his persecution of this preacher of was due death was righteousness, though Savonarola's quite as him much the of to Florentine reaction against to as hostility the Pope.
SECTION
XV.
THE
NEW
POWERS
NATIONAL
The
from 1450 to 1500 saw half-century a remarkable growth in royal authority and national consciousness in the western kingdoms of Europe. France, which had seemed well-nigh with England, from ruined by the long wars 1339 to 1453, with the monarchy greatlystrengthened, of them out came since these struggleshad been immensely destructive to the feudal nobility. Louis XI (1461-1483), by intrigue, and arms,
tyranny, with feudal
aid of commoners, nobilityand secured for the the
not
hitherto
was
able to lead the
possessed. His now
son,
broke crown
Charles
centralized
state
the
an
power
of the
authorityit had
VIII into
(1483-1498), a
career
of for
eign conquest in Italythat was to open a new epoch in Euro and give rise to rivalries that were to determine politics pean the political What background of the whole Reformation age. these Kings had attempted in centralization at home, and in carried yet further by Louis XII (1498conquest abroad, was 1515), and by the brilliant and ambitious Francis I (1515-1547). France was now a strong, centralized monarchy. Its church was largelyunder royal control,and to a considerable degree
THE
POWERS
NATIONAL
NEW
321 "
relieved of the worst papal abuses, thanks to the Pragmatic which grew Sanction" of 14"8 (ante,p. 313) ; and the custom the strengtheningof the monarchy in the fifteenth up with
century that
appeals could be taken from church courts to clerical those of the King. The control of the monarchy over in appointments, clerical taxation, and clerical courts was creased by the "concordat" of 1516 (ante,p. 319), which gave to the Pope in turn desired taxes. By the dawn of the Reforma tion the church In
of France the
Wars
Lancastrians,from
1455
England
of the
the power Parliament
for
been
a
a
in many
of the to
Henry
respects,a
Roses, between
state
church.
Yorkists
and
1485, resulted in the destruction of
high nobilityto
survived.
the power of of Tudor, was
was,
the
advantage of the crown. rule in legalform; but
The
King
VII
(1485-1509), the first of the house
must
greater than that of any English sovereignhad exercised with almost unlimited century, and was
abler absolutism, though in parliamentary form, by his even Henry VIII (1509-1547). The English sovereignshad son, before the Reformation, a large degree of au attained,even and, as in France, the church in thorityin ecclesiasticalaffairs,
England
was
largelynational
at
the close of the fifteenth
cen
tury. This
nationalizing process in ment as Spain,where it was ligiousawakening, which was the the the hold The
was
taking on to
make
of reform,often,though conception
Counter-Reformation
in
nowhere
full develop
the character
that not
so
land
very
a
of
a
re
pattern for
called correctly,
to oppose conception that was Teutonic ideal of revolution,and was ultimatelyable to the allegiance of half of Europe to a purified Church. Roman rise of Spain was the political wonder of the latter part of "
a
the fifteenth century. Aside from the main currents of medi aeval European life,the history of the peninsula had been
a
long crusade to throw off the Mohammedan yoke, which had been in Europe were imposed in 711. Nowhere patriotism and Catholic orthodoxy so interwoven. The strugglehad re sulted, by the thirteenth century, in the restriction of the Moors in the formation to the kingdom of Granada, and of four Christian kingdoms, Castile,Aragon, Portugal,and Na These states varre. limited were weak, and the royal power the feudal A radical when the pros by nobility. change came o f pectiverulership the largerpart of the peninsulawas united,
THE
322 in 1469,
by
the
1479-1516)
with
Under pean
SPANISH
REFORM
marriage of Ferdinand,
heir of
Isabella,heiress of Castile
Aragon (King,
(Queen, 1474-1504).
their jointsovereigntySpain took a new place in Euro life. The disorderlynobles were repressed. The royal
authoritywas Mohammedanism
asserted.
In
1492 The
overcome.
Granada same
was
year
conquered witnessed
and the
discoveryof a new world by Columbus, under Spanish auspices, of very considerable revenue which speedilybecame a source French invasions of Italy led to to the royal treasury. The which locjgedSpain firmly in Naples by Spanish interference, rendered Spanish influence predominant through 1503, and soon out Italy. On Ferdinand's death, in 1516, these great posses sions passed to his grandson, already heir of Austria and the the imperial title as Charles V. Netherlands, and to wear Spain had suddenly become the first power in Europe. Ferdinand The jointsovereigns, and Isabella,devoted them selves no less energetically to the control of the church than to the extension of their temporal authority. The "Spanish awakening" was in no sense unique. It did not differ in prin that had been ciplefrom much attempted elsewhere in the later Middle Ages. No nation with a history like that of Spain could desire doctrinal change. It was intenselydevoted the papacy head. the spiritual to the system of which was in administrative affairs But it believed that papal aggressions should be limited by royal authority,and that an educated, be encour moral, and zealous clergycould,by the same power, It was of the success with aged and maintained. by reason which these results were accomplished that the Spanish awak
ening became
the model
of the "Counter-Reformation."
minded religiously sovereignever ruled than Isabella, and if Ferdinand was primarilya politician, he was the quick to see political advantages of a policythat in subjectionto the crown. would place the Spanish church In 1482 the jointsovereignsforced Pope Sixtus IV to agree to a concordat to the higher ecclesiastical placing nomination The policythus begun was speedily posts in the royalcontrol. extended re by the energeticsovereigns. Papal bulls now courts were quired royal approval for promulgation. Church taxed for the benefit of the state. supervised. The clergywere Ferdinand and Isabella now proceeded to fillthe important stations in the Spanish church not only with men devoted to No
more
conscientious
or
XIMENES
AND
ISABELLA,
FERDINAND,
323
zeal. the royalinterests, but of strenuous pietyand disciplinary but chief of In this effort they had the aid of many men ability, de Cisthem stood Gonzalez (or Francisco) Ximenes among
the Spanish awakening had its (1436-1517),in whom typicalrepresentative. Ximenes went to Rome Born of a familyof the lower nobility, neros
after studies in Alcala and
he showed
in the seat of the papacy, talent business and much
after six years
in church
his return, in 1465,
On
Salamanca.
as
a
great ability
preacher. About diocese by Men-
of the appointed vicar-general doza, then bishop of Siguenza. In the full tide
he
1480
was
Ximenes monk
renounced
now
of the
all his honors
strictest observance.
and
became
Not
recommendation
of
Mendoza,
now
him
in affairs of state
Queen and
science.
confessor
as
these
1492, however,
become
archbishop of
well
worked
Franciscan
In
Toledo, Queen Isabella appointed Ximenes consulted
success
with
content
he adopted the hermit's life. austerities, on
a
of
her as
confessor,and
questionsof
in harmony, and
con
under
was vigorous action a thoroughgoingreform of discipline in the disorderly monasteries of the land. Ximenes's undertaken
their
influence ence,
was
and
increased when, in 1495, on Isabella's insist Mendoza's against his own protests, he became but
archbishopricof Toledo, not only the highest with which the grandecclesiastical post in Spain, but one his Here he maintained of Castile was united. chancellorship ascetic life. Supported by the Queen, he turned all the powers of his high office to rid Spain of unworthy clergyand monks. than a thousand No oppositioncould thwart him, and more in the
successor
monks to
his
are
said to have
The discipline.
left the
moral
peninsularather and
character
than
submit
zeal of the Span
ish
clergywere greatlyimproved. the need of an edu Ximenes, though no great scholar,saw influences in cated clergy. He had encountered Renaissance Rome, and would turn them wholly to the service of the church. In 1498 he founded the Universityof Alcala de Henares, to and which he devoted a largepart of his episcopalrevenues, four professors where he gathered learned men, them among of Greek counted
and seven
Hebrew.
thousand
A
quarter of
a
century later Alcala
Though opposed to general believed that the laity,Ximenes
students.
reading of the Bible by the Scripturesshould be the principal study of the clergy. The
THE
324
noblest
SPANISH of
monument
INQUISITION
this conviction
Polyglot(Alcala Complutum), =
from
1502
in Greek
Testament
and
Complutensian
he directed
on
Latin.
the labor
presentedin He
was
Latin, with the Targum
brew, Greek, and the New
which
Old Testament
The
1517.
to
on
is the
the Pentateuch
The
New
;
Testament
in
To Ximenes printby 1515. belongs the honor, there in Greek, though as Testament fore,of first printingthe New papal permission for publicationcould not be obtained till 1520, the Greek Testament, issued in 1516, by Erasmus, was was
earlier The in his
the market.
on
less attractive side of Ximenes's to willingness
medans. vast
death The
In
use
force for the conversion
affairs of state
service to
character
his firmness
and
Isabella,Ferdinand, and
is to be
seen
of the Moham wisdom
Charles
of
were
V, till his
in 1517.
intellectual
impulse thus inaugurated by
revival
ultimatelyto
a
Francisco
Vittoria
de
of the
led
Ximenes
theology of Aquinas, begun by
(?-1546) in Salamanca, and
continued
the great Roman by Vittoria's disciples, theologiansof the early strugglewith Protestantism, Domingo de Soto (1494-
1560) and Melchior Characteristic
Cano
(1525-1560).
of the
Spanish awakening was the reorganiza tion of the inquisition.The Spanish temper viewed orthodoxy and patriotismas essentially and regarded the mainte one, of their religions nance or relapse by Jews and Mohammedans, as by such of those dissenters as had embraced Christianity, perilsto church and state alike. Accordingly,in 1480, Ferdi nand and Isabella established the inquisition, entirelyunder royalauthority,and with inquisitors appointedby the sovereign. It was this national character that was the distinguishing and led to protests by Pope feature of the Spanish inquisition, Sixtus IV, to which the sovereigns turned deaf ears. Supported by the crown, it speedilybecame a fearful instrument, under the leadershipof Tomas Torquemada (1420-1498). Undoubtedly its value in breaking the independence of the nobles and re it to the the treasury by confiscation commended plenishing but its chief claim to popularfavor was its repres sovereigns, sion of heresy and dissent. Spain had, therefore,at the close of the fifteenth century, the most independent national church of any nation in Europe, in which
a
moral
and
intellectual renewal
"
not
destined
to
be
THE
CONDITION
325
GERMANY
OF
in more was vigorousprogress than elsewhere; permanent and yet a church intenselymediaeval in doctrine and practice, intolerant of all heresy. fiercely "
In
situation
the
Germany
lacked all real unity. The was
by
worn
1438
to
the
in
imperialcrown,
Emperors
The
different.
very
house of
of the Austrian
members
1740, but
was
had
empire theory elective, Habsburg from
as
power
of
possessors
hereditarylands, rather than as holders of imperialau the between thority. Under Frederick III (1440-1493) wars who princesand cities and the disorder of the lower nobility, lived too often by what was reallyhighway robbery,kept the land in a turmoil which the Emperor was powerlessto suppress. their
Matters
1519), and
better
somewhat
were
attempt
an
was
made
to
I
Maximilian
under
(1493-
give stronger central
au
thorityto the empire by frequent meetings of the old feudal court Reichstag, the establishment of an imperial supreme for the (1495), and the division of the empire into districts made better preservationof publicpeace (1512). Efforts were and collect imperialtaxes. These to form an imperialarmy reforms had little vitality.The decisions of the court could not
be enforced
nor
the taxes
collected.
The
Reichstagwas,
days, but it indeed,to play a was a clumsy parliament,meeting in three houses, one of the princes,and imperialelectors,the second of lay and spiritual the third of delegatesfrom the free imperialcities. The lower nobles and the common people had no share in it. The imperialcities were an important element in German life,owning no superiorbut the feeble rule of the Emperor. far from industrious and wealthy, but they were They were and in their government, democratic were thoroughly selfcon seeking as far as the largerinterests of Germany were cerned. Their commercial spiritled them to resist the exac tions of clergyand princesalike. In no the peasantry in a state of country of Europe was in southwestern Germany, where in greater unrest, especially great role in the
surrections occurred serfs
in
were
and
largelyin France.
worse
by
"
a
1476, 1492, 1512, and
condition that had
ants
Their
state
the substitution of the Roman
for slaves
Reformation
passed away had law
been "
The
1513.
a
made
law made
rapidly largely
legalcustoms, by the close fifteenth century they were profoundly disaffected. "
for the old
and
peas
in England,
of the
RIVALRIES
326
Yet
AND
FRANCE
OF
national life as
if German
THE
whole
a
HABSBURGS thus
was
the largerterritories of Germany dissatisfied,
disordered
growing stronger, and developing a kind of semi-independent local This national life in themselves. was notably true of Aus tria,electoral and ducal Saxony, Bavaria, Brandenburg, and of their rulers was and they were The power Hesse. increasing, con beginningto exercise a local authorityin churchly affairs, and of abbots, taxing the bishops trollingthe nomination ecclesiastical jurisdiction. extent clergy,and limitingto some This local territorialchurchmanship had not gone far,but that of the utmost it existed was importance in givinga framework and
Reformation
the
which
was
were
rapidlyto develop when
rejected. witnessed years precedingthe Reformation by the Habsburg rulers of Austria of the utmost for the political background of the Reformation
obedience
was
The
the death
of Charles
Bold, the ambitious
the
heirshipof his Burgundian Her to his daughter, Mary.
Maximilian who
I,
to
seized upper
the
Burgundy,
of
duke
In
1477
Burgundy,
the Nether
that
of Louis
XI
the seeds of
marriages importance
age.
marriage
dissatisfaction sowed
two
territories and
left the lands
Roman
year,
of
with
France,
quarrelbetween
Habsburg line which were largely o f till the politics Europe 1756. to determine Philip,the son and Mary, in turn married Juana, heiress of of Maximilian about that and Isabella of Spain. So it came Ferdinand Philipand Juana's son, Charles, became possessor of Austria, the Netherlands, and the wide-extended Spanish territories in World a largersovereigntythan had Europe and the New the been held by a singleruler since Charlemagne to which heir also added in 1519. Charles V became imperialtitle was the Habsburg line to which he belonged to the rivalrybetween That and the Kings of France. rivalryand the strugglefor reform were to interplaythroughout the Reformation religious age, constantlymodifying each other.
the
Kings
and
of France
the
"
"
SECTION
XVI.
RENAISSANCE NORTH
Though the fifteenth century in Germany versityfoundation into existence between
1409
and
ALPS
THE
OF
was "
INFLUENCES
OTHER
AND
a
less than
no
1506
notable
"
these
new
period of uni twelve coming creations
did
REUCHLIN
328
Vienna, wliere the semi-pagan Latin poet, Conrad Celtes (14591508), enjoyed the patronage of the humanisticallyinclined
By the first decade of the sixteenth was pressinginto the Universities of Basel, century, humanism It also found Tubingen, Ingolstadt,Heidelberg,and Erfurt. cities,notably in patrons in the wealthy commercial many were Nuremberg, Strassburg,and Augsburg. So numerous its sympathizers by the close of the fifteenth century that learned circles were being formed, like the Rhenish Literary Celtes in in the Association,organizedby Mainz, 1491, mem circulated each other's works, and bers of which corresponded, assistance. afforded mutual was By 1500 humanism becoming vital factor in Germany. a humanism German presentedmany types, but was, in gen serious-minded than that of Italy. eral,far less pagan and more sincere chruchmen, anxious to reform Many of its leaders were life. It is to be seen and purifyreligious at its best in its two Reuchlin and Erasmus. famous most representatives, Maximilian
Emperor,
I.
in humble
Born
circumstances,in Pforzheim, in 1455, Johann earlygained local reputationas a Latinist,and was
Reuchlin
of Baden companion to the young son of the margrave 1472. to the University of Paris, about Here, in Paris, he began the study of Greek, instruction in which had been offered In 1477 he received the master's degree in there since 1470. before his graduationhe Even Basel,and there taught Greek. publisheda Latin dictionary(1475-1476). He studied law in much Orleans and Poitiers,and in later life was employed in always primarily judicialpositions;but his interests were scholarly.The service of the count of Wiirttemberg took him in 1482 cities which he visited again and Rome to Florence sent
as
"
in 1490
and
quaintancewith and
At
1498.
Greek
influenced
was
by
(ante,p. 315), and from
acquired
that
Florence, even commanded the
on
his first visit, his
admiration.
scholars
of the
There
Platonic
Pico della Mirandola
strange interest in Kabalistic
ac
he met
Academy
(ante,p. 315) he doctrines
that
Germany. Reuchlin was regarded the ablest Greek scholar of the closingyears of the fifteenth as century in Germany, and his influence in promotion of Greek added
studies
much
to
was
most
Reuchlin and
had
his fame
in
fruitful. the Renaissance
this led him,
desire to return
first of non-Jewish
scholars
to the sources,
in
Germany,
to
ERASMUS make
the Old
understand this labor
"
that
speech to Christian students. the peace-lovingscholar was which
quarrel into will be
many,
dents
studies,and with him
of these Hebrew
reason
The
"
of
treasures
Testament.
the better
might
fruit of twenty years of the publicationin 1506 of a Hebrew grammar Rudimentis Hebraicis unlocked the De which
was
lexicon
and
that he
of Hebrew
profoundstudy
a
329
Lutheran
of the
in
described
treatingof
revolt.
the
Reuchlin
The
bitter
drawn
Ger
all educated immediate
was
by
antece
Protestant.
no
refused approval to the risingReformation, which he wit But he did a service of immense nessed tillhis death in 1522.
He
and his intellectual heir Biblical scholarship, the reformers, to be his grandnephew, that scholar among
importance was
to
PhilipMelanchthon. Desiderius
Erasmus
was
born
of wedlock
out
in
Rotterdam,
Gouda, probably in 1466. The school in Deventer awakened his love of letters (ante,p. 327). His poverty drove him into or
Steyn, but he had no taste for the monastic life,nor for that of the priesthood,to which he was ordained in 1492. By 1495 he wras studying in Paris. The he made him in England, where the helpful 1499 saw year friendshipof John Colet, who directed him toward the study Augustinian monastery
an
of the Bible
and
in
the Fathers.
chieflyin France
and
the
A
few
years
Netherlands,
saw
of studious him
once
labors, more
in
England, in 1505, then followed a three years'sojourn in Italy. In 1509 he again returned to England, and now taught in the University of Cambridge, enjoying the friendshipof many of the most of the kingdom. The years distinguishedmen 1515-1521 V
were
spent for the
in the Netherlands.
where
he
could
principalhome. Europe. Erasmus Greek
who letters, wit and
ample He
may
part in the service of Charles
1521
to his death
facilities for
thus
in 1536
Basel,
publication,was
be called
a
citizen of all
impeccable Latinist. His knowledge of above He rather superficial. of all,a man was,
was
\vas
From
have
his
most
not
touched
an
the
issues of his time
consummate
daring criticism of clergyand civil rulers,and withal was moved by deep sincerity of purpose. that the church of his day was Convinced over laid with superstition, corruption,and error, and that the monastic life was too often ignorantand unworthy, he had yet of expression;set brilliancy
forth
with
ERASMUS
330
wish to break
no
He
too
was
primarilyintellectual
revolution,the
Lutheran
not clear-sighted
too
was
with the church
neither
Hence
side in the
see
to
he
have
of which
excesses
to
that
freelycriticised. sympathy with the He repelledhim. so
the evils of the Roman
strugglethat opened
Church.
in the
latter
has been con him, and his memory and Catholic. His demned by polemic writers, Protestant of that education, return to the sources own thought was of ignorance and immorality Christian truth, and flagellation
part of his life understood
bring the church to purity. To this end he labored. His Handbook of the Christian Soldier of 1502 was a simple,earnest presentationof an unecclesiastical Chris His Praise of Follyof 1509 tianity, largelyStoic in character. the evils of his age in church and state. was a bitingsatire on of 1518 were His Familiar Colloquies witty discussions in which were fastings,pilgrimages,and similar external observances by
merciless
satire would
work of His constructive of his brilliant pen. was the first edition of his the highestimportance. In 1516 came the
butts
Testament, the pioneer publicationof the Greek text, stillinaccessible (ante,p. 324). This for that of Ximenes was followed by a series of the Fathers Jerome, Origen,Basil, was Cyril,Chrysostom, Irenseus,Ambrose, and Augustine, not all Greek
"
wholly from his pen, but all from his impulse, which placed on a new plane,and scholarlyknowledge of earlyChristianity springs profoundly aided a Reformation, the deeper religious of which
Erasmus
vice for the
understood.
never
Christian
much classics,
Erasmus
writers of Greece for the pagan did something more than Erasmus
of Christian To
sources.
In
a
measure,
of the
like that
humanists Yet
rendered
he had
and
a
ser
Italian
Rome.
revive
knowledge a positive theology. expressionthrough a
but the fullest Christianitywas the Mount, of universal, Christ, primarilyin the Sermon on ethical religion, of which the philosophersof an essentially tiquityhad also been bearers. He had little feelingfor the sacramental for the deeply personalelements in religion.A or universal ethical theism, having its highest illustration in little his idea. His way of thinking was to have Christ, was influence on the Reformation on whole, though much as a modern deal of that in and is Socinianism, represented a great ancestor. theology,of which he was thus the spiritual more Though Germany was largelyinfluenced by the Rehim
SERVICE
THE naissance
at
land
other
the
Alps, the
(hnte,p. 324).
In
reforms
and
London.
and
in Oxford
Erasmus
Biblical studies
He
in
Colet
(1467?-1519) the epis
lecturingon
His
influence in
considerable
was
any
stirring impulses were Spain have already been
John
tles of Paul to
same
England
introducingeducational
was
331
sixteenth century than
the
efforts of Ximenes
The
elsewhere. noted
beginning of tfye
beyond
HUMANISM
OF
of the interpretation rejectedall allegorical
turning
(ante,p. 329). criti Scriptures,
clerical celibacy and auricular confession,and desired to better the education and morals of the clergy. As the six humanism teenth century dawned was gaining constantlyin cised
creasingfollowingin England, and 1547)
deemed
was
The
situation
its patron. in France was
King Henry
similar.
The
VIII
(1509-
chief representa
was Jaques Le Fevre, churchlyreformatory humanism active years were of whose of Etaples (1455-1536), most spent of mystical A modest, kindly little man, Paris. in or near on piety,he publisheda Latin translation and commentary merits of denied the justifying in 1512, which Paul's epistles He never good works and held salvation a free giftfrom God.
tive of
a
however, perceived, the
self and a
body
be
Church;
he
but
pupils,destined to most Guillaume Reformation struggle,
of
Guillaume
Meaux;
instrumental
in
Bude, eminent
him
between
gatheredround
of devoted
tion in the
bishop
Roman
difference
fundamental
any
unlike
himself
participa
Briconnet, to be in Greek
founding the College de France;
and
to
Louis
de
Farel, to Berquin, to die a Protestant martyr; and Guillaume be the fieryreformer of French-speakingSwitzerland. the path of reform humanists To all these religious-minded similar. seemed Sound learning,the study and preaching of the Bible and the Fathers, and the correction of ignorance, would make abuses immorality, and glaring administrative the church
what
it should
be.
This
solution
did not
meet
the
rendered an deep needs of the situation; but the humanists led Reformation. for the men They indispensable preparation the discredited later afresh. to study Christian sources They and more natural scholastic theology. They brought in new life methods of exegesis. To a large degree they looked on from another They repre standpoint than the mediaeval. sented from
a
release of the
mediaeval
mind, in
traditionalism.
some
considerable
measure,
PUBLICATION
332
Partlyas
a
OF
THE
result of the Renaissance
BIBLE
emphasis on the sources, invention of printing, the
in consequence of the latter half of the fifteenth century witnessed wide a tion of the Bible in the Vulgate and in translation. but
more
even
than
ninety-twoeditions
1500.
Eighteen
before
1521.
tion of
a
pendent were
editions
The
1477; the whole
New Bible
versions
German
a
Testament ten
In
the
the
published between in printedin Bohemian
made
were
laity,since
its
be
the
1488.
Reformation,
to restrict the
doubt
publica
printingof two 1480
many
the
and
in
inde Psalms The
1507.
If
England had manuscripts of
in circulation.
seemed
use
French
the
saw
Netherlands
times
less
printed
were
printed in
later;1478
No
put forth before
version
was
years
in Italian.
Scriptureswere no printedBible before Wyclif'stranslation were
there
of
Vulgate were
Spanish translation;1471
seven
Efforts
of the
distribu
the
readingof
the Bible
of mediaeval
source
by the
heresies;but
that
with it much increased familiarity the less educated priesthoodand among laymen. Yet among the real question of the influence of this Bible reading is the problem^of Biblical interpretation.The Middle Ages never denied the final authorityof the Bible. Augustine and Aqui the Bible interpreted, nas so however, regarded it. It was the the and the councils the of church. Fathers, teachers, by Should that churchly right to interpretbe denied, there re mained but the voices only the rightof privateinterpretation; from
can
no
Bohemia
and
the mediaeval
sects
which
denied
the inter
pretingauthorityof the church, found no generalresponse as yet. The commanding word had yet to be spoken. The mere reading of the Bible involved no denial of mediaeval ideals. Only when those ideals were rejectedcould the interpreting authoritywhich supported them be denied and the Bible be the support of the newer come conceptionsof salvation and of the church. tantism
as
The was
Bible
was
not
Protestantism
so a
much new
the
cause
of Protes
interpretationof
the
Scriptures. The closingyears of the fifteenth century were, has been as betterment in Spain. No such cor rfeen, a period of religious responding revival of interest in religionis to be traced in France or England; but Germany was undergoing a real and pervasivereligious quickening in the decades immediately pre Its fundamental motive to seems ceding the Reformation.
have
in the
feaiyMuch
been
to increase the
of
sense
GERMANY
IX
UNREST
333
tended
popular life of Germany witchcraft
apprehension.The
delusion,
rapidlyspreading. A bull of VIII in 1484 declared Germany full of witches, Jakob the German and Sprenger and Heinrich inquisitors, Kramer, publishedtheir painfullycelebrated Malleus Malefithat added It was terror to in 1489. a superstition carum less to be shared by the reformers no popular life,and was The from 1490 to than by their Roman opponents. years The Turkish in Germany. 1503 were peril a period of famine has al The social unrest general was becoming threatening. ready been noted (ante,p. 325). All these elements contributed of of the realityand nearness to the development of a sense God. divine judgments, and the need of propitiating an angry Luther's earlyreligious congenialto the spirit experienceswere of this pervasivereligious movement. The religious spiritof Germany at the close of the fifteenth century found expressionin pilgrimages. A few of the more to Rome, went wealthy journeyed to the Holy Land, more that of but the most popular foreignpilgrimage shrine was St. James at Compostella in Spain. German pilgrim shrines made, no were thronged,and great collections of relics were tablyby the Saxon Elector,Frederick the Wise (1486-1525),to be Luther's protector, who placedthem in the castle church, to though by no Pope Innocent
the door
of which
intercession of
Luther
Mary
mother, St. Anna,
was
larlyregarded
a
tions
or
as
was
new,
means
was
was
to
nail his famous
sought, and
more
never
Christ
but littleless valued. strict
judge, to
be
Theses.
was
placated with
The
Mary's popu
satisfac
absolutions.
religious by side with this external and work-trusting the that saw spirit, Germany had not a little of mystic piety, of religion in the relation of the individual soul to God ; essence has been called "non-ecclesiastical and a good deal of what which showed itself not only in simple,serious lives, religion," like that of Luther's father,but in increasing attempts of lay princesto improve the qualityof the clergy,of towns to regu late beggary, to control charitable had foundations, which Yet side
been
in exclusive
vindicate
for
ecclesiastical
hands, and
in various
largershare
in the
ways
to
laymen, as such, a religious life of the community. its claims The active life was asserting against the contemplative. Theology, as such, had largely
lost
its
despised It
was
seething lems
TYPES
CONTRASTED
334
and
hold
by no
with
on
thought,
popular and
humanism, dead
unrest,
unfulfilled
age
to
OF
discredited
supplanted which
vexed
longings.
with
RELIGION
Luther
by was
multitudinous
by
nominalism,
mysticism. to
speak, unsolved
but
one
prob
CONSERVATIVES
AGAINST
HUMANISTS
336
korn, while Reuchlin defended Jewish literature as with slight exceptionsdesirable,urged a fuller knowledge of Hebrew, and substitution of friendlydiscussion with the Jews for the A storm of controversy was the confiscation of their books. accused trial by of heresy and put on result. Reuchlin was the
The
Hochstraten. till 1520, when of the
cates
new
proceedingas an ship,and rallied
to
was
Reuchlin's
support.
circle came, in 1514 and 1517, one of satires ever issued the Letters of Obscure
this humanistic
From the
appealed to Rome, and dragged it was decided The advo against Reuchlin. the whole learning,however, looked upon attack on scholar ignorantand unwarranted case
successful
most
"
Purporting to be written by opponents of Reuchlin and the new learning,they aroused wide-spread ridicule by their and their ignorance,and barbarous Latinity,their triviality, undoubtedly created the impression that the party opposed hostile to learningand progress. Their author to Reuchlin was (1480?-1539?) of ship is still uncertain, but Crotus Rubeanus Dornheim and Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523) certainlyhad parts in it. Hutten, vain, immoral, and quarrelsome, but brilliantly giftedas a writer of prose and verse, and undoubt to Luther to give support of dubious worth was edly patriotic, in the early years of the Reformation The effect movement. Men.
of the storm
raised
Reuchlin
over
unite German
to
was
ists,and to draw a line of cleavagebetween them the Dominicans the most servatives,of whom were It
while this contest
was
against tacular and
an
ecclesiastical
fashion,by
its
monastic
immediate
giganticrevolution Martin
in the
Luther, from of whom
it may profoundly altered
men
a
and
con
a
protest or
spec
recentlyfounded
university,on
response
the
conspicuous.
unusual
no
professorin
historyof
and
heightthat
abuse, made, in
German relativelyinconspicuous
31, 1517, found
few
a
at
was
human
launched
the Christian
October the
most
Church.
is one this protest came, of the be said that the historyof the world
whom
Not a great scholar,an by his work. he moved of a organizeror a politician, men by the power in trust profound religious experience,resultingin unshakable and personalrelations to Him, God, and in direct,immediate which for the brought a confident salvation that left no room was
elaborate hierarchical and sacramental
Ages.
He
spoke to
his countrymen
structures as
one
of the Middle
profoundly of them
LIFE
EARLY
LUTHER'S
337
by virtue of a vivid and compellingfaith,and a courage, physicaland spiritual, he of his race, heroic mould. Yet so largelywas of the most that he is understood with diffi in his virtues and limitations, an Italian,and even or culty,to this day, by a Frenchman Anglo-Saxons have seldom appreciatedthat fulness of sym Protestant speaks patheticadmiration with which a German But whether honored or opposed, none his name. can deny his pre-eminentplace in the historyof the church. born on November Luther was 10, 1483, in Eisleben,where and sympathies,yet aspirations
in
his father
peasant miner.
a
was
above
His
father
simple,unecclesiastical piety. The
of
ambitious
and few
an
son
competence,
to fitting
education
tory schoolingin Luther known The
and
and
birth,where was a
fired with career
he
to
ambition
and
energetic Mansfeld to
After
an
earnest, companionable,and
humanistic
movement
beginningto
a a
give his prepara
Eisenach, Martin
entered the Universityof Erfurt in 1501, where as
were
respect and
won
in the law.
Mansfeld, Magdeburg,
mother
father, more
peasants, removed
most
after Martin's
months
modest
than
them
he
was
music-lovingstudent. be felt in Erfurt
had
rather in the later, him. His interest was littleinfluence upon of the school nominalistic scholastic philosophy,representative of
Occam, though he read fairlywidely in the Latin classics.
of sinfulness which was stronglythat deep sense the ground note of the religious revival of the age in Germany. it necessary of arts in 1505, made His graduation as master He then to begin his specialpreparation in law. was pro and death sudden of the friend a foundly moved, however, by and he therefore broke off from lightning, by a narrow escape his career, and, in deep anxiety for his soul's salvation,en tered the monastery of Augustinian hermits in Erfurt,in July, The 1505. "German congregation" of Augustinians,recently under the Proles (1429-1503), and now reformed by Andreas supervisionof Johann von Staupitz (?-1524), enjoyed deserved at its popular respect and representedmediaeval monasticism best. posi Thoroughly mediaeval,in general,in its theological it and included made of much tion, men some preaching, and who with were sympathetic disposed to mystical piety the deeper religious apprehensionsof Augustine and Bernard. life In the monastic To Staupitz,Luther was much. to owe Luther won ordained to speedy recognition. In 1507 he was
Luther
felt
RELIGIOUS
338
LUTHER'S
the
priesthood.The
next
in
him
saw
year
of his
preparingfor a superiors, universitywhich had been there
command in the
Elector,Frederick
Saxon
DEVELOPMENT
III,"the Wise"
Wittenberg,at
future
the
professorship by the
established
(1486-1525), in 1502.
theology in 1509, but was sent back the same year to Erfurt, possiblyto study for the degree licensed expounder of that great mediaeval of sententiarius, or text-book of theology,the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard (ante, his order On of made memorable business he a journey p. 266). in in Back 1510. to Rome, probably more once Wittenberg, There
he
which
was
graduated bachelor
thenceforth
of
to be his
home, he became
a
doctor
of
the Bible, to lecture on theology in 1512 and began at once tilllate treatingthe Psalms from 1513 to 1515, then Romans in 1516, and thereupon Galatians,Hebrews, and His Titus. practicalabilities were recognizedby his appointment, in 1515, district vicar in charge of eleven monasteries of his order,and as the practiceof preachingin which, from he began, even earlier, he displayedremarkable the first, gifts. In his order he bore of singularpiety,devotion,and monastic the repute of a man zeal.
Yet, in spiteof all monastic soul.
of
peace
His
strenuousness, Luther found no him. of sinfulness overwhelmed
sense
Staupitzhelped him by pointingout that true penitencebegan But not with fear of a punishing God, but with love to God. if Luther could say that Staupitz first opened his eyes to the of his vision was a slow and Gospel,the clarifying gradual proc ess.
Till 1509
Luther
Biel.
and d'Ailli,
Occam,
devoted To
himself
them
to
he
the later
owed
scholastics,
permanently
his
to emphasize the objectivefacts of revelation,and disposition his distrust of reason. opening new Augustine, however, was visions to him by the close of 1509, and leadinghim to a rapidly of Aristotle in theology. toward the dominance growing hostility Augustine'smysticism and emphasis on the salvatorysignifi cance
of the
Anselm
lectured
and on
human
Bernard the Psalms
that salvation is of merit
on
promises,so
life and
a
new
helped
death him.
of Christ
By
the
fascinated him.
time
that
Luther
convinced (1513-1515), he had become relation to God, based not on any work
man's
part, but
that
the redeemed
on
absolute man,
trust
while not
in the
divine
ceasingto
be
and sinner,yet is freelyand fullyforgiven,and from the new in Christ, the new life of willing to God joyous relationship a
339
FAITH
BY
JUSTIFICATION
of a most conformityto God's will flows. It was a re-emphasis not wholly of the Pauline teaching. Yet it was important side* moral To Paul the Christian is primarilya renewed Pauline. being. ;To Luther he is firstof all a forgivensinner ; but Luther, salvation in essence like Paul, made a rightpersonalrelation The ground and the pledge of this rightrelation ship to God. of Christ ship is the mercy of God displayedin the sufferings Christ
behalf.
in man's
has
borne
sins.
our
in turn,
We,
mystics, imputed to us His righteousness.The German that the Luther conclusion to helped especiallyTauler, now this transformingtrust was not, as he had supposed, a work The had a part, but wholly the giftof God. in which a man have
preparatory to his lectures
work
He
intensified these convictions. mon
opinion that God
who
did
what
The basis of any Luther. thus
While
the nature
and
own
conviction
and
even
more
fidence that
the
became
assurance
of
certaintyhe
for
of sal
method
yet secured.
not
was
Pelagian.
overthrown
He
personal certaintyof his own had, with Augustine, denied.
the latter part of his lectures on Romans, of 1516, his con clearlyin the closingmonths
he labored
as
of soul
peace
That justification. Yet
to
com
into those
and
absurd
was
been
as
that the
grace
work-righteousnesshad
the further
needed
infuse infallibly
would
convinced
vation, Luther's
declared
now
in their power
was
(1515-1516) but
Romans
on
on
God-given
of faith involved
nature
conviction.
Thenceforth, in his
personal own
per
Gospel was the forgivenessof sins. It was the soul with peace, joy,and "good news," filling absolute trust in God. It was absolute dependence on the di vine promises,on God's "word." Luther had out a new not, thus far, consciouslyworked vital had of had He a experience. theology. deep, system in be It was to an no squared with experience,however, way sonal experiencethe
much
of current
and
satisfactions
siderations made force of
of the
sum
theories of salvation had
a
Luther
prominent part. a
profound inward
a
institutions which
he
saw
was
a
He
reformer.
about
him.
vital,transforming power,
a
theoretic
No
driven
test the
The be
be
acts, penances,
was
experienceto
nobilityof Luther's experiencecannot universal test may as a applicability faith
in which
by the
beliefs and
profundity and
doubted.
questioned. new
con
and
Yet To
its him
vivifying per-
however, while sincerelyde
sonal relationship.Many men, their and sirous of servingGod of
THESES
NINETY-FIVE
THE
340
have generation,
such
no personalforgiveness,
no
such
soul-stirring depth
of
sense
feeling,
They desire,with God's aid, to do For them "justification the best they can. by faith alone" is intellectual assent an either well-nighmeaningless,or becomes of Luther or truth. To enter into the experience to religious for all. of Paul is by no means possible By 1516 Luther did not stand alone. In the Universityof and Scholasticism to Aristotelianism Wittenberg his opposition much his Biblical theology found and sympathy. His col leagues,Andreas Bodenstein of Karlstadt (1480?-1541), who, childlike trust.
such
no
Aquinas,and his
older
representedthe
Luther, had
unlike
Nikolaus
Amsdorf
von
Scholasticism
of
became
(1483-1565),now
hearty supporters.
In
1517
had
Luther
an
opportunityto apply his
con
new
Pope Leo X had de cided in favor of the claims of Albrecht of Brandenburg to hold of Mainz, the archbishopric time the archbishopric at the same of Magdeburg, and the administration of the bishopricof Halberstadt, an argument moving thereto being a largefinancial To indemnify himself,Albrecht secured as his share payment. half the proceedsin his district of the indulgencesthat the had been issuing,since 1506, for building that new papacy ception of salvation
church
a
of St. Peter which
commissioner
A
to
crying abuse.
of the ornaments
is stillone
for this collection
Johann
was
of Rome.
Tetzel
(1470-
eloquence,who, intent on the largestpossiblereturns, painted the benefits of indulgences terms.1 To in the crassest Luther, convinced that only a rightpersonal relation with God would bring salvation,such teaching seemed destructive of real religion.As Tetzel ap allowed to enter electoral Saxonynot proached he was Luther preached against the abuse of indulgences and, on 1519),
Dominican
a
monk
of
"
31, 1517, posted on
October
church, in the universitybulletin board, his the door
of the castle
Wittenberg,which served as memorable ever Ninety-fiveTheses.2 Viewed 1
in
See extracts
themselves, it in
Kidd, Documents
may
well be
Illustrative
wondered
why
the
of the Continental Reforma
12-20.
tion,pp. 2 Kidd, pp. 21-26 Works, pp. 6-14. ^
;
English tr.,Wace
and
Buchheim,
Luther's
Primary
THE
CONTROVERSY
WIDENS
341
Ninety-fiveThesesproved the spark which kindled the ex intended for academic debate. They do plosion.They were not deny the rightof the Pope to grant indulgences.They questionthe extension of indulgencesto purgatory, and make of current evident the abuses teaching abuses which they imply the Pope will repudiate when informed. Yet though the full round of Luther's thought, they are far from expressing evident in them certain principles which, if developed, are would be revolutionaryof the churchly practiceof the day. The habit of mind. Repentance is not an act, but a life-long The true treasury of the church is God's forgivinggrace. Christian seeks rather than avoids divine discipline."Every Christian who feels true compunction has of rightplenary re without letters of pardon." In mission of pain and guilt, even of the utmost event the restlesscondition of Germany it was an if humble, religious leader had that a respected, significance spoken boldly againsta great abuse, and the Theses ran the length and breadth of the empire. Tetzel answered the excitement. Luther had not anticipated stirred Konrad at once,1 and Wimpina (?-1531) to make the able and disputa formidable opponent was reply. A more of theologyin tious Johann Maier of Eck (1486-1543),professor who answered with a tract circu the Universityof Ingolstadt, Luther was lated in manuscript and entitled Obelwci. charged "In his positionin a sermon with heresy. He defended on By the beginning dulgence and Grace" ;2 he repliedto Eck. had been lodged in Rome of 1518, complaintsagainstLuther The by Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and the Dominicans. ordered result was that the generalof the Augustinians was summoned before the the dispute and Luther was to end generalchapterof the order met in Heidelberg,in April. There Luther argued againstfree will and the control of Aristotle in of the most one adherents, of whom new theology and won Martin Butzer (Bucer). At about the same important was time Luther elaborate defense of his position put forth a more the Resolutiones. on indulgences, Luther He seems had desired no quarrelwith the papacy. believed that the Pope might see the abuses of indul to have he did, but the course of events was as leadingto no gences the sturdy maintenance of his views or submission. choice save "
*
Kidd, pp. 30, 31.
2
Ibid.,p.
29.
CAJETANUS
AND
342
LUTHER
In
June, 1518, Pope Leo X issued and
in Rome,
commissioned of
Silvestro Mazzolini
can
position. The
Luther's
his
a
citation to Luther of
censor
books, the Domini
Prierio,to draw and
summons
to appear
opinion on opinion reached
up
the
an
early in August. Prierio asserted that "the Roman the collegeof cardinals,and more Church is representatively and that "He the supreme who says is virtually over pontiff," Church do what it actuallydoes regard that the Roman cannot 1 Luther's case would apparently ing indulgencesis a heretic." had he not had the in his condemnation have speedilyended powerful protectionof his prince,the Elector Frederick, "the In how far Frederick sympathized with Luther's relig Wise." Luther
of controversy; ious beliefs at any time is a matter and he was events proud of his Wittenberg professor, almost
an
certain
in Rome.
condemnation
His
but, at all to
averse
skill political to the papal
court change of hearingfrom the Roman legateat the Reichstag in Augsburg, the learned commentator Vio (1469-1534),known from his on Aquinas, Cardinal Thomas birthplace(Gaeta) as Cajetanus. Cajetanus was a theologian of European repute and seems to have thought the matter ordered Luther his dignity. He rather beneath to retract, of in criticisms of the completenessof papal power especially dulgence. Luther refused,2and, on October 20, fled from Augs burg, having appealed to the Pope "to be better informed."3 satisfied with this,Luther Not appealed from Wittenberg, in little 1518, to a future general council.4 How November, is shown chance of a favorable hearing he had in Rome by the month bull issued the same by Leo X definingindulgencesin
effected
the
a
which
sense
hope
of
Luther
had
criticised.5
Luther
had
real
no
If his courage was great, his danger was condemnation rescued from immediate he was
safety.
less so; but the favorable Meanwhile
turn
the
of
no
by
events. political
of 1518
summer
had
seen
the installation
as
scholar,a native Wittenberg of a young of Bretten and grandnephew of Reuchlin, PhilipMelanchthon in united with Luther to be singularly (1497-1560), who was Greek
professorof
their after work.
in
Never
was
there
a
greater contrast.
Me
without a superior but he was timid and retiring; in scholarship, and under the strong impress of Luther's per-
lanchthon
was
1
Kidd,
"
Ibid.,p. 40.
pp.
31, 32.
2
Ibid.,pp. 33-37.
6
Ibid.,p. 39.
3
Ibid.,pp. 37-39.
GREAT
LUTHER'S
344
TREATISES
Ages, and allowed final appeal only to and the Scriptures, to the Scriptures, interpreted moreover, Eck felt that the individual whole the con judgment. by ended bull be of con speedily by a papal troversy might now of the Middle
system
he
demnation, which issued
Luther ideas
was
von
lead in
a
now,
national
a
ginning to from
see
conflict with
believe normal
of the
who
those sist in
his task
vice of
as
national
a
and
of the natural
be
Protestant
one
who
one
himself
doctrine
of Luther's
thought, as
be
was
was
the
essential
life,and
goodness
denounced must
con
This
vin
life as the best field for the
most
well
could
of salvation
so
human
own
little tract, On Good Works, noblest of all good works" to
occupationsof
works
as
narrowly that they church, fastingor givingalms."2
good
His
redemption of Germany individual Pope, he was
Christ," he affirmed
trades
"limit
His
God, rather than the unnatural
to
was
in
praying in
dication
was
supporters, like
Luther
Rome.
which, rather than the
papacy
"to
which
indeed, in the thick of the battle.
coming to regard as antichrist. bearing largerfruitage. In his of May, 1520, after defining"the be
and
secure
Humanistic rapidlycrystallizing. now Hutten, were rallyingto him
were
Ulrich
to
15, 1520.1
June
on
set himself
now
as
one
limitations of
important
ser
asceticism,
contributions
of his most
partures from ancient and mediaeval Christian Luther's great accomplishment of the year
to
de significant conceptions. 1520
and
his
the preparationof completion of his title to leadershipwere The first of these treatises was three epoch-making works. publishedin August, entitled To the Christian Nobilityof the Ger with burning conviction,by a master Nation.3 Written man of the German the breadth of the empire. ran tongue, it soon walls were overthrown It declared that three Roman by which The had buttressed its power. the papacy pretended superi is baseless,since to the temporal estate orityof the spiritual all believers are priests. That truth of universal priesthood down the second casts wall, that of exclusive papal right to interpretthe Scriptures;and the third wall, also,that a re but the Pope. "A formatory council can be called by none
true, free council" for the reform 1
Kidd,
3
Translated
pp.
17-92.
pp.
2
74-79. in full in Wace
and
of the church
should
Robinson, Readings,
2
:
be
sum-
66-68.
Buchheim's, Luther's Primary Works,
GREAT
LUTHER'S moned
by thp temporal
TREATISES
authorities.
345
Luther
then
proceeded
for reformatory action,his sugges lay down a programme tions being practicalrather than theological.Papal misbe curbed; to government, appointments, and taxation are to
burdensome
offices abolished
;
German
ecclesiastical interests
be
should
placed under a "Primate of Germany" ; clerical mar riagepermitted; the far too numerous holy days reduced in the interest of industry and sobriety;beggary,includingthat of the mendicant orders,forbidden ; brothels closed ; luxury education in the universities reformed. curbed; and theological No wonder the effect of Luther's work was profound. He had had long been thinking. voiced what earnest men Two months later Luther put forth in Latin his Babylonish Captivity of the Church,1in which questionsof the highesttheo handled and the teaching of the Roman logicalimport were Church unsparinglyattacked. The sole value of a sacrament, Luther taught,is its witness to the divine promise. It seals or the God-given pledge of union with Christ and forgive attests of sins. It strengthensfaith. Tried ness by the Scripture standard, there are only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper,though penance has a certain sacramental value works of to baptism. Monastic as a return pilgrimages, vows, substitute for the forgivenessof sins merit, are a man-made freelypromised to faith in baptism. Luther criticised the denial of the cup to the laity, doubted transubstantiation,for which he would substitute a theory of consubstantiation derived from d'Ailli,and especially rejectedthe doctrine that the Supper is a
sacrifice to
God.
The
other
tion,matrimony, orders,and mental
standingin
It is one
able
Roman
confirma
sacraments,
unction, have
extreme
no
Scripture.
of the marvels
of Luther's
stormy
career
and
that he
issue, contemporaneously with and while the papal bull was intenselypolemic treatises, to
compose
sacra
was
these
being publishedin Germany, his third great tractate of 1520, that On Christian Liberty.2In calm confidence he presentedthe para dox of Christian experience: "A Christian is the most man free lord of all,and subjectto none; Christian man is the a dutiful most of all,and subjectto every one." He is servant free,since justified by faith,no longer under the law of works 1 2
Luther's Primary
Ibid.,,pp.
95-137.
Works,
pp.
141-245.
in
and
will of
unmatched
tions of Lutheranism the
BULL
with Christ. He is a servant personalrelationship bound by love to bring his life into conformity to the God and to be helpfulto his neighbor. In this tract,
elsewhere
an
PAPAL
THE
new
because
in
BURNS
LUTHER
346
measure,
evident.
are
the power To Luther
and
the limita
the
of
essence
of sins,wrought through a faith, forgiveness which, as with Paul, is nothing less than a vital,personaltrans of the soul with Christ. It is unquestion forming relationship ably the highest of Christian experiences. Its limitation,as if regarded as the alreadypointed out, is that this experience, is one sole type of true religion, beyond the practicalattain of many To this tract Luther earnest ment men. prefaceda curious document, breath letter to Pope Leo X, which is a most but full of denunciation ing good-willto the Pontiff personally, in which the of the papal court and its claims for the papacy, Pope is representedas "sittinglike a lamb in the midst of wolves." to clarifyhereafter Though Luther's vision was thus prac details,his theological regardingmany system was tically complete in its main outlines by 1520.
Gospel
is the
Meanwhile
Eck
and
Girolamo
Aleander
(1480-1542) had
papal bull,as nuncios,to Germany. In Witten berg its publicationwas refused,and its receptionin largeparts of Germany was lukewarm or hostile,but Aleander secured its publicationin the Netherlands, and procured the burning of Luther's books in Louvain, Liege,Antwerp, and Cologne. On answered December 10, 1520, Luther by burning the papal bull and the canon law, with the approving presence of students and citizens of Wittenberg, and without oppositionfrom the come
with the
civil authorities.
Germany
was
manaded
the
It
was
evident
in ecclesiastical
cognizance of
that
a
considerable
rebellion,and the
the
section of
situation
de-
of
the
highest authorities
empire. On ress,
June the
milian's
imperialelection grandson Charles Austrian
Netherlands, the
burg, master discovered
in prog in the choice of Maxi
was 28, 1519, while the Leipzigdisputation
of
a
resulted
had
(1500-1558). Heir
V
territories of the
considerable
territories
across
the
of
house
portion of Italy,and
Spain, the of Habsof
Atlantic,his election
as
newly Holy
than vaster Emperor made him the head of a territory author that of any singleruler since Charlemagne. It was an ity greatlylimited,however, in Germany by the territorial Roman
WORMS
AT
LUTHER
347
and princes. As yet Charles was young strugglesof the day unknown, and both sides in the religious he was In reality earnest had strong hope of his support. an Roman "Catholic,of the type of his grandmother, Isabella of Castile,sharing her reformatory views, desirous of improve of the
powers
local
in clerical
ment
morals, education, and
administration,but
departurefrom the doctrinal or hierarchical system of the Middle Ages. He had at last come to Germany, and partly to regulatehis government in that the land,partlyto prepare for the war about to break out over and Spain in Italy,had called a Reichs rival claims of France in November, 1520. Though there was tag to meet in Worms
wholly unsympathetic with
any
business,all felt the determination of Luther's case of high importance. The papal nuncio, Aleander, pressedfor after the final papal bull a prompt condemnation, especially other
much
Since Luther issued on January 2, 1521. againstLuther was was by the Pope, the Reichstag had no already condemned effective. duty,Aleander urged,but to make that condemnation had wide popular support, and his On the other hand, Luther ruler,the Elector Frederick the Wise, a master of diplomaticin for Luther, of the opinionthat the con trigue, was, fortunately had an adequate trial. Frederick,and monk had never demned
other nobles,believed that he should be heard before the Reichs the two coun tag previousto action by that body. Between
Emperor wavered, convinced that Luther was a damna senti ble heretic,but politician enough not to oppose German the possibleadvantage of ment too sharply,or to throw away making the heretic's fate a lever in bringingthe Pope to the imperialside in the strugglewith France. sels the
result
The
was
that
Luther
was
summoned
to
Worms
un
protectionof an imperialsafe-conduct. His journey On thither from Wittenberg was well-nigha popular ovation. April17,1521, Luther appeared before the Emperor and Reichs of his books was pointed out to him and he was tag. A row Luther requested them or not. asked whether he would recant time for reflection. A day was given him, and on the next he before the assembly. Here afternoon he was once more acknowledged that,in the heat of controversy, he had expressed but the substance of himself too strongly against persons,
der
what its
the
he had
written
he could
not
wrongfulness by Scripture or
retract, unless convinced
adequate argument.
of The
AT
LUTHER
348
WORMS
Emperor, who could hardly believe that of a generalcouncil deny the infallibility That discussion short. I stand. Here wise. but
not
seems
Luther God
of his unshaken
substance
great historic witness
to
was
temerity as cut possible, do
cried out, "I cannot
help
improbable.
such
The
Amen,"
me,
words
least
at
determination.
the truth
highest tribunal of his nation. had given the completestproof.
is not
He
his dauntless
The
the
other
certain,
expressedthe had
of his convictions Of
to
borne
a
before the courage
he
judgment of his hearers Emperor and the prelates
divided, but if he alienated the by his strong and, as it seemed to them, self-willed assertion,
was
of the German no impressionon many That Frederick. the Elector prince, on bilityand, fortunately, in his de confirmed though he thought Luther too bold, was he
made
a
favorable
that
no
the result seemed
a
termination
harm defeat
should
come
for Luther.
the reformer.
to
A
month
Yet
after Luther
journey he was formallyput under of the mem the ban of the empire,though not tillafter many to be seized for pun bers of the Reichstag had left. He was This ban was and his books burned.1 ishment never formally im of his lifeunder abrogated,and Luther remained the rest perialcondemnation. Had Germany been controlled by a strong central authority Not have would ended in martyrdom. Luther's career soon an even imperialedict,however, could be executed againstthe Frederick the Wise will of a vigorous territorial ruler,and Luther's salvation. out Unwilling to come more proved once afraid to do so, he openly as his defender, perhaps somewhat had Luther seized by friendly hands, as the reformer journeyed to the Wartburg from Worms, and carried secretly homeward Luther's hiding-place Eisenach. For months was Castle,near unknown; but that he lived and shared in the for practically of the strugglehis ready pen made speedilyapparent. tunes the Roman attacks His intense,but the on practicegrew more most lastingfruit of this period of enforced retirement was his translation of the New Testament, begun in December, 1521, Luther and published in September of the followingyear. the first to translate the Scripturesinto Ger was by no means from the Vulgate, but the earlier versions had been made man, awkward and in expression. Luther's work hard and were had
started
on
his homeward
1
Kidd, Documents,
pp.
79-89.
mus
basis,it
the
gave
the form
determined
that
literature "
and
the
from mereljj
not
was
THE
TRANSLATES
LUTHER
polishedby
idiomatic
Saxon of
master
this translation
development
of the
his deference
to the
largely
future German
mark
"
have
of
was
God,
These
been
ever
of
Word
It
chancery of the time wrought popular expression. Eew services
life religious
of criticism.
readable.
speech that should
of
greater than
canons
and
349
the labors of Eras
Greek, for which
was
of the a
TESTAMENT
NEW
rendered
Nor, with all
nation.
a
Luther
the
to
without
his
own
the relative clearness with
were
of the work of Christ and the method interpretation of salvation by faith is taught. Judged by these standards, he felt that Hebrews, James, Jude, and Revelation were of inferior worth. Even in Scriptureitselfthere were differences in value. The month which saw the beginning of Luther's work as a translator witnessed 1521 the publication in December, Wittenberg of a small volume by Melanchthon, the Loci Com meaning Cardinal Points of Theology. With it the munes, systematicpresentationof Lutheran theology may be said to arid modified have begun.1 It was to be enlarged,developed,
which
his
"
"
in many
later editions.
SECTION
SEPARATIONS
II.
DIVISIONS
AND
Luther's sojournin the Wartburg left Wittenberg without
powerful leadership;but to
there
were
not
wanting
the ecclesiasticalrevolution.
continue
ciates in the
To
von
Amsdorf
(1483-1565), there had
and
radical.
Luther
there
many
his earlier
Karlstadt,Melanchthon, university,
and
his
asso
Nikolaus
added, in the first half of the year 1521, Johann Bugenhagen (1485-1558) and Justus Jonas had (1493-1555). Of these,Karlstadt unques but was rash, impulsive, tionablygreatest natural leadership,
worship or
in monastic
had
as
been
yet made
life. Yet
it was
no
changes
in
public
inevitable that demand
for such
Luther's changes should come. fiery fellow monk, Gabriel Zwilling (1487?-! 558), by October, 1521, was de and urgingthe abandonment of clericalvows. nouncing the mass He soon had a largefollowing, especiallyin the Augustinian of which of the inmates now monastery of Wittenberg, many renounced their profession.With equal zeal Zwillingwas soon attackingimages. At Christmas, 1521, Karlstadt celebrated 1
Extracts
in
Kidd, Documents,
pp.
90-94.
350
RADICALISM.
CONSERVATISM
LUTHER'S
Supper in the castle church, without priestlygarb, elevation of the host, and with the cup sacrificial offering, offered to the laity. Auricular confession and fasts were aban doned. Karlstadt taught that all ministers should marry, and, He was in January, 1522, took to himself a wife. soon oppos and the of Gregorian chanting in pictures, ing the use organs, his leadershipthe Wittenberg city public worship. Under government broke up the ancient religiousfraternities and the Lord's
confiscated their property, decreed that the services should be in German, condemned picturesin the churches, and forbad
beggary, orderingthat reallyneedy city treasury. The public commotion
Stiibner.
the
augmented by the radical preachersfrom
was
arrival,on December 27, 1521, of three Nikolaus were Zwickau, chief of whom Thoma
be aided from
cases
claimed
These
men
infant
baptism, and
Storch
and
immediate
Markus
divine
in
prophesiedthe speedy Melanchthon somewhat shaken end of the world. was by their influence in has been them at first, though general exag added to state of a something gerated. They undoubtedly opposed spiration,
turmoil.1
rapidchanges,followed by a popular attack on images, the Wise, and they to Elector Frederick were highlydispleasing drew forth the warning protests of German princesand the im perialauthorities. Though Luther was to further,within the of the changes which Karlstadt three or four years, most next felt that his cause in peril and Zwillinghad made, he now was The city government through a dangerous radicalism. ap The Elector nominally forbad pealed to Luther to return. considerations,but on March 6, 1522, him, out of political Luther in Wittenberg, which thenceforth was more was once to be his home. Eight days of preaching showed his power. The Gospel,he declared,consisted in the knowledge of sin,in forgivenessthrough Christ, and in love to one's neighbor. These
The
which alterations,
externals.
They
eration
the
Karlstadt
of
had
should
be effected
weak.
Luther
lost all influence
turmoil,had
raised the
was
and
had
only
in
master to
leave
a
to
spiritof of the
the
do
with
consid
situation.
city. Many
undone, and the old changes were, for the moment, Luther order of worship largelyre-established. thus showed attitude. He a opposed not merely decidedly conservative of the
1
Kidd,
pp.
94-104.
Longitude
15"
West
/
EUROPE during
the
10"
from
Greenwich
5"
5"
Lo-ngitudt
j"
Reformation.
100
aoo
*
.KILOMETERS aoo
sop
T
II
"oo
Edit
(tor
**
rt
I.M
li.i.i.
Metz
"^
oBern
l'^
1512
40
Cor
Sardinia) Majorca
"app"?
SPREAD the
Romanists,
would
rulers to look
Yet
there many
kindliness,as
be
can
no
doubt
of the German
who, though
one
reallya force for order in troublous that favor of his Elector with continued especially have made his cause would even now speedy ship
condemned
Worms,
at
times, and out
with
him
upon
begun.
His action caused
wisdom.
to Luther's
as
351
heretofore,but those of the revolution who he believed,too rapidly. The separationsin
party itselfhad
the reform
REVOLUTION
THE
fas
as
move,
OF
which
was
wreck.
tied by the great war Emperor's hands were with France for the control of Italy,which to keep him was Effective interfer absent from Germany from 1522 to 1530. his part with the Reformation was ence on impossible. Pope in Leo X had closed his splendor-loving reign December, 1521, V's old Netherlandish and had been succeeded by Charles of strict mediaeval orthodoxy,but Adrian VI tutor a man as fullyconscious of the need of moral and administrative reform of twenty months brief papacy in the papal court, whose was the evils for which to be a painfullyfruitless effort to check Meanwhile
the
"
he believed
Luther's
heretical movement
to be
a
divine
pun
Sympathy with Luther was rapidlyspreading,not merely throughout Saxony, but in the cities of Germany. To the Reichstag,which in Nuremberg in November, met 1522, of the edict of Adrian now sent, demanding the enforcement amiss Worms againstLuther, while admitting that much was The Reichstag repliedby de in ecclesiasticaladministration. claringthe edict impossibleof enforcement, and by demand ing a council for churchly reform, to meet within a year in Germany, while, pending its assembly,only the "true, pure, genuine,holy Gospel" was to be preached. The old complaints renewed by the Reichstag. againstpapal misgovernment were Though not in form, it was in realitya victoryfor Luther and his cause. It looked as if the Reformation might gain the sup ishment.
port of the whole Under tions
nation.1
favorable
any
fixed constitution
convinced
that
Evangelicalcongrega regionsof Germany, as yet
circumstances
rapidlyforming in
were
without was
these
German
such
many or
order of service.
associations
of
Luther
believers had
now
full
depose their pastors. He held, also, however, that the temporal rulers,as in the positionsof chief power
to
appoint
and
1
Kidd, pp.
105-121.
CHANGES
352
in responsibility
and
power
IN
prime duty
extensive
ization within
Christian
the
The
Gospel.
community, had a experiencesof the
the necessities of actual
future, and
immediate
the
further
to
WORSHIP
PUBLIC
were territories,
to
church
turn
organ
Luther
from
had with this free-churchism to a sympathy he now To meet the demands of the strict dependence on the state. new Evangelicalworship,Luther issued,in 1523, his Orderingof Worship, in which he emphasized the central place of preach ing;his Formula of the Mass, in which, though stillusing Latin, recommended with its sacrificialimplications, the he did away cup for lay usage, and urged the employment of popularhymns in which he presented by the worshippers;and his Taufbuchlein, The abandonment of private a baptismal service in German. whatever
and
masses
for the
masses
dead, with
their attendant
fees,
problem of ministerial support, which Luther chest maintained proposed to solve by salaries from a common by the municipality. Luther held that great freedom was per of God" missible in details of worship,as long as the "Word there was kept central. The various reformed congregations, exhibited considerable variety,and the tendency to fore,soon of German the use rapidlyincreased,Luther himself issuinga Confession Luther regarded as exceed in 1526. German Mass inglydesirable as preparingthe undeveloped Christian for the Lord's Supper, but not as obligatory. Judged by the develop raised
serious
a
elsewhere,Luther's attitude in mat stronglyconservative,his principlebeing
of the Reformation
ment
of
ters
worship
"what
that
it."
the
use
employment
of
as
Thus
far the
favorable tions
contrary to Scriptureis for Scriptureand
is not
Scripturefor such
was
therefore retained much
He of
candles, the crucifix,and
tide had
running stronglyin
been
began, the effects of which to
movement,
make
Luther
were
and
1524
years
of the
first of these
tle
the humanists. with
sympathy
alone.
To
Their Luther's
admired
thinkingreform superstitionand
would
i
Kidd,
a
return
121-133.
separa
a
national
into the
arms
separationswas
leader,Erasmus, had lit
doctrine
his
rejectionof
throw
Luther
to
temporal princes. The
1525
than
party rather
a
directions
to limit the Reformation
leader,to divide Germany, and from
usage,
the illustrative
pictures.1
Luther, but with the
to
of Roman
by faith justification come by education, the
of
to
the
"sources"
of
SEPARATIONS Christian
truth.
FORCES
353
stormy writingsof Luther and the popu
The
were
with
decline
REFORM
THE
odious to becoming increasingly he was humanists alarmed generally,
lar tumult mon
IN
in attendance
the
on
him.
In
com
by the great
which universities,
German
set
in
universallywith the rise of the religious controversy, and the fading of interest in purely scholarlyquestions. Though frequentlyurged,he was long reluctant to attack Luther, how of 1524, he challengedLuther's ever; but at last,in the autumn denial of free will. To Erasmus Luther a replied, year later, with the stiffest possibleassertion of determinism and predes in the oppo to move tination,though Melanchthon was soon site direction.
incurable.
Most
the
among
The
breach
of the
between
Luther
humanists
and
deserted
of Melanchthon disciples
a
Erasmus
was
Luther, though school of Lu
younger
theran humanists To
in
slowly developed.1 Germany Luther seemed but
half-wayreformer. Such a radical was his old associate Karlstadt,who, having lost all standingin Wittenberg,went radical views to yet more on and practicesand, securinga large followingin Orlamiinde, and the Saxon He practicallydefied Luther government. some
denied
the value
of
education, dressed and
antry, destroyed images, and of
Christ
in the
Miinzer, who Romanists
letter of the tacks
less."
naming
them
dicated
a
Yet the
Scripture. A
These
and
growing
and
peasants'revolt.
dependence
on
action,he led in riotous
preached
was
a
The
third
battle
the at
againstthe "god stronglyopposed,
Luther
separation that
increasingmisery southwestern Germany, in
"
state of the German
of
better conditions
attacked
presence
in
rift in the forces of reform.
serious
more
Thomas
was
Schwarmer, i. e., fanatics; but their
long been one especiallyin
and
caused
consequent
where
neighboringSwitzerland
by
peasantry had the
unrest,
example
fed the
of
discon
With
tent. to do.
the
of
man
like them
men
revelation
alike for their
monasteries, and
on
radical
more
immediate
Lutherans
lived like the peas
rejectedthe physical presence
Even
Supper.
asserted
and
a
the peasant revolt Lutheranism had little directly Its strongest manifestations in regionsinto which were
reform
had
but
slightlypenetrated. Yet the excitement and radical popular preaching were religious un doubtedlycontributing, though not primary, causes. Begun movement
1
Kidd,
pp.
171-174.
in
PEASANTS'
THE
354
WAR
Germany in May and June, 1524, the exceedinglyformidable by the spring of the
southwestern
extreme
insurrection
was
In March, 1525, the peasants put forth twelve followingyear. articles,1 demanding the right of each community to choose and depose its pastor, that the great tithes (on grain)be used for the support of the pastor and other community expenses,
tithes abolished,that serfdom
small
the
and
be
done
away,
of the forests al the use reservations for hunting restricted, forced labor be regulatedand duly paid, lowed to the poor,
justrents fixed,new stored
communities
to
that
To
from
their
to
lands
re
taken, and
abolished.
masters
and moderate thinkingthese were age they seemed revolutionary.
Other as
longerenacted, common which they had been
no
inheritance
for
payments modern
laws
reasonable
To
requests.
of which had Thomas of peasants, one Munzer far more radical. Luther at first attempted
groups
leader,were mediate, and a
disposedto find wrong on both sides ; but he turned on the the ill-ledrisingfell into greater excesses as and peasants with his savage pamphlet,Against the Murderous Thieving Rabble of the Peasants,demanding that the princes
to
crush
them
was
great defeat of Francis I of Pavia by the imperialarmy on February 24, 1525,
with
France, near
the sword.
The
rising. The bloodshed. stamped out in frightful peasant insurrection was that occasioned by the peasants'war Of the separations, was his that disastrous. Luther felt the most Gospel undoubtedly had enabled the princesof Germany
could
not
be
involved
in the
to master
the
economic
social and
demands
of
disorderlypeasants. But the cost was great. Popular the lower orders of southern sympathy for his cause among his own distrust of the common Germany was largelyforfeited, man was augmented, his feelingthat the reform must be the work of the temporal princesgreatlystrengthened. His oppo the natural fruitage as pointed to these risings nents, moreover, of rebellion againstthe ancient church. Meanwhile the mediaeval, though in his way reformatory, the
Adrian
VI
had
November, 1523, by Giulio de' Medici character of respectable 1534) a man "
the an
in in the papacy, Clement VII (1523-
died, and had been succeeded as
but
with
little sense
of
importance of religious questions,and primarilyin policy Italian worldlyprince. To the new Reichstag assembled in 1
Kidd,
pp.
174-179.
POLITICS
356 that
AIDS
THE
desire for matrimony
had
REFORMERS share in Luther's
any
is
palpably absurd ; but, though clerical celibacywas undoubtedly favorable
from of
Rome
it was, results, union
of
time, an
ex-monk
an
the bitter
to
at the
and
a
jibeof Erasmus
added former
cause nun
that the
of
this
revolt
repudiation
in its ultimate
division,and the
seemed
to
Reformation,
give point which
had
appeared a tragedy,was reallya comedy, the end of which was a wedding.1 The suppressionof the peasant revolt had left the princes and the cities the real rulingforces in Germany, and political formed for or againstthe Reformation. combinations were now Such instituted by Duke a league of Catholics was George of Saxony and other Catholic princesmet in July, in Dessau 1525 ; and as a replyPhilipof Hesse and the new Elector John of league in Torgau. The great Saxony organized a Lutheran imperialvictoryof Pa via in the previousFebruary had resulted in the captivityof the defeated King of France, Francis I. in favor of the Emperor, and its had gone decisively The war results seemed of to be garnered by the Treaty of Madrid January, 1526, by which Francis gained his release. Both monarchs efforts to put down pledged themselves to combined indeed dark. were heresy.2 The prospects of Lutheranism this perilthe Lutheran its rescue owed From cause primarily Clement Italian prince to the Pope. VII, always more an than a churchman, was thoroughly alarmed at the increase of imperialpower in Italy. He formed an Italian leagueagainst the Emperor, which was joinedby the French King in May, Francis I repudiated the Treaty of Madrid, and now 1526. the League of Cognac ranged France, the Pope, Florence, and Venice against the Emperor. The results of Pavia seemed be fought over lost. The must war again. The Emperor's hands too full to interfere in the religious were strugglesof Germany.3 the new So it came about that when Reichstagmet in Speier in the summer of 1526, though the imperialinstructions for bad alterations in religionand ordered the execution of the Edict
of
Worms,
situation had when vance 1
the
Lutherans
were
able
to
urge
that
that
contemplated by the Emperor issued from Spain. The terrifying ad his commands were of the Turks, which was to result in the Hungarian disas-
Kidd,
pp.
changed
179,
180.
from
the
2
Ibid.,p.
180.
3Ibid.,p. 182.
ter of Mohacz
ORGANIZED
CHURCHES
TERRITORIAL
357
August 29, 1526, also counselled militaryunity.
""n
"
council Reichstag, therefore,enacted that, pending a national assembly," each of the territorialrulers of the a or empire is "so to live,govern, and carry himself as he hopes The
and
trusts
This
to
doubtless
was
princesand
Lutheran
his
and
imperialmajesty." ad interim compromise ; but the a mere it as full legal cities speedily interpreted it to
answer
God
authorization to order their ecclesiasticalconstitutions as they of Lutheran its shelter the organization terri fit. Under saw torial churches had
toward
taken
been
rapidly accomplished.Some
steps
such territorial organization even
be
now
was
Reichstag of 1526. Beyond the borders of the empire of ^the Albert of Brandenburg (1511-1568),the grand master Teutonic Knights in East Prussia,transformed his office into under the overlord ship of Poland, in hereditarydukedom a fore the
furthered the Lutheranization of the land.2 1525, and vigorously In electoral
Elector John Saxony itself,
control
active
governmental
Luther
had issued his German
Philipcaused
grave
1526, where influence
synod
a
constitution
of Francis
to was
Lambert
Order of Divine Service, decree of the Reichstag
tendencies.
Hesse, Land be held in Homberg, in October, In
adopted largelythrough the (1487-1530), a pupilof Luther.
the faithful communicants
community
each
In
a
and
Mass
greatlystrengthenedthese
now
to
were
governingbody by which pastor should from administered. Representatives discipline
bodies,a pastor and annual
an
nobles
synod
should
lay brother
also be was
earlier views.
But
common
members.4
consonant,
Luther man,
rejectedthe proposalsand electoral Saxony. In Saxony, which became creation the
1
and
largemeasure, changed. He
on
his advice
adopted instead the
in
norm
a
of territorialchurches, "visitors"
Elector
to
inquireinto
the basis of articles drawn
3
had
landgrave and high was organization an
the
Here
in
Kidd, pp. Ibid.,pp.
183-185. 193-202.
4
Luther's
had
come
to
landgrave procedure of
generalway
for the
appointed by
were
by Melanchthon 2
with
the
the
clerical doctrine up
these local
each, should constitute
from
for all Hesse, of which
proposedwhich distrust the
a
con
be chosen
stitute the and
more
ecclesiastical affairs,and
of
Reichstag.3 The
of 1526, before the
planninga
was
and
conduct
on
in 1527, and
Ibid.,pp. 185-193. Ibid.,pp. 222-230.
TERRITORIAL
358
CHURCHES
enlargedthe followingyear.1 cast
was
off,the land
The
old
of bishops, jurisdiction
divided
each into districts, administrative, but not
was
under
a
"superintendent" with spiritual, the parish minister,and in turn responsible over superiority to the Elector. driven Unworthy or recalcitrant clergywere of worship secured,and monastic property, altar out, similarity and
endowment
similar foundations
confiscated,in part for the benefit of parishchurches and schools,but largelyfor that of the electoral treasury. In a word, a Lutheran state church, coterminous with the electoral territories, and having all bap tized inhabitants as its members, was substituted for the old church. bishop-ruled
Other
similarly organized.
were
territoriesof
tion, which the confusion plorablecondition, Luther of which
the Short
aid in
To of
a
EvangelicalGermany instruc popular religious
decade
prepared
Catechism
is
had
reduced
to
catechisms
two
a
de
in 1529,
of the noblest monuments
one
of the Reformation.2
development of territorial churches could take due to favoringpolitical conditions. The Emperor place was had a tremendous with domination in Italyas its to wage war crowned prize. His brother, Ferdinand, was King of Hun November in struggle on was 3, 1527, and thenceforth gary with the Turks. Effective interference in Germany was im possible. But fortune favored the Emperor. On May 6, 1527, German Lutheran an imperialarmy containingmany recruits, VII in the castle of captured Rome, shut up Pope Clement San Angelo,and subjectedthe cityto every barbarity. Though fortune seemed to turn toward the French in the earlypart of That
this
1528, before the end of that year serted their mastery. The Pope peace
and
with France
the 5th
of
raged since
the
imperialforces compelled
was
had
the
Emperor, at Barcelona, on June 29, 1529,3 gave up the struggleby the Peace of Cambrai, on the followingAugust. The which had great war 1521
was
and
over,
Charles
V
could
now
forgeryby Otto von Pack, an Philip of Hesse and grave convinced
that
Philipdetermined 1
Kidd,
pp.
202-205.
to
the
had
by
officialof ducal the
Elector
Catholics
intended
Ibid.,pp. 205-222.
a
Saxony, the Land John of Saxony had to
attack
anticipatethe allegedplot,and 2
his
turn
attention to the suppressionof the Lutheran revolt. Nor leaders been wholly fortunate. the Lutheran Deceived
been
as
his
to make
3
was
them. arm-
Ibid.,p. 246.
"PROTESTANTS''
359
The
discovered. in 1528, when the forgerywas the relations of the to embitter effect of the incident was
two
great ecclesiasticalparties.
ing for that
purpose
these circumstances
Under
it
inevitable that when
was
the
Speier,in February, 1529, the Catholic majorityshould be stronglyhostile to the Lutheran innovators. That Reichstag now ordered, by a majority decision,that no further ecclesiasticalchanges should be made, that Roman in
Reichstag met
next
be
worship should
permittedin
authorities and
Roman of
would
have
been
orders should
be
the
that
all
allowed
rights,property, and abolition of the practical
their former
ment
lands, and
Lutheran
full enjoy This incomes.
Lutheran
terri
to defeat this
the Lutheran legislation, civil powers representedin the Reichstag,on April 19, 1529, entered a formal protest of great historic importance since it
Unable
torialchurches.
It was the party as "Protestant." of electoral Saxony, Philipof Hesse, Ernst
of designation
led to the
supportedby
John
Brandenburg-Ansbach, Wolfgang of Anhalt, and the cities Strassburg,Ulm, Constance, Nuremberg, Lindau, Kempten, Memmingen, Nordlingen, Heilbronn, Isny, St. Gallen, Reutlingen,Weissenburg, and Windsheim.1 of
Liineburg,George
The manded
of
Protestant a
prospects were defensive union, which
dark, and
Philipof
the
Hesse
situation de undertook
to
this critical juncture the Reformation cause was of reformers the threatened by division between Saxony and Switzerland,and by the rapidspreadof the Anabaptists. secure.
At
III.
SECTION
THE
SWISS
REVOLT
Switzerland,though nominally a part of the empire,had long united been practically independent. Its thirteen cantons were in a loose confederacy,each being practically a self-governing the freest in deemed republic. The land, as a whole, was in great repute as soldiers and were were Europe. Its sons by the Kings of eagerly sought as mercenaries, particularly France and the Popes. Though the generalstatus of education had penetrated the largertowns, and in was low, humanism the early decades of the sixteenth century had notably its
home
in Basel.
in humanism,
The
Swiss
in local i
reformation
was
to have
self-government,in hatred Kidd,
pp. 239-245.
its
sources
of ecclesi-
DEVELOPMENT
ZWINGLI'S
360 astical
and restraint,
in resistance to monastic
the monasteries
exactions,espe
largelandowners. Huldreich Zwingli,chief of the reformers of German-speaking born on January 1, 1484, in Wildhaus, where Switzerland,was the bailiff of the village his father was and in comfortable cir ciallywhere
An
cumstances.
the road
to
an
then
in Bern
from
1498
the
uncle, the dean of Wesen, started him on continued in Basel, and education, which was
under
the humanist
1500.
to
were
For
two
years
Universityof Vienna, where
in the
classics.
From
1502
Heinrich
to
Zwingli was
Conrad 1506
Wolflin
he
a
(Lupulus), student
in
Celtes had
great fame
continued
his studies
in the
Universityof Basel, graduating as bachelor of arts in later. At 1504, and receivingthe master's degree two years Thomas Basel he enjoyed the instruction of the humanist he gratefully remembered as Wyttenbach (1472-1526), whom the death of having taught him the sole authorityof Scripture, and the worthlessness Christ as the only price of forgiveness, of indulgences. Under such teachingZwinglibecame naturally a
humanist
Christian
of himself,eager to go back to the earlier sources belief,and critical of what the humanists generally
deemed tual His
superstition.He never passedthrough the deep spiri to Luther. experienceof sin and forgivenessthat came intellectual and radical attitude was always more religious
than
that of the Saxon
reformer.
his appoint ment, apparentlythrough the influence of his clericaluncle, as Here he studied Greek, became an in parishpriestin Glarus. The
year
of Zwingli'ssecond
graduationsaw
preacher,opposed the employment of Swiss as mer save cenaries, by the Pope, and in 1513 received a pensionfrom the continued militarysupport of the Pope, anxious to secure of his parish as the Swiss. He accompanied the young men chaplainin several Italian campaigns. He correspondedwith Erasmus and other humanists. His knowledge of the world sides.1 and he touched life on many was increasing, convinced of the moral evil of mer Zwingliwas patriotically
fluential
service,but the French,
cenary
made
so
much
trouble
to
eager
in his Glarus
enlist Swiss
soldiers,
parish that, without
re
signingthe post, he transferred his activities in 1516 to the The change brought still-famous pilgrimshrine of Einsiedeln. To this him enlargedreputationas a preacher and a student. 1
Kidd,
pp.
374-380.
IN
ZWIXGLI
361
ZURICH
Einsiedeln
sojournZwingli,always jealousof admitting indebt
edness
Luther, later ascribed his acceptance of the Evan
to
evidence that has survived points,how humanistic at advanced to littlethen beyond the more
position. The gelical ever,
life at this time was, moreover, of chastity. reproachfor breach of the vow
titude.
His
not
own
free from
to foreignmilitaryservice and reputationas opposition preacherand scholar led to Zwingli'selection by the Minster
His
a
chapter in Zurich
as
office
an people'spriest,
tered with the commencement orderlyexpositionof whole
He
of 1519. books
of the
which
on
he
en
began at once the Bible, commencing
became acquaintedwith Gospel. He now death by the to Luther's brought near writings. He was soldiering, againstmercenary plague. He preached faithfully the practice.1 that Zurich ultimately(May, 1521) forbad so by the life deepened, through bereavement His own spiritual with
death
Matthew's
of
a
beloved
brother in 1520, and
the
same
year
he
re
signedhis papal pension. Though Zwingli had thus long been
moving in the reform with 1522 that his vigorousreformatory atory direction,it was that the question first to note work began. It is interesting issue did not
at
grow,
as
with
Luther,
out
of
a
profound re
but out of the conviction that only the Bible experience, ligious the of the citizens broke Certain Christians. is binding on lenten fast,citingZwingli'sassertion of the sole authorityof preachedand published Zwinglinow Scripturein justification. The in their defense. bishop of Constance, in whose diocese to repress the innovation. Zurich lay,now sent a commission
The
cantonal civil government
ruled that the New
Testament
imposed no fasts,but that the}'should be observed for the The importance of this compromise deci sake of good order. rejected that the cantonal civil authorities practically sion was of the bishop and took the control of the the jurisdiction In the August follow hands. Zurich churches into their own ing the Zurich burgomaster laid down the rule that the pure alone to be preached,and the road to revo Word of God was lution was thus fullyopen.2 Zwinglibelieved that the ultimate authoritywas the Chris tian community, and that the exercise of that authoritywas through the duly constituted organs of civil government acting 1
Kidd,
pp.
384-387.
2
Ibid.,pp. 387-408.
REFORMATION
THE
362
with
in accordance
commands,
or
the
IN
ZURICH that which
Scriptures. Only
for which
distinct authorization
the Bible be
can
found
Hence his attitude toward in its pages, is bindingor allowable. the ceremonies and order of the older worship was much more radical
than
of Luther.
which
in
one
was
that
changes
which
gatory.
He
the
the
Really
cantonal
situation
in Zurich
introduced
government
the
Zwingli,as a trusted interpreterof Scripture and a natural popular leader, persuaded that government to sanction. Zwingli now began a process of governmental and he employed with popular education, which great success. Persuaded ordered a by Zwingli, the cantonal government public discussion,in January, 1523, in which the Bible only should be the touchstone. For this debate Zwingli prepared brief articles, sixty-seven affirmingthat the Gospel derives no authority from the church, that salvation is by faith, and the salvatory denying the sacrificial character of the mass, character of good works, the value of saintlyintercessors, the binding character of monastic vows, or the existence of pur also declared
church, and
advocated
be
to
the
sole head
of the
clerical
debate
the government affirmed that he had not
that he should
Christ
continue
marriage. In the resulting declared Zwingli the victor,in that it been convicted of heresy,and directed his preaching. It was indorsement an
of his
teaching.1 went Changes now Fees for baptisms and
Priests
rapidly. burials
were
and
done
married.
nuns
In
away.
second
a
great debate, in October, 1523, Zwingli and
his associate min
ister,Leo Jud
of
(1482-1542), attacked
sacrificial character
them, but
moved
great
debate.
choice
of
The
the
use
images and
The
government cautiously.2January, 1524, saw mass.
upholders
conformity or
images, relics,and nessed
of the
the
the
banishment.
organs
confiscation
of
were
of the
old
order and
In June
done
the with
was a
third
given
were
July, 1524,
December
away.
wit
establishments,their
monastic
property being wiselyused, in largepart, in the establishment of excellent
1525, when
schools. it too
The was
mass
abolished.
The
had complete. Episcopal jurisdiction services put into German, the sermon acteristic doctrines and ceremonies 1
Kidd,
pp.
408-423.
till Holy Week
continued
transformation been
made of the 2
thrown
of was
off, the
central,the char older
Ibid.,pp.
worship
424-441.
done
LUTHER
AND
ZWINGLI
304
Zwingli'snature
IN
intellectual and
was
CONTEST
critical. In
point
no
diversityfrom Luther more ap of the Lord's their unlike than in interpretation Supper, parent and here their disagreementunfortunatelyultimatelysundered Luther Christ's words, "This is To the Evangelicalranks. His deep religious true. feelingsaw literally body, were my in an actual partakingof Christ the surest pledge of that union of sins of which the Supper was with Christ and forgiveness the divinelyattested promise. But as early as 1521 a Dutch lawyer, Cornelius Hoen, had urged that the proper interpre tation is "This body." Hoen's argument came signifies my the symbolic under notice in 1523, and confirmed to Zwingli's standing of the words to which the Swiss theologian was he denied any physicalpresence already inclined. Henceforth charac of Christ in the Supper, and emphasized its memorial ter and its significance as unitinga congregationof believers attestation of loyaltyto their Lord. in a common By 1524 had led to an embittered the rival interpretations controversy side and Bugenhagen on the one of pamphlets in which Luther and Zwingli and (Ecolampadius on the other,and their respec of tive associates,took most important work part. The his [Great]ConfessionConcerningthe Lord's Sup Luther's was either side. To shown Little charity was on per, of 1528. Zwingli Luther's assertion of the physicalpresence of Christ of Catholic superstition.A phys was an unreasoningremnant ical body could be only in one place. To Luther Zwingli'sin above Scripture, sinful exaltation of reason was a terpretation of Christ on and he sought to explain the physicalpresence altars at once ten thousand by a scholastic assertion,derived of Christ's divine na largelyfrom Occam, that the qualities human communicated to His ture, includingubiquity,were of Christian doctrine
his
was
"
that the be anxious, also, to maintain liever partook of the whole divine-human Christ,and to avoid nature.
any
Luther
was
dismemberment
of His
his supporters to be that Luther worse was and
no
many.
The
Roman
declared
met
but
the the
champion, not only of approval Roman
of much
of southwestern
party rejoicedat this evident
Evangelicalforces. the most Zwingli was
Zwingli
Christians,while Zwingli affirmed
than
Zwingli'sviews, however, man-speaking Switzerland
Luther
person.
Eck. Ger Ger
division of
the
giftedof
any
of the reformers
politi-
ZWINGLI'S
POLITICAL
PLANS
cally,and
developed plans
in the end
futile.
walden,.and
365
far-reaching, though
were
old rural cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterstronglyconservative and opposed to
The
Zug,
which
DEATH
AND
were
the
changes in Zurich, and with them stood Lucerne, the whole a constituting vigorous Roman party. By April,1524, these had formed offset this effort and a league to resist heresy. To to Evangelical preaching into yet wider territories, carry Zwingli now proposed that Zurich enter into alliance with and Savoy, and France began negotiationswith the dispos sessed Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg. Matters drifted along, the organizationof "The but a more successful attempt was Christian
Civic Alliance," late in 1527, between Zurich St. Gallen and Constance,1 a league to which Bern added
in
1528, and
Biel,Miilhausen,
Basel, and
and were
Schaffhausen
in 1529.
Though Strassburgjoinedearly in 1530, the league far less extensive than Zwingliplanned. As it was it was was divisive of Swiss unity,and the conservative Roman cantons formed
a
Austria
counter
"
in 1529.
Christian
"
Union
and
secured
alliance with
Hostilities were
begun. But Austrian help for the Roman June 25, not forthcoming,and on party was made between the two partiesat Kappel, on 1529, peace was favorable Zurich and the Zwinglians.2 The terms to very league-with Austria was abandoned. Zurich was at the height of its power, and was now widely head of the Evangelicalcause. Yet regarded as the political the peace
had
been
but
a
truce, and
when, in 1531, Zurich tried
force
cantons Evangelicalpreaching on the Roman by an of food to them, war embargo on shipment more was once certain. ade Zurich, in spiteof Zwingli'scounsels,made no Roman cantons quate preparation for the struggle. The moved rapidly. On October 11, 1531, they defeated the men of Zurich in battle at Kappel. Among the slain was Zwingli himself. In the peace that followed3 Zurich was compelled to abandon its alliances, and each canton was given full rightto of the regulate its internal religiousaffairs. The progress Reformation in German-speakingSwitzerland was permanently halted, and the lines drawn as substantially they are to-day. In the leadership of the Zurich church, not in his political succeeded ambitions, Zwingli was by the able and conciliatory
to
Heinrich 1
Kidd,
Bullinger(1504-1575). p. 469.
*
/^. j
p. 470.
The
Swiss s
movement,
jbidtfpp. 475.476.
as
a
ANABAPTISTS
366
IN
ZURICH
whole, was to be modified and greatlydeveloped by the genius of Calvin; and which their spiritual to the churches trace Re parentage to him, and thus in part to Zwingli,the name formed," as distinguishedfrom "Lutheran," was ultimately "
be
to
given. SECTION
It has been worked
once
way
with Luther Such
Among
those
innovations both soon
the This
THE
ANABAPTISTS
said, in speakingof Karlstadt, that
reformer.
ence.
IV.
feel that he
to
came even
more
had
been
in
forward
most
Conrad
were
a
half
largelyZwingli'sexperi
was
who
in Zurich
but
was
who
some
Grebel
favoring
Felix Manz,
and
from
prominent families of the city. They and others in the application of to feel that Zwingli's came leadership Biblical test to Zurich practiceswas far too conservative. element
first came
into evidence
bate, in October, 1523 immediate
imagesand
authorities
in participant
second
not
were
that debate
was
of the
great de
it demanded
(ante,p. 362), where
abolition of
the cantonal
the
at
mass
steps for which
"
yet fullyready. An
as
Balthasar
the
Hubmaier
abler
(1480?-
then colleagueand friend of Luther's a pupil, 1528), once nent, Eck, but now preacherin Waldshut, on the northern
oppo
edge of Switzerland. Led to Evangelical views by Luther's writings in 1522, he was successfully urging reform in his city. As to doubt infant baptism,and earlyas May, 1523, he had come had discussed it with Zwingli, who, accordingto his testimony, then sympathized with him. based His criticisms were on of for administration to infants.1 By want warrant Scriptural Grebel
1524
but itwas
and
had
Manz
reached
not tillearlyin 1525 that
the
conclusion,2
same
they or Hubmaier
translated
theory into practice. Their
with
criticisms led, in
Zwingli,as
ties of Zurich
dently been
a
consequence
ordered
delay
January, 1525,
on
of which
all children the
part of
baptized
some
this seemed
ter 1
to
the
Kidd,
Word
p. 451.
a
command
of God. 2
publicdebate
a
the cantonal "
there
from
"
3
evi
had
and
Roubli.3
by an earthlypower of They and some
Ibid.,p. 452.
authori
in par and disputing,
parents
ticular directed Grebel and Manz to cease banished the priestof Wytikon, Wilhelm men
to
To
to act
these coun
their friends
Ibid.,pp. 453, 454.
SPREAD
gathered in
7, 1525, and there Manz,
ruary
instituted believers' baptism a
baptizedin Waldshut These
a
monk,
by sprinkling.A few weeks later was
by Roubli.1
constituted
acts
Georg Blaurock, once
or
Feb
occurred, and after Easter, Hubmaier
of immersion
case
367
Zurich,on
in Zollicon,near
privatehouse
a
ANABAPTISTS
THE
OF
the
separate communions.
groups
nicknamed "Anabaptists," or By their opponents they were rebaptizers.Really, since they denied the validityof their and "Bap was inappropriate, baptism in infancy,the name tists would be the truer designation ; but as a titleconsecrated of the Reformation by long usage to a remarkable movement "
the
age,
in March,
ernment,
The
is convenient.
name
common
more
1526, ordered
Zurich
gov
in
Anabaptistsdrowned,
parody of their belief,and a few months later Manz thus suffered martyrdom.2 Zwingli opposed them with much hideous
in
bitterness,but with littlesuccess
winning them
from
their
position.3 Hubmaier
Waldshut
In
community, opinionsby
and
was
even
soon
gathered a large Anabaptist
more
successful in
propagating his
his pen. In his view the Bible is the sole law of the church, and according to the Scriptural test the proper order of Christian development is,preaching the Word, hear
ing, belief,baptism, works with
Bible
the
volved
in the
is doubtful maier
had
to
its law.
as
latter
a indicating
Waldshut, however,
peasant revolt
"
and
"
the
"
in how
far
in
soon
through Hubmaier
collapseof that movement. the city was Catholic. once more
shared the
fly,and
was
life lived
Hub Im
prisonedand tortured in Zurich, he fled to Moravia, where he with much success. propagated the Anabaptist movement had These the effect of spreading the Ana persecutions baptistpropaganda throughout Germany and the Netherlands. The assumed movement soon especially great proportions, among ant
the lower
revolt had
the miserable failure of the peas distrust of the Lutheran cause, now
when classes,
caused
deep
wholly associated with territorialprincesand aristocratic city magistrates. In the stillCatholic parts of the empire the Ana On baptistpropaganda practically superseded the Lutheran. the other hand, Anabaptist rejectionof princelycontrol but of the Lutheran and Roman authori strengthenedthe hostility ties. In February, 1527, a meeting of Anabaptist leaders was 1
Kidd,
pp.
454, 455.
2
Ibid.,p. 455.
3
Ibid.,pp. 456-458.
OF
BELIEFS
368
ANABAPTISTS
THE
articlesof faith were drawn up by held in Schlatt,where seven and worthy former monk. In them Michael Sattler, earnest an church is regarded as asserted. The believers' baptism was
composed only
of local associations of
baptized experiential observance by common
the body is excommunication. of the Lord's Supper; its only weapon Absolute rejectionof all "servitude of the flesh,"such as the Christians
"
united
of Christ
as
worship of the Roman, Lutheran, and Zwinglian Churches, is Each demanded. officers congregation is to choose its own its discipline.While civil gov and administer through them is stilla necessityin this imperfectworld, the Chris ernment should he take any form tian should have no share in it,nor ideas which were of oath. Here were to be represented,in and by later Baptists,Congregationalists, varying proportions, Quakers, and through them to have a profound influence on the religious development of England and America. The Anabaptistideal implied a self-governing congregation, independentof state or episcopalcontrol,having the Bible as its law, and livinga rather ascetic life of strict conformity to of supposedly Biblical requirements. literal interpretation a stillin dispute. By some of these opinionsare The sources the Anabaptistsare regarded as the radicals of the Reforma interest in Bible read tion period; by others as the fruit of new ingby the literal-minded ; by stillothers as revivals of mediaeval anti-Roman
sects.
There
Anabaptists themselves with
is truth in all these had
no
theories.
they
pre-Reformationmovements;
made
connection
of
consciousness
The
the
Bible
liter
of their characteristics are undoubt allytheir law, but many edly pre-Reformation.Such is their view of the Bible as a and law in church to which new state, through obedience God's favor is to be preserved. They had as littlesympathy with Luther's conception of the Gospel as summed up in the conceptionof salvation forgivenessof sins,as with the Roman is their ascetic Pre-Reformation through the sacraments. view
of the Christian
conceptionof the state of a unworthy of the participation
life. So is their
concession to sin,and Christian in its administration.
as
a
Such, also, are
their strong
apocalypticand mysticaltendencies. The
views
which
have
been
indicated
overwhelming majority of Anabaptists; but ment
attracts
extremists,and
there
were
those
were
not
radical
a a
few
who
of the move
went
MARTYRS
ANABAPTIST
Anabaptists
as
all
Scripture,saw
of
love, and
Associated
Haetzer, the Old
to
humanist
learned
the
was
the
taught an inner lightsuperiorto Christ only the highest human example
(?-1527), who
Denk
Johann
Such
whole.
a
of regarded as representative
he
cannot further,tyut
much
369
in
held
that
in these
with Denk whom
the learned
opinions,was
sin.
live without
may
Ludwig
due, with Denk's aid, a translation of beheaded propheticalbooks, but who was
was
Testament
for adulteries
Christian
the
at
in
Constance
The
1529.
radical
preacher,
rapid spread of Ana the working classes of south Germany baptist views among and Austria was due, declared himself a prophet,affirmingthat persecutionof the saints would be immediately followed by the destruction of the empire by the Turks, followingwhich be gathered,and by them all priestsand event the saints would visibly unworthy rulers destroyed, whereupon Christ would had Hut In Hubmaier, a vigorous opponent, reign on earth. but Hut's preaching ended only with his death, in 1527 in Augsburg, through burns received in an attempt to escape radical of the more from the prison by settingit afire. Some Anabaptist leaders taught community of goods and social Hut,
Hans
to
whose
work
of the
much
revolution. Catholic of the authorities,
Everywhere the hand was gelical, heavy on estant
the
Anabaptists though "
rather
banishment
territories used
martyred. In penalty. Their leaders were death by drowning in Zurich, while Sattler was wife drowned next near Rottenburg. The was
burned
burned
in Vienna
in the
great numbers
Tyrol of
and in
their
his wife drowned.
1529.
With
followers.
Yet
these the
and
Evan Prot
most
than
the
1527
Manz
burned year
death met
and
his
Hubmaier
Blaurock leaders movement
was
perished con
exceedinglyperilousfor the spread,and by 1529 was Protestant cause, being looked upon by the Catholics as the of revolt from Rome, dividing the forces legitimateoutcome of reform, and to the thinking of the Lutherans bringing the There be no doubt that into discredit. can Evangelicalcause to at was one important effect of the Anabaptist movement tach the Lutherans more stronglyto the conception of prince the only guar and as magistrate ruled territorial churches antee of good order and of effective oppositionto Rome.
tinued
to
THE
370
SECTION
MARBURG
GERMAN
V.
COLLOQUY
PROTESTANTISM
ESTABLISHED
successful conclusion of the great war VII had reconciliation with Pope Clement The
free,in 1529,
interfere
to
at
last
with France
and
left the Emperor
in effectively
German
affairs.
Reichstag of Speier,of that year, alarmed at Lutheran and the spread of the Anabaptists,and conscious of progress the change in the Emperor's prospects, had forbidden further ordered the restoration of Lutheran advance, and practically Roman minority had pro episcopalauthority. The Lutheran situation Philip of Hesse had at tested. In this threatening and Swiss defensive league of all German a tempted to secure the doctrinal Evangelicalforces. The chief hindrances were but Philiphoped that they the two parties, differences between might be adjusted by a conference, and though Luther was opposed, consent was at last secured,and October 1, 1529, saw face to face with Zwingli and Luther and Melanchthon met castle in Marburg. in Philip's With them were (Ecolampadius, of the lesser leaders of both parties. During the number a Luther succeedingdays the Marburg colloquyran its course. somewhat was suspiciousof the soundness of the Swiss on the doctrines of the Trinityand originalsin,but the real point of the presence absence difference was of Christ's physical or body in the Supper. Luther held firmly to the literal inter pretationof the words: "This is My body." Zwingli urged the familiar argument that a physicalbody could not be in time. two places at the same Agreement was impossible. Zwingliurged that both partieswere, after all,Christian breth declared: "You have a different spiritthan ren, but Luther The
we."
x
Yet
Philipwould
thus
not
let the hope of
a
protectiveleague
he persuaded the two vanish, partiesto draw up fifteen articles of faith. On fourteen there was agreement. The
and
fifteenth had
unanimity on Articles both should
show
of each
Kidd,
do the
may
with one
Supper, and here point as to the nature
sides
Christian love
permit."
stated. the
to the other
Luther
the conviction that he
pp. 247-254.
were
signedwith
now
there
the
the differences
2
burg with 1
all save
where
presence,
to
and was
as
of Christ's
These
Marburg
provisionthat "each far
as
the conscience
Zwingli each the victor. 2
was
On
left Mar the way
Ibid.,pp. 254, 255.
"AUGSBURG
THE
372
of events, Luther,
course
and
Augsburg
to
come
made
Nor
fellow Protestants.
was
Melanchthon.
His purpose had departed in no vital and
Church,
or
from
even
the
imperialban,
under
as
remained
his draft and
modified
CONFESSION"
in
could
not
Melanchthon
Coburg.
concessions,till checked
by
his
it wholly conciliation that moved was
to
show
that
the
essential respect from Roman
Church,
as
Lutherans
the Catholic
revealed in its
is expresslyaffirmed, and ancient heresies are carefully On repudiatedby name. many the other hand, Zwinglian and Anabaptist positionsare ener That
earlier writers.
agreement
rejected. The getically asserted. The expressly demned.
The
tioned.
Yet
universal priesthood of believers is not Melanchthon a thoroughly Protestant gave
confession
the
to
sole authorityof Scriptureis nowhere is nowhere con categorically papacy
as
whole.
a
men
tone
Justification by faith is ad of the church made notes
mirably defined, the Protestant evident; invocation of saints,the
mass,
denial
of the
cup,
fastingrejected. prescribed Emperor Zwingli sent a vigorous expressionof his views, which received scanty attention. A more significant of a jointconfession by the Zwinthe presentation event was monastic To
and
vows,
the
south German cities,Strassburg, Constance, glian-inclined the ConfessioTetrapolitanalargely Memmingen, and Lindau from the pen of Butzer, in which a positionintermediate be maintained. that of the Zwingliansand Lutherans tween was The papal legate,Cardinal Campeggio, advised l that the confession be examined theologians present in by Roman Augsburg. This the Emperor approved, and chief among "
these
experts
Melanchthon old opponent, Eck. concessions that would have ruined the
Luther's
was
willingto make
was
whole
"
cause,2 but fortunatelyfor it the Evangelical
Lutheran
of sterner stuff. The Catholic theologianspre princeswere to them sent back by the pared a confutation, which was Emperor and Catholic princesas too polemic,and was at last presentedto the Reichstag in much milder form on August 3. and committees The Emperor stillhoped for reconciliation, of conference a
result to which
Catholic
Kidd,
appointed;
Luther's
majority voiced
the Lutherans 1
now
were
had
pp. 289-293.
been 2
but
their work
was
vain
"
largelycontributed.3 The the decision of the Reichstag that duly confuted, that they be given firmness
Ibid.,pp. 293, 294.
3
Ibid.,p. 290-
LEAGUE
373
tillApril15, 1531, to conform; that combined
action be had
SCHMALKALDIC
THE
againstZwingliansand Anabaptists,and that a generalcouncil The re be sought within a year to heal abuses in the church. constituted imperiallaw court should decide,in Catholic inter Lutherans of secularization.1 The protested,de est, cases clared their confession
refuted, and
not
attention
called
to
Apology,or defense of the confession,which he the vanity of concessions was had hastilyprepared when at That Apology, rewritten to him. last becoming apparent even of the classics to be one and publishedthe next year (1531),was Melanchthon's
of Lutheranism. Such
defensive union.
situation demanded
a
Even
Luther,
had held it a sin to oppose the Emperor by force,now of such resistance to willingto leave the rightfulness
who
decision of the lawyers. At in Schmalkalden
assembled
and
the Lutheran
Christmas
of
laid the foundations
was
the
princes a
league.
unremitting,persuaded Strassburg to accept the Augsburg Confession an example which cities. Finally,on had great effect on other south German completed. February 27, 1531, the Schmalkaldic league was Electoral Saxony, Hesse, Brunswick, Anhalt, and Mansfeld stood in defensive agreement with the cities Strassburg,Con Lindau, Isny, Bibestance, Ulm, Reutlingen,Memmingen, rach, Magdeburg, Bremen, and Llibeck.2 Strong as the positionof Charles V appeared on the surface it was not so in realityin the face of this united opposition. Butzer, whose
union efforts
were
"
The
jealousof one another and of the The Pope feared a generalcouncil. France was The fatal day" April 15, 1531reckoned with.
Catholic
Emperor. still to
be
princeswere
therefore passed without
1531, the death
the
result.
threatened
In
October,
Zwingli at Kappel (ante,p. 365) deprived Evangelicalismof its vigoroushead, and inclined south
Swiss German
berg.
of
Protestantism The
springof
to
1532
closer union
brought a
with
new
of Witten
that
danger to
the
empire
whole, that of Turkish invasion. In 1529 the Turks had differences besiegedVienna, and before their advance religious On July 23, 1532, the Emperor to giveway. had, in a measure,
as
a
and
by
the Schmalkaldic which
all
dropped 1
Kidd,
and
pp.
leagueagreed to the truce of Nuremberg, secularizations should be existinglawsuits over peace
298-300.
was
assured
to
the
Protestants 2
Ibid.,p.
301.
until
a
PROTESTANT
374
generalcouncil,or at Shortly after Charles to
least V
a
new
Reichstag,should
assemble.1
left
Germany for Italyand Spain, not Though stillprecarious,the Protestant
till 1541.
return
GROWTH
outlook had
greatlyimproved. territories. By 1534 new now rapidly won Anhalt-Dessau, Hanover, Frankfort, and Augsburg had been the conquest for Protes gained. Of even was greater moment tantism of Wurttemberg by Philip of Hesse, from the Em peror'sbrother,Ferdinand, and the restoration of its Duke Ulrich aided by Catholic jealousyof the power a result greatly of the house of Habsburg. The death of Duke George,in 1539, followed by the triumph of Protestantism in ducal Saxony, was Protestantism
"
and won
the
same
from
a
year
cautious adhesion
to the Reformation
was
electoral
Brandenburg. This growing victoryof Lutheranism
episodeof 1533-1535, in
which
robbed
aided
was
Anabaptism
by
a
tragic
of its influ
the Miinster revolution. The Anabaptists Germany in generalwere peaceable,if rather ignorant, people,of great in persecution. religious earnestness, and patient endurance The Miinster not episode was typicalof them as a whole. ence
Yet
there
"
were
(ante,p. 369)
among was
chior Hoffmann.
an
them
many
radicals of whom
earlyexample. Such
At first
a
devoted
a
leader
Hans
Hut
was
Mel-
Lutheran, he became
an
equally earnest Anabaptist,with added claims to prophetic in Friesland. He declared inspiration.His great success was that Strassburghad been divinely designatedas the new Jerusalem, where he, as the prophet of the new dispensation, should suffer imprisonment for six months, but with 1533 the end of the world would come, and all who opposed the "saints" be destroyed. In this faith he went his to Strassburg,and prophecy was so far fulfilledthat he was there imprisoned,and in prisonhe remained tillhis death in 1543. Hoffmann's
apocalypticpreachingwon
the Netherlands.
many
in disciples
Mathys, a baker of Har lem, gave himself forth as the prophet Enoch, and soon spread fanatical propaganda widely through the Netherlands and a adjacent parts of Germany. Unlike Hoffmann, who would wait for the power of God to bring in the new age, Mathys would inaugurateit by force. Popular democratic discontent gave him his opportunity. of these,Jan
One
1
Kidd, pp. 302-304.
Nowhere
this
was
was
Mathys It
was
after,and
soon
Evangelicalpreacher,
January, 1534. Thither came tailor of Leyden, Jan Beukelssen. had rejectedStrassburg by God
a
that
asserted
now
in
in
for radical views
won
the
Rothmann,
375
influentialthan
teachingmore
new
Bernt
Miinster, where
TRAGEDY
MUNSTER
THE
of its unbelief,and chosen Miinster as the new Jeru salem in its stead. Radicals flocked thither in largenumbers. In February, 1534, they gained the mastery of the city,and reason
drove
bishop
who
those
out
Jan
Beukelssen
bloodilyput
new
order.
proclaimed King.
was
The killed
was
Polygamy
of goods enforced, all opponents
established,community
was
accept the
not
laid siegeto the city. Mathys
of Miinster
in battle.
would
The
down.
struggle, though heroically maintained, Catholic and Lutheran was bishop, aided by troops, capturedthe cityon June 24, 1535, and the surviving For German leaders were torture. put to death by extreme a catastrophe. Such fanaticism was pop Anabaptism it was ularlysupposed to be characteristic of the Anabaptists,and of ignominy. For Lutheranism it was became the name one a
hopeless.The
It freed the Lutheran
gain.
Lutheranism
from
cause
the
Anabaptistrivalry,
positivelythan before a party of princelyand middle-class sympathies. As for the itselfit came, in the Nether especially Anabaptist movement but
it made
more
even
anti-fanatical leadership wise, peace-loving, of Menno Simons its worthy reorganiza (1492-1559),to whom the term "Mennonite" tion was due, and from whom primarily
lands, under
the
is derived.
Charles V
had
ceased
never
to
hope
and
to labor for
eral council,by which the divisions of the church effected. From healed and administrative reforms VII
he
could
not
it.
secure
Paul
III
a
gen
could
be
Clement
(1534-1549), who
suc
ceeded Clement, though by no means a single-hearted religious much had of the gravity more appreciationthan Clement man, of the situation caused
He promptly ap by the Reformation. pointed as cardinals Gasparo Contarini (1483-1542), Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547), Reginald Pole (1500-1558), and Gio
vanni in
Pietro Caraffa
(1476-1559), all
men
who morals, zeal,and administration,
in 1538, extensive
recommendations
ments.1
III
By
Paul
a 1
pp.
of reform
laid before the
Pope,
for ecclesiastical better
general council
Kidd,
desirous
307-318.
was
actuallycalled
OF
376
PLANS
to meet
In Mantua
between
Charles its
made
he
in 1537. V
and
CHARLES
Before
Francis
the date
I of France
assembly impossible. Charles
council,and
the
EMPEROR
THE
demanded
before
of the
time
the
kalden, in February, 1537, that they
have
assembled to take
agree
war
his heart
set
it should
that
new
(1536-1538) had
had
leaders
Protestant
set the
on
opened
in Schmal-
part.
The
imperialorder put them in a difficultposition. They had long talked of a general council. Luther had appealed to such a clearlythat they gatheringas early as 1518. But they saw would be outvoted, and they refused to share in the council in an Italian city,and under the dominance of the Pope. as that a council was Charles saw impossiblefor the time, tried the experiment of reunion discussions. and he now Such later were actuallyheld in Hagenau in June, 1540, in Worms in the same Melanchyear, and in Regensburg in April,1541. .thon,Butzer, Calvin, and
others
took
part in
one
or
of
more
and others the Protestant side ; Eck, Contarini, the colloquies on The It was the Catholic. in vain, however. differences on too vital for compromise. were It
evident to Charles
was
hopeless,and that general council unless was
could
first be
V
the
that the pathway of conciliation
Protestants
their
military and
That
reduced.
would
union
of
share
not
in
a
politicalstrength interests
Protestant
concerns. perilto imperialauthorityin political what little in the It was left breaking hopelessly unity was hesitations, empire. Charles,therefore,slowlyand with many his He would have a general council developed great plan. in being. He would so reduce the strengthof Protestantism by no
was
less
force that
a
the
arbiter; and sions
as
correct
would such
Protestants
the council
would could
accept the council
then
be needful for the reunion abuses
Protestants
as
such
make
and
as
minor
a
conces
of Christendom,
Catholics
final
alike
and con
three preliminary plan he must secure divide the Schmalkaldic results. He league must, if possible, attack and the off of he ward French must politically danger ; ; perilof Turkish invasion must, for a time at ever-threatening demned.
To
realize this
least,be minimized. The
by one of the most Landgrave Philipof kaldic
dividingthe Protestants was aided curious episodesof Reformation history. Hesse, the political genius of the Schmal
Emperor's purpose
league,though
of
sacrificialin devotion
to
the
Protestant
princesof
like most
was,
cause,
BIGAMY
PHILIP'S
LANDGRAVE
that age,
a
377
of low per daughter of Duke man
morality. Though married earlyto a children,he George .ofSaxony, who bore him seven sonal
to
that, from
the extent but
Supper
He
once.
1526 grew
improving his
without
tained the
thought
of
to
anxious
second
partook of
he
1539
as
For
conduct. a
no
af
adulteries troubled his conscience
His constant
fection for her.
had
to
the Lord's
his soul's
some
he
years
marriageas
a
salvation, enter
solution of his
had Old Testament worthies The practised perplexities. it. forbad Testament nowhere The New expressly polygamy. This strengthenedby reasoningwas Why should not he? der Sale,an attractive seven with Margarete von acquaintance daughter of a lady of his sister's little court. teen-year-old
mother's
The
consent
was
won
on
condition that
the Elector
others should be informed Saxony, and some first wife also con that it was to be a real marriage. Philip's sented. Philipwas fullypersuadedhimself of the rightfulness
and
the duke
of
he desired the of the step, but for the sake of publicopinion, approval of the Wittenberg theologians.He therefore sent he partlypersuaded,partly Strassburg,whom frightenedwith threats of seekingdispensationfrom the Em now peror or the Pope, into full support of his plan. Butzer Luther and became to Melanchthon, and Philip'smessenger to the Saxon Elector,though the matter was presentedas an
for Butzer
of
of the person with whom without mention question, 10, 1539, Luther marriagewras contemplated. On December and Melanchthon gave their opinion. Polygamy they declared
abstract
to be
contrary to the primal law of creation,which
Christ had
required oftentimes treatment If Philipcould not which did not conform to the generalrule. he proposed his life,it would be better to marry reform as than to live as he was doing. The marriage should, however, be kept absolutelya secret, so that the second wife should ap The be a concubine. advice wras to thoroughly bad, pear been moved to have though the Wittenberg reformers seem soul. by a sincere desire to benefit Philip's honorable than the advice. On March 4, Philipwas more married in be what, though private,cannot 1540, he Margarete A court called secret fashion. preacher performed the cere and Melanchthon, Butzer, and a representative of the mony, approved ;
Saxon
but
Elector
a
were
specialcase
among
the witnesses.
Though
an
attempt
THE
378
made
was
EMPEROR to
sible. Luther
could
The The
scandal
only advise to
declare:
"
proved impos good strong lie ; but Philip soon
"
a
"I will not
great, both among
was
BLOW
THE
the affair private,that
keep
manly enough
was
PREPARES
lie."
Protestants
and Catholics.
other
Evangelicalprinceswould not defend Philip'sact in or promise protectionfrom its results. The Emperor saw it his opportunity. On June 13, 1541, he secured an agree from Philip,as the priceof no worse ment that consequences, the landgrave would neither personally, nor as representative of the Schmalkaldic league,make alliances with foreignstates. The hopeful negotiationswith France, England, Denmark, and Sweden, which would have greatlystrengthenedthe power of the Schmalkaldic league against the Emperor had to be dropped. Worse than that, Philiphad to promise not to aid the Evangelically inclined Duke Wilhelm of Cleves,whose rights Gelders Charles disputed. As the Saxon Elector was Wilover helm's
brother-in-law,and
determined
division in the Schmalkaldic
ous
showed
its disastrous
support him,
to
league was
the
a
seri
result,which
Emperor de feated Wilhelm, in 1543, took Gelders permanently into his own to possession,and forced Wilhelm repudiate Lutheranism. This defeat rendered abortive a hopeful attempt to secure the of Cologne for the Protestant cause.1 great archbishopric Fortune III
was
consequences
when
the
favored
Charles in the rest of his programme. persuaded to call the General Council to
Paul meet
in
then belongingto the empire, but practically Trent, a town Italian,in 1542. War caused a postponement, but in Decem to ber, 1545, it at last actuallybegan its sessions,which were run
a
checkered
and
course interrupted
till 1563.
but
By vague, Reichstag in
indefinite, promises Charles secured, at the Speier in 1544, the passive support of the Protestants, and active assistance, for the wars some against France and the Turks. The Em brief. The campaign against France was peror, in alliance with Henry VIII of England, pushed on nearly to Paris,when, to the surprise of Europe he made with peace the French King, without, apparently,gaining any of the advantages in his grasp. Really, he had eliminated French interference in possibleaid of German Protestantism for th immediate future.2 The in Persia, Turks, busy with a war and internal quarrels,made with the Emperor in truce a 1
Kidd,
pp. 350-354.
2
Ibid.,p.
354.
INTERIMS
THE
380
half his cousin's territories. Politically crushed. Only a few northern cities,of
the electoral titleand Protestantism which
was
Madgeburg
the
was
princesstilloffered
chief, and
a
few
the
Pope. back
drawn
had politically
Paul
III had
that fearing
powerful. Charles tillhe had have
been
never
aided
on
had
just crushed
wished
such minor
him
the Council of Trent
ready
concessions
as
but
had
grow
too
to move
recognizeit.
to
might
with
terms
worse
early in the war, the successful Emperor might
the Protestants
it make
northern
resistance.
Yet, curiouslyenough, the Emperor who Protestantism
minor
slowly
He
then
would seem
to
prejudice. The Pope wished the council It had already, to define Catholic faith quickly and go home. tradition by April,1546, made agreement difficult by defining of faith.1 To minimize of authorityin matters to be a source imperialinfluence the Pope declared the council adjourned to Bologna in March, 1547. This transfer the Emperor refused to recognizeand declined to be bound by the Tridentine de method of religious Some cisions already framed. agreement which live tillthe be reached under heal must Germany could ing of the schism which Charles expected from the council. ecclesiastical commission The Emperor, therefore, had an This was draft an Interim. Roman, while granting essentially the cup to the laity, permittingclerical marriage and limiting the powers of the Pope. The Catholic princesrefused slightly The it. to accept it as applying to them. Pope denounced Charles had to abandon hope of making it a temporary reunion but secured its adoption on June 30, 1548, by the programme, This Reichstagin Augsburg as applyingto the ex-Protestants. proceeded to enforce with a heavy Augsburg Interim he now hand. Moritz of Saxony had done such service to the imperial that a modification,known the Leipzig Interim was as cause allowed in his lands. It asserted justification by faith alone, allay
Protestant
but re-established
much
of Roman
usage
and
government.
To
it Melanchthon
reluctantlyconsented, regarding its Roman For this weak adiaphora,"or non-essential matter. parts as of he was ness bitterlydenounced by the defiant Lutherans unconquered Magdeburg, notably by Matthias Flacius Illy"
ricus
Amsdorf von (1483-1565). (1520-1575) and Nikolaus Lutheranism maintain did much to Flacius,especially, popular 1
Kidd,
pp.
355,
356.
COLLAPSE in this dark
OF
THE
time; but
the
EMPEROR'S bitter
EFFORTS
quarrelsamong
381
Lutheran
theologianshad begun. it seemed as if Charles was Yet, superficially, nearinghis goal. succeeded by Julius III Pope Paul III died in 1549, and was the Emperor. tractable to (1550-1555), who proved more The the council to meet in new once more Pope summoned Trent, and Protestant theologiansactuallyappeared before it in 1552. Really, Germany was profoundly disaffected,the Protestants groaning under the imperialyoke, and the Catholic princesjealousof Charles's increased power and of his appar the imperialsuccession ulti ently successful attempt to secure mately for his son, later to be famous as PhilipII of Spain. dissatisfied that his father-in-law, Moritz of Saxony was Philip of Hesse, was still imprisoned; he felt,moreover, that he had secured all he could hope for from the Emperor, that his leader Lutheran, and that only as a Lutheran subjectswere againstthe Emperor, could his boundless ambition be further gratified. The reduction of defiant Magdeburg, in the name of the for raising Emperor,gave Moritz excuse an Agreements army. made with the Lutheran were princesof northern Germany. The aid of King Henry II of France (1547-1559) was secured at the priceof the surrender to France of the German border cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Charles knew the plot,but took no adequate steps to meet it. The blow came swiftly. Henry invaded
Lorraine and
took the coveted
cities. Moritz
marched
rapidly southward, almost capturing the Emperor, who es The whole that structure caped by flightfrom Innsbruck. Charles had so laboriously built up toppled like a card house, not
so
much
before the power
of Lutheranism
as
before the terri
torial
independence of the princes. On August 2, 1552, the Treaty of Passau brought the brief struggleto an end. By the Treaty of Passau the settlement of the religious ques tion was referred to the next Reichstag. That not body was able to meet tillthree years later. Princelyrivalriesdistracted Germany. Moritz lost his life in warfare againstthe lawless Margrave Albrecht of Brandenburg in 1553. Charles, con unwilling to tolerate Protestantism, but seeing scientiously such toleration inevitable,handed full authorityto treat over to his brother Ferdinand, though the latter was not to be chosen
Emperor
till 1558.
The
Reichstag met
in
Augsburg.
The
PEACE
THE
382
astical
full
demanded
Lutherans
OF
rights,and
property, heretofore
proposed
to
grant
demands
all ecclesi
secularized.
in all Catholic Catholics
to
none
possessionof
hereafter
or
toleration for Lutherans
asked
AUGSBURG
in
They
but territories,
their
These
own.
naturallyresisted,and the result was of Augsburg, of September 25, 1555.1 a compromise, the Peace extended to By its provisionsequal rightsin the empire were other Evangelicalswere Catholics and Lutherans no recog nized. Each should which of the determine two lay prince faiths should be professed in his territory no choice was faith should be permitted in allowed his subjects and but one the principleusually defined as a given territory.This was cujus regio,ejus religio.Regarding ecclesiastical territories extreme
were
"
"
"
and
agreement properties,
reached
was
that
the
time
of the
All then in Lutheran Treaty of Passau should be the norm. possessionshould so remain, but a Catholic spiritualruler turning Protestant thereafter should forfeit his positionand holdings,thus insuringto the Catholics continued possession of the spiritual This was the territories not lost by 1552. "ecclesiastical
reservation."
fied with the faith of the
the
To
common
where territory
he
dissatis
man,
lived,full rightof
unhindered
emigrationand a fair sale of his goods was allowed a punishment for heresy,but his choice great advance over was only between Catholicism and Lutheranism. Ger So Lutheranism acquired full legal establishment. of a puri was permanently divided. Luther's dream many "
fication of the whole the Catholic
The
conceptionof
older leaders
nine years V
was
of
Spain a
death
German
to
came
before.
church
had
vanished, but
so
had
visible
were
unity. rapidly passing.
Melanchthon
was
Luther
to live till1560.
had
died
Charles
in 1555, and seek retirement at Yuste in Spain till
resignhis possessionof
the Netherlands
year later,and to him in 1558.
SECTION
VI.
THE
SCANDINAVIAN
LANDS
had been nominally united Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under one Since sovereignsince the union of Kalmar, in 1397. had also been under Danish control. 1460, Schleswig-Holstein In none of these lands was the crown powerful. In all,the great 1
Kidd,
pp.
363, 364.
REFORMATION
THE
ecclesiasticswere?
IN
DENMARK
and unpopular as oppressive,
383
often
foreign-
rivalrywith the nobility. In no in England, was the Reformation portiono" Europe, not even to be more thoroughlypolitical.At the dawn of the Reforma tion the Danish throne was occupied by Christian II (15131523), an enlighteneddespot of Renaissance sympathies. He of the nobles and the chief evil of his kingdom in the power saw and to limit that of the bishops by introducing ecclesiastics, he secured a Lutheran the Lutheran movement preacher in in all they
born, and
the
Reinhard, in 1520, and
of Martin
person
in
were
an
in
adviser
brief time in 1521.
Partiallyat least through the latter's counsels,a law of 1521 forbad appeals to Rome, reformed the monasteries,limited the authorityof the bishops, and permitted priestlymarriage. Opposition prevented its of the privilegedclasses,which execution, and the hostility for
Karlstadt
a
Christian II had
in 1523, and in his stead.
throne
in many drove him from his ways, made his uncle, Frederick I (1523-1533),
roused
King forced by Though inclined to Lutheranism, Frederick was the partieswhich had put him on the throne to promise to of the nobles and prevent any heretical respect the privileges penetrated the land. In Hans preaching. Yet Lutheranism and former Wittenberg Tausen (1494-1561), a one-time monk from 1524 on student, it found a preacher of popular power ward.
The had
ment
under
sen
year
A
chaplain. The
his
protectionas
hands.
toleration
translation of the New
Testa
been published. By 1526, King Frederick took Tau
the confirmation
took own
before,a Danish
year
the
King
bishopsinto
his
this into statute, granted
enacted
Lutherans, and
to
of
appointment
of the
law of 1527
same
permitted priestlymarriage.1
aided by the support of a largesection of changes were the nobilitywon of their attacks by the King's countenance ecclesiasticalrightsand property. In 1530, the same on year the Tausen and associates his laid as Augsburg Confession, before the Danish Parliament the "Forty-three Copenhagen
These
Articles." ism made The most a
No
decision
reached
was
increasing progress
death
time, but Lutheran
tillFrederick's
left all in confusion.
of Frederick
of the nobles favored
determined
at the
the
in 1533.
Of his two
sons,
elder,Christian III (1536-1559),
Lutheran, while 1
demise
Kidd,
the
p. 234,
bishops supported the
from
ICELAND
distracting periodof civilconflictfollowed, The Christian III emerged the victor in 1536. imprisoned,their authorityabolished, and church
Johann.
younger,
AND
NORWAY,
DENMARK,
384
which
bishops were
A
Christian
property confiscated for the crown.1
Wittenberg
for aid.
reformation
in 1540, and
called
now
on
Bugenhagen, Luther's associate, Lutheran in 1537, and seven named new superintendents, came ordained by the King, but retainingthe title "bishop," were himself a presbyter. The reformer, who was by the German church was Danish now reorganizedin fullyLutheran fashion.2 a Norway was separate kingdom, but by election under the the land Danish scarcelytouched King. The Reformation that followed during the reignof Frederick I. In the struggles Archbishop Olaf Engelbrektsson of Trondhjem, the head of led a temporizingparty and fled the land the Norwegian clergy, made Danish Christian Ill's success. a on Norway was Danish Lutheran constitution religious province,and the new Effective preaching and superin was nominally introduced. in Norway was, however, largelyneglectedby Chris tendence tian III with the result that the Reformation, imposed from long in taking effective possessionof popular sym above, was pathies. be told of the far-away Danish Much the same story may Iceland. travelled slowlythither. The Reformation possession, in Germany of Skalholt, educated Bishop Gisser Einarsen and of Lutheran sympathies,began a conservative Lutheran ment
Johann
published.
was
the
In
same
1548
an
year a
Icelandic New
strong Catholic
Testa
reaction,led
by Bishop Jon Aresen of Holum, attempted to throw off the Danish suppressed and yoke. By 1554 the rebellion was Lutheranism forciblyestablished,though long with littlepopu lar
approval. reformation
The national found
of Sweden
largelybound
was
strugglefor independence.
bitter
resistance
His
throne.
to
Christian
his efforts to
chief supporter was Gustaf procured from
Gustaf
secure
up
with
a
II of Denmark the
Swedish
Trolle,archbishopof
Pope Leo X approval of the of his opponents, though that oppositionwas excommunication and purelypolitical.In 1520 Christian II captured Stockholm followed his coronation as King of Sweden by a deed of the utmost cruelty. He had the unsuspecting nobles, gathered Upsala.
i
Kidd
pp.
322-328.
2
Ibid.,pp. 328-335.
REFORMATION
THE for
SWEDEN
IX
ceremoAy,executed, nominally
the
rebellion
Stockholm
The
heretics.
againstChristian II;
leader in Gustaf
Vasa.
of Blood
Bath
The
which
excommunicated
as
found
to
a
energetic expelled and, in
were
chosen King (1523-1560). doctrine was Lutheran being
1523, Gustaf
Sweden
roused
soon
Danes
385
an
was
Meanwhile
taught by
two
brothers,who had returned in 1519 from studies in Wittenberg Olaf (1497-1552) and Lars Petersson (1499-1573),who la the archdeacon, Lars Andersbored in Strengnas,and soon won favor definitely son (1482-1552). By 1524 King Gustaf was became his chancellor,and Lars ing these leaders. Andersson Petersson professorof theology in Upsala. On December 27, Olaf between in discussion Petersson, now 1524, a Upsala champion, Peter Galle, preacherin Stockholm, and the Roman "
victoryfor the reformers.1 Part of the support of the King was conviction,but no small probably due to religious which portion was owing to the dire poverty of the crown, Gustaf thought could be remedied only by extensive confisca tion of church property. In June, 1527, the King struck the seemed
blow.
a
At
the
of Westeras
Diet
Gustaf
and
demanded
ob
of the assignment to the crown tained by threat of resignation, all episcopalor monastic property which the King should deem for proper not needed religiouswork, the surrender to the heirs of the originalowners of all lands exempt from taxes acquiredby the church since 1454, and "pure" preachingof "God's Provision was made for the reconstitution of Word." the
church
royal authority.2 Though
under
master
the
of
largepart of its prop in religion conservatively.Most erty, Gustaf used his power of the old prelates The bishop'soffice was left the land. re now tained,though its holders were appointedby the King. New bishops were consecrated,with the old rites,in 1528, at the hands of Bishop Peter Magni, of Wresteras,who had re ceived his officein Catholic days, and through whom apostoli
Swedish
church, and
cal succession
was
now
episcopate. Further synod of Orebro in 1529.3
in 1529, and named
without 1
Lars
the "Swedish Petersson
was
over jurisdiction
Kidd, pp.
155-164.
a
believed to be transmitted
Lutheran the
of
possessor
2
reform A
made
the Swedish
taken by service was issued
measures
were
Swedish in 1531.
Mass"
to
In the
year
last
archbishopof Upsala,though
his fellow
bishops
Ibid.,pp. 234-236.
"
3
that
remained
Ibid. , pp. 236-239.
in
FAREL
386
the hands
of the
IN
FRENCH
King.
Most
SWITZERLAND of the lower
clergyacceptedthe and kept their places,but such changes by royal Reformation far from winning immediate were popular approval,and power became it was long before Sweden thoroughly Evangelical. Its type of Lutheranism in doctrine and practicewas strongly conservative.
The
Finland, then part of church
to
was
1592);
but
it
the
the
formally adopted
the
it that of
monarchy. The Swedish period of Romanizing reaction,
reign of Gustaf's
Johan
son,
in 1593, when
ended
was
carried with
Swedish
through a
pass
under especially
of Sweden
reform
the
synod
III
(1569-
of
Upsala
the creed
Augsburg Confessionas
of
Sweden.
SECTION
VII.
REVOLT
IN
FRENCH
BEFORE
Zurich
the
the dukes
of
ing territories in
GENEVA
CALVIN
in northern
strongest power
the
neighborhoodof
Lake
ceptance of Evangelicalviews
by Bern
(ante,p. 363), led the
government
troduction
AND
Switzerland, in constant south. The latter was rivalrywith of French-speak for possession Savoy, especially
was
in the
Bern
SWITZERLAND
Bernese
of the Reformation
on
into these
Geneva.
The
February 7, to
ac
1528
further the in
dependent districts
by encouragingthe preachingof Guillaume Farel (1489-1565). Farel was a native of Gap, in the French provinceof Dauphine. As
a
in Paris he
student
under
came
the influence of the hu
manistic
reformer,Jacques Le Fevre, of Etaples,and by 1521 was preachingunder the auspicesof the moderately reformatory Guillaume An orator of fieryve Briconnet, bishopof Meaux. and stentorian voice,he soon so was hemence, intense feeling,
preaching the Reformation 1524
he
to his
The
that he had in
urgingreform expulsion. was
next
months
Farel visited
November,
were
a
to leave France.
By
Basel,but his impetuosityled
periodof wandering,duringwhich
Strassburgand
1526, his work
friendship;but, in in French-speaking Switzerland
won
Butzer's
began in Aigle,where the Bernese government defended him, to the Reformation.1 though not yet itself fully committed With views in Bern, Farel's the complete victoryof the newer work went faster. In 1528 Aigle,Ollon, and Bex adopted the ^Kidd,
pp.
477-481.
GENEVA
388
FAREL
Freiburg,but Duke
Charles III of Savoy won the upper hand, beheaded. patriotPhilibert Berthelier was
and
Genevan
the
Seven
IX
renewed
later Geneva
years
into alliance with
effort,this time
the
well
enter
In
1527 the as as ing Freiburg. bishop,Pierre de la Baume, left the city,which he could not control,and fullyattached himself to the Savoyard interests. The was authority of the mcedominus repudiated. Duke Charles attacked the plucky city,but Bern and Freiburg came he had to pledge respect to to its aid in October, 1530, and Genevan liberties.1 Thus far there was littlesympathy with the Reformation
Bern
in Geneva, but Bern
was
and
Protestant
was
the Evangelicalfaith there established. Placards criticising papal claims and presentingreformed doctrine were anxious to
see
posted on
June
9, 1532, but Geneva's
olic, and
the
Genevan
has
been
sent
found
could
but
seen,
his friend Antoine a
placethere
as
doctrine under
this
1534, seized
church.
a
disowned
government In
Lutheranism.2
toward
October
get
no
Cath
ally, Freiburg,was
leanings
any
followingFarel footing in the
came,
city.
as
Farel
(1508-1581) to Geneva, who schoolmaster,and propagated reformed Froment
protection. On January 1, 1533, Froment emboldened to preach publicly,though the result was was a riot. By the followingEaster there were enough Protestants the Lord's Supper, and in December Farel to dare to observe in a diffi The Genevan returned. effectively government was that cult position. Its Catholic ally,Freiburg, demanded Farel be silenced. Its Protestant ally,Bern, insisted on the of the Roman cause.3 arrest of Guy Furbity,the chief defender and on March Farel and his friends held a publicdisputation, 1, ment
broke raised
now
a
the
Under
league with
troops
to
attack
Bernese
pressure
govern
The
Catholic the
the
Freiburg. bishop His action city. greatly
opposition,and on October 1, 1534, the Little Council declared the bishopricvacant, though Geneva stillfar from predominantly Protestant.4 was With the followingyear Farel,emboldened by the successful and June, proceeded to yet result of a public debate in May more positiveaction. On July 23, 1535, he seized the church of La Madeleine, and on August 8 the cathedral of St. Pierre Two itself. An iconoclastic riot swept the churches. days strengthenedGenevan
1
Kidd,
pp.
494-500.
2
Ibid.,pp. 500-504.
3
Ibid,,pp.
504-508.
4
Ibid.,pp.
508-512.
FAREL
GENEVA
IN
389
"
later the and
mass
nuns
thereafter the monks abolished,and speedily
was
driven
were
from
the
city.
On
21, 1536, the
May
of the General
Assembly, ex pressingits determination "to live in this holy Evangelical of God." *" Meanwhile the duke of Savoy had law and word been pressingGeneva at last powerfully sorely,but Bern came Geneva the perilfrom Savoy to its aid in January, 1536. saw removed, only to have danger arise of fallingunder Bernese work
the vote
completed by
was
control.
Yet
the courage
of its citizens
equal to
was
the situ
ation,and on August 7, 1536, Bern acknowledged Genevan free,and had now independence.2 The courageous city was for political than for religious accepted Protestantism, more institutions had all to be formed anew. Its religious reasons. Farel felt himself unequal to the task, and in July, 1536, he French constrained a young acquaintancepassingthrough the The John friend was city to stay and aid in the work. Calvin.3
SECTION
John
Calvin
father,Gerard
in
born
was
miles fifty-eight
VIII.
northeast
Cauvin,
city of Picardy,about His Paris, on July 10, 1509.
Noyon, of
was
a
CALVIN
JOHN
a
self-made
man,
who
had
risen to
the posts of secretary of the Noyon bishopricand attorney for its cathedral chapter,and possessedthe friendship of the pow erful noble
family
of
Hangest,
which
gave
two
bishops
to
of this members Noyon in his lifetime. With the younger familyJohn Calvin was intimatelyacquainted,and this friend with the ways of politesociety shipearned for him a familiarity such as few of the reformers enjoyed. Through the father's
influence the
posts in and
son
received the income
from
certain ecclesiastical
being assignedhim before the age of twelve. ordained. Thus provided He was never with means, Calvin entered the Universityof Paris in August, instruction in Latin given by 1523, enjoying the remarkable Mathurin tion of
near
Noyon,
the earliest
he owed the founda (1479-1564), to whom with styleof great brilliancy.Continuing his course Cordier
a
then the custom, on philosophy and specialemphasis, as was Calvin completed his undergraduatestudies early in dialectics, 1528. 1
As
Kidd, pp.
a
student he formed 512-519.
2
a
number
Ibid.,pp. 519-521.
of
warm
friendships, j*Ibid.,p.
544.
CALVIN'S
390
STUDENT
LIFE
notably with the familyof Guillaume and
an
supporter of humanism.
eager
Calvin's
Gerard
Cop, the King'sphysician,
father had
Cauvin
in
designed him quarrelwith
for
theology,but by
1527
the
Noyon cathedral chap should study law. that his son For that ter and determined Calvin now went to the Universityof Orleans, where discipline Pierre de 1'Estoile (1480-1537) enjoyed great fame as a jurist, and in 1529 to the Universityof Bourges, to listen to Andrea Alciati (1493-1550). Humanistic interests, also, stronglyat in he Greek and tracted him, began Bourges with the aid of a German teacher, Melchior Wolmar (1496-1561). He gradu in
ated his
law; but the death of his father,in 1531, left Calvin master, and he now in the humanist
own
Hebrew Francis
I had
founded
first book
his
on
was
Clemency "
vel of
which
the study of Greek and College de France, which King in Paris in 1530. He was hard at work took
up
his Commentary
"
publishedin
was
erudition,and
marked
no
Treatise
Seneca's
on
April,1532. less by
a
It
was
profound
a
on
mar
of
sense
values; but in it Calvin displayed no interest in the religious questionsof the age. He was stillsimply an earnest, deeply learned humanist. moral
Yet
it was
trines that manism
had
for want
not
Calvin done
was
of
opportunityto
stilluntouched
its preparatory work
by
know the
in France
the
new
doc
struggle. Hu as
elsewhere.
had been Jacques Le Fevre conspicuousrepresentative Staples (1455?-!536), who made his home in the monastery
Its most of
of St.-Germain and never
des
gatheredabout broke
in 1512
or
Pres in Paris,from 1507, for some years, him a notable group of disciples. Le Fevre
wished
to break
with
the Roman
Church, but
Paul's epistles, which on published a commentary denied the justifying merit of good works, declared salvation the free giftof God, and held to the sole authorityof Scripture. It was the study of a quiet scholar and aroused no sensation at he
the time.
Eleven
tion of the New
years
later,in 1523, he put forth
a
transla
Guillaume Among his pupilswere Briconnet (1470-1534),from 1516 bishop of Meaux; Guillaume Bude (1467-1540), to whose persuasionsthe establishment of. the College de France due; Francois by royal authoritywas Testament.
Vatable
on (?-1547), Calvin's teacher of Hebrew tion; Gerard Roussel (1500?-1550), Calvin's
bishop of Oloron; Louis
de
that founda
friend, later
Berquin(1490-1529),to
die at the
CALVIN'S
CONVERSION
391
"
stake for his Protestantism;and has
Farel, whose
Guillaume
already been
With
noted.
fiery
these
men reformatory career the last of two men reformatoryimpulse,none whom, save humanists sym Church, many tioned,broke with the Roman pathized,such as the family of Cop, whose friendshipCalvin enjoyed in Paris. They had powerful support in King Fran cis's giftedand popularsister, Marguerite d'Angouleme (1492ultimatelyan 1549), from 1527 Queen of Navarre, who was Luther's books early penetratedinto Protestant. unavowed
of
and
France
were
read in this circle. Few
of its members
ized,however, the gravityof
the
situation
priceof reform; main questionswere
but
there
full
the
pay
what
the
Calvin
moved.
They had
was
or
real
ready to ignoranceof
were no
in the scholarlycircle in which not as yet become important for
him. of his Commentary on Seneca's publication of Treatise on Clemency in the springof 1532 and the autumn "sudden conversion." 1 Of its cir 1533 Calvin experienced a cumstances nothing is certainly known, but its central experi and that God spoke to him through the Scriptures was ence the
Between
be obeyed. Religionhad henceforth the first placein his thoughts. How far he even yet thought of break He was stilla mem Church is doubtful. ing with the Roman ber of the humanistic circle in Paris,of which Roussel and his God's
will must
leaders.2 On November 1, Cop were 1533, Cop delivered an inauguraladdress as newly elected rec tor of the Universityof Paris,in which he pleaded for reform, That and Luther.3 using language borrowed from Erasmus is improba Calvin wrote the oration as has often been alleged, The ble,but he undoubtedly sympathized with its sentiments.
intimate
friend Nicolas
commotion
aroused
was
great, and
King
Francis
enjoinedac
4
tion againstthe "Lutherans." Cop and Calvin had to seek safety,which Calvin found in the home of a friend,Louis du
Tillet,in Angouleme. ration from
Calvin's
of the necessityof sepa
sense
the older communion
was
now
rapidlydeveloping,
resignhis benefices on May for a brief time imprisoned. Though Here he was 4, 1534. after for him, especially too perilous soon released,France was theses against the Antoine Marcourt posted his injudicious and
1 3
forced him
to go to
Kidd, pp. 523, 524. Ibid.,pp. 525, 526.
Noyon
to
2
4
Ibid.,pp. 524, 525. Ibid.,pp. 526-528.
in October, 1534,1 and
mass
Calvin
by
was
placardshad
Year's
New
following
been
followed by a sharp renewal victims being Calvin's friend the
of the
one persecution,
about
Basel.
safelyin Protestant
Marcourt's of
INSTITUTES
CALVIN'S
392
de la Forge. Francis I was Parisian merchant, Estienne Protestants againstCharles quettingfor the aid of German French therefore,to justify
and
letter in
February,
felt that
he
as
defend
must
government
no
his slandered
a
could fellow
bear.
V,
public
Protestantism
1535, chargingFrench
such
anarchistic aims
issued persecutions,
co
with
Calvin
believers.
He
therefore rapidlycompleted a work begun in Angouleme, and it with prefacing publishedit in March, 1536, as his Institutes, letter to the French King. The letter is one of the literary a and digni Courteous masterpiecesof the Reformation age. of the Protestant fied,it is a tremendously forceful presentation positionand defense of its holders againstthe royal slanders. had yet spoken with such clearness,re Protestant No French straint,and power, and with it its author of twenty-sixyears into the leadership of French Protestantism.2 stepped at once The Institutes themselves, to which this letter was prefixed, as
were,
which
publishedin 1536,
they
to grow
were
the extensive treatise into
far from
in Calvin's final edition of 1559
;
but
orderly and systematicpopular already the most they were presentationof doctrine and of the Christian life that the Ref formulative rather ormation was produced. Calvin's mind creative.
than
Luther's
Without
antecedent
labors
his work
conceptionof justifica seals of God's promises tion by faith,and of the sacraments as he derived from Butzer, notably his that he presents. Much emphasis on the glory of God as that for which all thingsare could
have been done.
not
created,on on a
election
It is Luther's
doctrine of Christian confidence,and of election as a strenuous endeavor after
as
a
the consequences life of conformityto the will of God.
and
clarifiedwith
a
skill that
was
But
Calvin's
all is systematized own.
highestknowledge, Calvin taught,is that of God and without to leave man of himself. Enough comes by nature but adequate knowledge is given only in the Scriptures, excuse, which the witness of the Spiritin the heart of the believing These reader attests the very voice of God. Scriptures as of all goodness everyteach that God is good, and the source Man's
1
Kidd,
pp.
528-532.
2
Ibid.,pp. 532,
533.
THEOLOGY
CALVIN'S
393
"
Obedience
where.
As
primal duty.
will is man's
God's
to
created,man was originally good and capable of obeying God's alike in Adam's fall,and will,but he lost goodness and power is now, of himself,absolutelyincapable of goodness. Hence of man's
work
no
ruin
of
state
have
can
and
hopeless condition some through the work of Christ. sins of those in whose tion of this cause
a
helpless
died ; yet the offer and
free act
a
was
ransom
is God's
this
in
are
He He
are
undeservedly rescued paid the penalty due for the
men
behalf
men
From
damnation.
meriting only
all
merit ; and
any
God's
on
part,
recep
that its
so
love.
wrought is without avail unless it becomes man's a personal possession. This possessionis effected by works the Holy Spirit,who when, how, and where He will, All that Christ has
union
which, as with Luther, is a vital
faith
and
creating repentance;
the believer and
between
This
Christ.
life of faith
new
is salvation,but it is salvation unto That the righteousness. is the proof that he does works pleasing believer now to God has entered not a
into vital union
without, and yet
Church, though
plishment
tian is the law a
test
which
of
God,
The
of his salvation but as
as
already saved
an
the law
any
an man
for
by the
claimed
set before
standard
contained
as
as
different in relation to the
very
of salvation.
justified
are
Calvin thus left room
strenuous
as
"We
Christ.
works."
by
"works"
conceptionof
Roman
not
with
in the
accom
the
Chris
not Scriptures,
as
expressionof that
will of God
he will strive to
fulfil. This
guide of Christian life was peculiarly Calvin's own. It has made Calvinism always insistent on char is saved to character acter, though in Calvin's conceptionman A prime nourishment rather than by character. of the Chris tian lifeis by prayer. Since all good is of God, and man is unable to initiate or re
emphasis on
as
the
sist his conversion, it follows that the and others are lost is the divine choice tion.
For
a
reason
for that choice
some
reason "
are
election and
beyond
saved
reproba
the will of God
it is
inquire,since God's will is an ultimate fact. Yet to Calvin election was always primarilya doctrine of Christian That comfort. had a plan of salvation for a man, indi God rock of confidence,not only for unshakable an was vidually,
absurd
one
to
convinced
of his
own
by opposingforces even
unworthiness, but for if they were
those of
one
surrounded
and Kings. priests
THEOLOGY
CALVIN'S
394 It made
man
a
a
in the
fellow laborer with God
accomplishment
will.
of God's
institutions have
Three
been
the Christian lifeis maintained
"
divinelyestablished by which the
church, the sacraments, and
civil government. In the last analysisthe church consists of "all the elect of God"; but it also properlydenotes "the whole
who
of mankind
body
.
Christ." hood
Yet
have
shows
there is
no
professto worship one
true
church
God
and
lyingand
"where
ascendancy." The
the
usurped
false
Testament
New
officers, pastors, teachers,elders,and deacons,
church
as
.
.
their chargeswith the assent of the congregation that they serve. Their "call" is twofold, the secret inclina tion from God and the "approbationof the people." Calvin who
enter
on
thus gave to the congregationa voice in the choice of its officers accorded not by any other Reformation party except that of to com Anabaptists,though circumstances at Geneva were pel him to regard that voice there as expressedby the city SimilarlyCalvin claimed for the church full and government. in discipline independent jurisdiction up to the point of ex
the
communication. tion of
which
freedom
a
it could not go ; but it was reten a of all the other leaders the Reformation
Further
however, the
supervision.Civil government has, the church, divinelyappointedtask of fostering
protectingit
from
had
abandoned
whose
crimes
to
state
false
doctrine,and
is insufficient.
excommunication
the mediaeval tially
punishing offenders It
theory of the relations of church
was
for
essen
and
state.
the baptism recognizedonly two sacraments Lord's Supper. Regarding the burning question of Christ's in the Supper, he stood, like Butzer, part way be presence Luther and Zwingli,nearer the Swiss reformer in form, tween in spirit.With and to the German Zwingli he denied any physicalpresence of Christ ; yet he asserts in the clearest terms received by faith. "Christ, a real,though spiritual presence
Calvin
of the substance
out
nay,
does
diffuses His not
On
of His
a
brief visit to
Institutes in the the
court
doubtless
The
souls,
of
springof 1536,
Ferrara, in Italy,
intendingto advance the Evangelicalcause liberal-minded and hospitablefellow countrywoman, 1
our
1
publicationof the
made
life into
flesh,breathes
lifeinto us, though the real flesh of Christ
own
us."
enter
the
Calvin
and
"
quotationsin these paragraphs are
from
with
his
the Duch-
the edition of 1559.
CALVIX
396 that
from
what
IX
in Geneva.
established
now
in
adopted
STRASSBURG
and
Bern
had
the
long
oppositionnow regarded the differ a vote and Genevan of slightimportance, in Bernese as ences usage but an impositionby civil authority,without consultingthe ministers,they viewed as robbing the church of all freedom. Calvin and Farel refused compliance,and on April 23, 1538, it
wished
Geneva,
Calvin
that it be used.
Farel
in Geneva
Their work
banished.1
were
and
secured
seemed
to have
ended
in total failure.
vain attempt at restoration to Geneva by the inter Farel found a pastorate vention of Swiss Protestant authorities, After
a
thenceforth to be his home; and Cal Xeuchatel, which was vin, at Butzer's invitation,a refugein Strassburg. The three in
happiestin Calvin's life. There he was pastor of a church of French refugeesand he was honored by the city and lecturer on theology. There in Charles V's reunion debates of its representatives made one there
years
spent
were
in many
and
Catholics
thereby the friendshipof
Melanchthon
Protestants
between
for
tutes,and
(ante, p. 376), gaining and
other
death
in 1549.
Meanwhile Calvin
which
had
but
made
his banishment
party friendlyto Calvin
sought
in 1541
series
the reformers,
justlyregarded generally.2
a
disastrous
in 1539, which resulted in its overthrow of the negotiatorsas the condemnation
and
Insti
revolution occurred in Geneva for political in no was responsible.The party there way
secured
with Bern
leaders
he found
a
which
The
to be
writing,not merely an enlarged edition of the his Commentary on Romans, the beginningof a
the ablest of vindications of Protestantism
year
re
was
There
that put him in the front rank of exegetes among but his brilliant Reply to Sadoleto,which was as
German
married, in 1540, the wife who
companion tillher
his faithful time
he
There
formers.
the
ways
was
his return. once
more
was
He
once
more
in power,
treaty
the
next
traitors. and
its
with
difficulty persuaded, his own on Geneva, practically was
in
terms.3 Calvin
promptly
secured
the
adoptionof
the Ordonnances, now tical constitution, the recommendations ful return, 1 3
acceptedin
however, he could
Kidd, pp. 577-580. Ibid.,pp. 586-589.
not
far
1537. have 2
his more
new
ecclesias
definite than
spiteof his success them quite all that In
Ibid.,pp.
583-586.
he
ORGANIZATION
CALVIN'SGENEVAN wished. in His
offices of pastor, teacher, elder, and Pastors were define the duties of each. to meet
church
deacon, and
has instituted
declare that Christ
Ordormanccft1
The
397
the
four
public discussion,examination of ministerial can the in what was as didates,and exegesis, popularly known Congregation. The teacher was to be the head of the Geneva school system, which Calvin regarded as an essential factor in the religious trainingof the city. To the deacons were assigned of the hospital. The of the poor and the supervision the care the heart of Calvin's system. elders were laymen, They were from f our from the chosen by the Little Council, two itself, Hundred, and under the presi Sixty,and six from the Two dency of one of the syndics. They, togetherwith the minis meeting every Thursday, and ters, made up the Consistoire, charged with ecclesiastical discipline.To excommunication they could go; beyond that, if the offense demanded, they No rightseemed to the civilauthorities. to refer the case were this of to Calvin so vital to the independence of the church as he compelled so to struggle excommunication, and for none was for
weekly
tillits final establishment
Besides
in 1555.
this task, Calvin
effective catechism,3 and
2
prepared
new
and
much
more
liturgy,based on that of his French congregationin Strassburg,which, in turn, was of that generallyin use in that German a translation essentially Calvin made a good use city. In formulatingit for Genevan modifications
many
It combined had
of
none
descendants
Under one
meet
Genevan
a
customs
or
prejudices.4
Calvin happy union of fixed and free prayer. the hostility againstfixed forms which his spiritual a
in
Great
Britain
and
America
afterward
mani
It also gave full place to singing. Calvin's guidance,and he held no other office than that
fested.
of
to
introduced
a
of the ministers
of the
city,much
was
done
for educa
lifewas under the improved trade; but all Genevan minute and constant supervisionof the Consistoire. Calvin would Geneva model make of a perfectedChristian a com munity. Its strenuous Evangelicalismattracted refugeesin of them of position, men large numbers, many learning,and wealth, principallyfrom France, but also from Italy, the became Netherlands, Scotland, and England. These soon a tion and
1 3
for
Kidd, pp. 589-603. Extracts, Kidd, pp.
2
604-615.
4
Ibid.,p. 647. Kidd, pp. 615-628.
CALVIN'S
398
CONFLICTS
important factor in Genevan life. Calvin himself,and all his associated ministers,were foreigners.Opposition to his from the first, rule appeared practically strenuous but, by 1548, made serious. It was had grown elements, up of two very very
those
whom
to
would discipline
any
irksome; and
been
have
felt
families who formidable,those of old Genevan that Calvin, his fellow ministers,and the refugeeswere much
more
eignerswho
imposinga foreignyoke
were
on
a
for
heroic
city of
of independence. That there was a party of relig ious Libertins in Geneva, is a baseless tradition. traditions
Calvin's that
time
older
of the
some
from
strugglewas
severest
1548
inhabitants
to
1555, from
began
to
the
fear that
by the refugees,till the they would be swamped politically were refugees,almost all of whom eager supporters of Calvin, what had been dreaded, and made Calvin's position achieved in fame outside of Geneva, unshakable. Constantlyincreasing Calvin stood in imminent throughout this period,of hav peril, ing his Genevan work overthrown. The
cases
of conflict
specialprominence. Hermes
Bolsec,
a
were
The
former
but
many,
first monk
that
was
two
stand
caused
of Paris, now
out
by
with
Jerome
Protestant
a
In the CongregationBolsec Geneva. physicianin Veigy, near in assertingpredestination.That charged Calvin with error the very of Calvin's authority, foundations to attack was of the Scrip for his sole hold on Geneva an was as interpreter he was If he was tures. not rightin all, thoroughlydiscredited. in Calvin took Bolsec's charges before the city government Bolsec's trial. The October, 1551. The result was opinions of other
Swiss
governments
were
asked, and
it
was
evident
did Cal as weight to predestination with that Calvin vin. It was procured Bolsec's difficulty in strenuous banishment, and the episodeled him to a more Chris sistence of the vital importance of predestination a as As for Bolsec, he ultimately heretofore.1 tian truth than even and avenged himself on communion returned to the Roman Calvin's memory by a grosslyslanderous biography. with difficulty, when in Calvin was thus holding his power for some which February, 1553, the elections, years had been fairlybalanced, turned decidedly in favor of his opponents. that
they attached
His
fall seemed
no
such
inevitable,when 1
Kidd,
pp.
he
was
641-645.
rescued and
put
on
SERVETUS
399
l
the path to ultimate victoryby the arrival in Geneva of Miguel forms the second of those here men Servetus, whose case Servetus
tioned.
as Spaniard, almost the same age of great, though erratic, Calvin, and undoubtedly a man genius. In 1531 he publishedhis De Trinitatis Erroribus. Compelled h e the his of to conceal name identity, studied medicine under Villeneuve, being the real discoverer of the pulmonary cir was
culation of the blood.
a
settled in Vienne
He
in
France, where he
his developed a largepractice. He was working secretly on Restitution of Christianity, which he publishedearly in 1553. To his thinking,the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity,the Chalcedonian the chief Christology,and infant baptism were of the corruptionof the church. As earlyas 1545, he sources had begun an exasperatingcorrespondence with Calvin, whose Institutes he contemptuously criticised. unmasked Servetus's identityand authorship were to the ecclesiasticalauthorities in Lyons, by Calvin's friend, Roman Guillaume Trie, who, a little later, supplied further proof obtained
himself.
Calvin
from
burned; though, before sentence, in Vienne.
For
demnation the of
now
notorious
that it could.
prison
his way His con
dare
did not
come
out
and
openly in defense
heretic,but made Calvin all the difficulties As for Servetus,he had much hope for a favor demanded
goods adjudged viction and
escaped from he made
be
to
a
issue,and
able
had
was
which opposition, so
he
condemned
there arrested in August, 1553. Calvin became a test of strengthbetween
Geneva, and
to
was
to understand
hard
reasons
He
death
to
that The
him.
by
fire
on
Calvin
be exiled and
trial ended
October
Calvin's
in Servetus's
con
Though
27, 1553.
a
few
voices of protest were raised,notably that of Sebastien Castellio that (1515-1563) of Basel, most men agreedwith Melanchthon it
"
was
end
may
justlydone." seem
However
in retrospect,for Calvin
It freed the Swiss churches
doxy had
odious the trial and
from
any
it was
a
its tragic
great victory.
imputationof
unortho-
the doctrine of the Trinity,while Calvin's opponents ruined themselves by making difficultthe punishment of on
whom
the
generalsentiment of that age condemned. Calvin's improved status was soon apparent. The elections of 1554 were so. decidedlyin his favor,those of 1555 yet more In January, 1555, he secured permanent recognitionof the one
rightof
the Consistoire to
'
proceed to
excommunication
with-
CALVIN'S
400
AND
SUCCESS
governmental interference.1
The
INFLUENCE
largely Calvinist its position government proceeded, the same year, to make of the refugeesto secure by admitting a considerable number A slightriot on the evening of May the franchise. 16, 1555, seized as the occasion of begun by Calvin's opponents, was executingand banishingtheir leaders as traitors. Henceforth the party favorable to Calvin was undisputedmaster of Geneva. Bern stillhostile,but the common was danger to Bern and when Emmanuel Geneva Philibert,duke of Savoy and victor the French for Spain over enabled at St.-Quentinin 1557, was to lay claim to his duchy, then mostly in possessionof the in January, 1558, French, brought about a "perpetualalliance," in which Geneva stood for the first time on a full equalitywith Thus its ally,Bern. relieved of the most at pressingperils, his Genevan work and abroad, Calvin crowned home by the in reality, foundation in 1559 of the "Genevan Academy" It be as it has long since become, the Universityof Geneva.2 instruction came immediately the greatest centre of theological in the Reformed communions, as distinguishedfrom the Lutheran, and the great seminary from which ministers in numbers forth not sent were only to France but in less de gree to the Netherlands, England, Scotland, Germany, and Italy. out
now
"
Calvin's influence extended
far b"?yopd Geneva.
Thanks
to
his pattern of churcfcu^e'rfiment in Geneva, his his Institutes, academy, his commentaries, and his constant correspondence,
he moulded
the thought and inspiredthe ideals of the Protes tantism of France, the Netherlands, Scotland, and the English Puritans. His influence penetratedPoland and Hungary, and
taking root in southwestern His Germany itself. Men thought his thoughts after him. the only system that the Reformation was produced that could organizeitselfpowerfullyin the face of governmental hostility, in France confident and England. It trained strong men, as
before his death
Calvinism
was
in their election to be fellow workers with God in the accom to do battle,insistent on char plishmentof His will,courageous acter, and confident that God has given in the Scripturesthe conduct guide of all right human of Calvin,in most spiritual disciples
stamp.
mon 1
Kidd,
p. 647.
This
was
and
proper
worship.
various lands,bore one Calvin's work, a mastery of mind 2
Ibid.,p. 648.
The com over
ENGLAND
ON
EVE
THE
OF
REVOLT
THE
401
I
the time of his death
mind, and certainly by
in
Geneva,
on
May
of "the only international 27, 1564* he deserved the description
reformer." Calvin
l
left
no
of
successor
large for
The
equal stature.
work
had
in Geneva, and to a considerable extent in his labors beyond its borders,his mantle fell on the worthy shoulders of Theodore Beza (1519too
grown
1605), a devoted
man
of
to the
more
same
SECTION
to
man
one
any
direct.
But
and gentlerways, conciliatory spirit
but
ideals.
THE
IX.
ENGLISH
REVOLT
In
controlled England the stronger Kings had longpractically made appointments,and such as were episcopal directlyby the basis of agreement with the sover Pope were usuallyon some filled eign. The chief political by churchmen, partly posts were because few laymen could vie with them in learningor experi and partly because the emoluments of high churchly ence, office made such appointments inexpensive for the royal treasury. Naturally,in such appointments,abilityand use fulness in the royal service were valued than apt to be more fitness. Such was the state of affairs when spiritual Henry VIII (1509-1547)began his reign. Some Wyclifianismexisted in humble circlesand occasionally under churchly censure. came Humanism had entereu ,landand had found supporters in T
limited groups
dean ultimately on
the educated.
John
Colet
(1467 ?-1519), London, had lectured in Oxford Paul's epistles, in full humanistic as spirit, early as 1496, among
and
refounded
of St. Paul's in
St. Paul's school in 1512.
Erasmus
had taught Cambridge from 1511 to 1514, having first visited England in 1499, and he made friends there. One of these was many in
the
excellent
and
another, the famous
there
John
Fisher
(1469?-1535), bishop of Rochester, Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). Yet
littlein the situation at the
beginningof Henry VIII's reignthat made a change in the existingecclesiasticalsituation seem possible. One trait of the national life was conspicuous, to be the basis of Henry VIII's support. however, which was That was a strongly developed national consciousness a feelingof England for Englishmen that was easilyaroused to encroachment from whatever source. oppositionto all foreign was
"
"
1
Kidd,
p. 651.
402
VIII
HENRY
WISHES
MARRIAGE
ANNULLED
Henry VIII, who has been well described as a "tyrant under of remarkable intellectualabilitiesand legalforms," was a man executive force, well read and always interested in scholastic theology,sympathetic with humanism, popular with the mass and self-seeking. of the people,but egotistic, In the obstinate, earlypart of his reign he had the support of Thomas Wolsey a (1475-1530), who became privy councillor in 1511, and in lord chancellor by the King and cardinal by made 1515 was Thenceforth he was When Henry's righthand. Pope Leo X. Luther's writingswere received in England their use for was bidden, and Henry VIII publishedhis Assertion of the Seven Sacraments from Leo X the againstLuther in 1521, which won title "Defender
of the Faith."
At the
beginningof
his
reign
Henry had married Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain,and widow, though the marriagehad been in name A dispensation one only,of his older brother,Arthur. authorizingthis marriagewith a deceased brother's wife had Six children were born of been granted by Julius II in 1503. this union, but only one, Mary, survived infancy. By 1527, if not earlier, religious scruplesas to the valid Henry was alleging Had not wholly sensual. were ityof his marriage. His reasons they been, he might well have been content with his mistresses. A woman of the Roses had never ruled England. The Wars had ended as recentlyas 1485. The absence of a male heir, It was should Henry die,would probablycausa civil war. not likelythat Catherine would have further children. He wanted another wife, and a male heir. Wolsey was induced to favor the
project, partlyfrom
his sub
King, and partlybecause, ifthe marriage with should be declared invalid, he hoped Henry would
servience to the Catherine marry
the
and
French thus
be
Renee, princess, drawn
afterward
duchess
of Fer-
firmly from the Spanish to side in continental politics.Henry, however, had the French other plans. He had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, a lady A complicated negotiationfollowed, in which of his court. Wolsey did his best to pleaseHenry, while Catherine behaved treated with cruelty. Prob with dignityand firmness,and was of the marriage might have been secured ably an annulment from Pope Clement VII had it not been for the course of Euro which left the Emperor Charles V victor in war, politics, pean and forced the Pope into submission to the imperialpolicy rara,
more
THE
404
SUPREMACY
ROYAL
threateningexcommunication againstHenry on July 11, series obtained of statutes from 1533. was a Henry's answer in 1534, by which all payments Parliament to the Pope were the King's nomina to be elected on forbidden,all bishopswere and tion, and all oaths of papal obedience, Roman licenses, other recognitionsof papal authority done away.1 The two convocations now formally abjured papal supremacy.2 In November, 1534, Parliament passed the famous Supremacy his and which "the declared successors were Act, by Henry head in earth of the Church of England," without only supreme heresies" to redress qualifyingclauses,and with full power understood and This was "abuses."3 not by the King or its authors as givingspiritual such as ordination,the rights, a
bull
"
administration it
of the the
practicallyput with
and
sacraments
King
in the
like,but in all else
the
place
of the
Pope.
The
these statutes in complete. Nor were of monks of meaningless. In May, 1535, a number way of the most respectedorders in England, that of the Car
breach any one
Rome
was
Charterhouse,
thusians,or
executed
were
under
circumstances
In peculiarbarbarity,for denying the King's supremacy. and July the two June most widely known subjectsof the More, distinguished King, Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas of
were scholarship,
and
for character
alike
beheaded
for the
offense.
same
his work, Henry had found a new agent in Thomas of very humble Cromwell origin,a sol (1485?-!540), a man dier,merchant, and money-lender by turns, of whom Wolsey business and parliamentaryagent. By much had made use as For
of the privy council;in 1534 master rolls;and in 1536, layman that he was, viceregentfor the King in ecclesiastical affairs. Henry was hungry for ecclesiastical
Cromwell
1531
property, both reward
by
maintain
to
adherents
these
Cromwell
his lavish court
"
and
late
the monasteries
have
in
1534
he
visited and
allegedfacts,the truth
The
and to create
everywhere
Reformation
the
"
confiscations to
condition.
of the
was
or
was
and
marked
commissioned
report
on
their
falsityof which
is
in laid before Parliament, which disputed matter, were February, 1536, adjudged to the King, "his heirs and assigns wills,"all forever,to do and use therewith his and their own still a
1
Gee
and pp.
Hardy, 243,
pp.
244.
201-232.
2
Ibid.,pp. 251, 252.
RISE
OF
PARTY
PROTESTANT
A
405
I
having an income of less than two number thus sequestered hundred; pounds annually.1 The three hundred and seventy-six. was Meanwhile Henry had been in part relieved from the danger of foreign intervention by the death in January, 1536, of to have wished Catherine of Aragon. He seems to con now to the criticisms of that with Anne tract a marriage not open he was, tired. She was accord Boleyn, of whom moreover, inglycharged with adultery,in May, 1536, whether rightly or wrongly is impossible to decide, though the accusation and on the 19th was Two beheaded. suspicious, days be seems had pronounced her marriage to Henry null and fore Cranmer Eleven void. days later Henry married Jane Seymour, who monastic
bore him
establishments
a
son,
Edward,
on
12, 1537, and
October
died twelve
the suppressionof Henry's deeds, especially the monasteries,aroused much notably in northern opposition, known England, with the result that a formidable insurrection, of 1536, the Pilgrimageof Grace, broke out in the summer as but by the early part of the following was effectually year
days thereafter.
crushed.
changes in England were primarilythose of ecclesiastical politics rather than religious conviction,the dis turbed state of the country gave opportunityfor a real,though as Protestant party. In originit seems to have yet not numerous, been more indigenousthan imported,and to have followed more Like at first the pathway shown by Wyclif than by Luther. Wyclif,it looked to the state to reform the church, and viewed
Though
these
the riches of the church
as
a
Hence hindrance to itsspirituality.
this party had littlefault to find with confiscations. Like Wyclif, it valued
Bible, and
by
came
and
more
conformity to
the
the
to translate the New
publishedin England,
he
and
more
William
and
circulation of the
to test doctrine
Scriptures. As the
to feel more veloped,it came A conspicuousleader was
Eager
more
Henry's assertions and
ceremony
revolt de
German
continental influences.
Tyndale
Testament, and found refuge on
(1492?-1536).
unable
to
have
the Continent
it in
publisheda reallyadmirable transla tion from the Greek in 1526. Churchly and civil authorities the knowledge tried to suppress it,but it was a force in spreading of the Scriptures.Tyndale himself died a martyr in Vilvorde, 1524, visited Luther, and
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp. 257-268.
HENRY'S
406
RELIGIOUS
OWN
ATTITUDE
Brussels,in 1536. Tyndale's friend,John Frith (15031533), found refugein Marburg, and thence returned to Eng in 1533 for land, only to be arrested and burned in London near
denying the doctrines of purgatory and transubstantiation. In sympathy with these doctrinallyreformatory views, though Cranmer, Nicholas Ridley were varying in outward expression, (1490?-1555), and John Hooper (1500?-!555), Hugh Latimer (?-1555),all to be bishops,and all to die by fire for their faith. As Henry's oppositionto Rome developed,Protestant feeling laymen of influence,a conspicuousinstance spread among being the Seymour family,from which Henry had taken his ,
third
Queen.
that of Catholic ortho attitude was religious Henry's own the substitution of his own on doxy, save authorityfor that of the Pope. His only departuresfrom it were when dangers of attack from abroad compelled him to seek possible political the German
support from Such
far.
Protestants,and he did
occasion
an
in the years discuss doctrine
occurred
then go and 1536.
not
1535
in Wittenberg, to little. In 1536 Henry himself drafted Ten though it came Articles in which he made his utmost concession to Protestant He
sent
ism.
commission
a
The
to
authoritative
of faith
standards
are
the Bible, the the "four first
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, and Apostles', defined: baptism,pen councils." Only three sacraments are and mentioned the Lord's Supper; the others are not ance, either
in
Christ
approval or
alone, but
Justification
denial.
confession
impliesfaith
absolution
and
and
works
in of
Christ is physically charityare also necessary. present in the Supper. Images are to be honored, but with moderation. The saints are to be invoked, but not because they "will hear us
sooner
but
the
Christ."
than
idea that
Masses
for the dead
the "bishop of Rome"
can
are
desirable,
deliver out
of
purgatory is to be rejected. A was
influential act of this time, instigated by Cranmer, that an English translation of the Bible,made up in large more
part of Tyndale's version,but in considerable portionfrom the inferior work of Miles Coverdale, was allowed sale in 1537, and was
the
ordered
public in
commandments
by
Cromwell
each were
placed accessible to Lord's Prayer and the ten church.1 The the litanywas to be taught in English, 1
in
Gee and
1538
Hardy,
to
be
p. 275.
HENRY'S
POLICY
RELIGIOUS
407
un translated;but otherwise worship remained substantially changed In the Latin language and form while Henry lived. Henry's work during these years had been free from for at eign interference,because Charles V and Francis I were from 1536 to 1538. With the arrival of peace his dangers war a greatly increased. The Pope demanded joint attack by France and Spain on the royalrebel. Henry's diplomacy and
it off; but he warded jealousies importanceto lessen his peril.He would mutual
he
Catholic
several
show
steps of
the world
that
in regard to the Pope. Ac cordingly,in June, 1539, Parliament passed the Six Articles Act.1 It affirmed as the creed of England a strict doctrine of was
an
orthodox
took
save
denial of which transubstantiation,
was
to be
punishedby fire. wine, and priestly
in both bread and repudiatedcommunion of marriage. It ordered the permanent observation of vows and auricular confession. chastity,enjoinedprivate masses, This statute remained in force tillHenry's death. It was not enough, however, that Henry should show himself orthodox. He was Cromwell a widower, and was urgent that he strengthen his positionby a marriage which would pleasethe German Protestants,and unite him with those opposed to the Emperor It
Charles V.
Anne
of Cleves, sister of the wife of John Fred Elector,was selected. The marriage took place
the Saxon erick, on January 6, 1540. Meanwhile Henry had completed the confiscations monasteries
in 1539.2
Francis and
Charles
and
He
stronger
at
evidentlysoon beginning to court
to
was
were
the Emperor was German Protestants looked askance
longerneeded
at
home
of all the
than
ever.
be
again at war, Henry's assistance.
his Six
Articles,and he
their aid.
Henry had regardedthe mar riagewith Anne of Cleves as a mere political expedient. An annulment obtained in July, 1540, from the bishops on was the ground that the King had never given "inward consent" to the marriage, and Anne was handsomely indemnified pe the marriage was cuniarily.For Cromwell, to whom due, he had A bill of attainder was further use. no put through Parliament,and the King's able, but utterlyunscrupulous, beheaded servant was on July 28, 1540. These events were accompanied by increasing oppositionto the Protestant ele evidenced in Henry's ment, and this Catholic inclination was now
no
1
Gee
and
Hardy, pp.
303-319.
2
Ibid.,pp.
281-303.
IN
PROTESTANTISM
408
POWER
marriage to Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk, shortlyafter his separationfrom Anne of Cleves ; but the new and in February, 1542, to question, Queen's conduct was open she was beheaded. In July, 1543, he married Catherine Parr, had the fortune to survive him. On January 28, 1547, who Henry died. At Henry's death England was divided into three parties. Of these,that embracing the great body of Englishmen stood fairlywith the late King in desiringno considerable change in doctrine or worship,while rejecting foreignecclesiasticaljuris diction. been It had Henry's strength that, with all his of this great middle party. fairlyrepresentative tyranny, he was There neither fairlyrepresen besides,two small parties, were, tative Catholic wing that would of the restore the power a "
papacy, as
it
was
and
a
Protestant
understood
the Continent.
on
introduce reform
faction that would
The
latter had
un
doubtedly been growing,in spiteof repression, duringHenry's smaller It was last years. to be England's fortune that the two in power and unrepresentative partiesshould be successively turmoil agra duringthe next two reigns,and that to religious rian unrest should be added, owing to the great changes in and even to confiscations, more property caused by monastic lands by greedy landlords,and the im enclosures of common tenants by the loss of their timepoverishment of humbler honored rightsof use. but nine years of age. therefore,administered in his name by Edward
VI
The
was
Hertford, or, as he was chief, with the Somerset, was
earl of
a
government
was,
council,of which
immediatelycreated, duke title of
Protector.
the of
Somerset
King's mother, the short-lived of Protestant sympathies,and of He was Jane Seymour. a man in religious excellent intentions a believer in a degreeof liberty and political contrast to Henry VIII. questions in marked lower agricul He was, also,a sincere friend of the dispossessed his rule the new tural classes. Under comparative freedom of and much local innovations religious expressionled to many and more controversy, in which the revolutionaryparty more ordered the ad In 1547 Parliament gained the upper hand. ministration of the cup to the laity.1The same year the last
was
the
brother
of the
young
"
great confiscation of church 1
Gee
and
lands Hardy,
occurred pp.
322-328.
"
the dissolution of
409
BOOK
PRAYER
THE I
chapels for saying masses. also fraternities and guilds were of religious The properties Six Articles were The repealed. Early in 1548 sequestered.1 images were ordered removed from the churches. The marriage made legalin 1549.2 of priest was is,endowed
the "chantries," that
The
confusion
soon
great, and
became
as
a
means
at
once
of
securing order, Parliament, on January 21, 1549, enacted an Act of Uniformity,3by which the universal use of a Book of Common Prayer in English was required.This book, known as the First Prayer Book of Ed ward VI, was largelythe work of Cranmer, based on the older of a revised Roman use English services in Latin, with some breviary,publishedin 1535 by Cardinal Fernandez de Quinones, and the Lutheranly inclined tentative Consultation of Hermann In its Wied, archbishop of Cologne, issued in 1543. von largerfeature it is stillthe Prayer Book of the Church of Eng land, but this edition preserved much of detail of older wor at burials, ship, such as prayers for the dead, communion anointing and exorcism in baptism, and anointing the sick,
advancing the
reforms
which
to
was
soon
and
be abandoned.
In the Eucharist
the words
the were handing the elements to the communicant first clause of the present Anglican form, implying that the body and blood of Christ are reallyreceived. troubles. To beset with political was Meanwhile, Somerset in Scotland he urged of France the growing power counteract countries by the ultimate marriage of the union of the two with the Scottish Princess Mary, to be "Queen King Edward of Scots," and supportedhis efforts by an invasion of Scotland in which the Scots were terriblydefeated, on September 10, frustrated. was 1547, at Pinkie,but by which his main purpose to betroth Mary to the The angered Scottish leaders hastened heir of France, the later Francis II, an event of prime signifi used
cance
in
for the Scottish reformation.
Somerset's fall came ble to himself. lieved that
monastic
They
were
efforts should
be
furthered
to
check
enclosures.
oppositionof the landowning classes, more were none greedy than the recent purchasersof risingstook place in 1549. property. Extensive of largelyby the efficiency put down with difficulty,
In this he of whom
He
credita about, however, throughcauses realized the agrariandiscontent,and be
had
the bitter
'Gee and Hardy, pp. 328-357.
*Ibid.,pp.
366-368.
Ubid., pp. 358-366.
AND
SOMERSET
410
the earl of Warwick. Warwick
headed
a
NORTHUMBERLAND
in favor with the propertied classes, which thrust from Somerset his conspiracy Thus
protectoratein October, 1549. he later be as Warwick, or the duke of Northumberland the assuming the title Protector,was now though never came, situation under in England. The religious powerfulman of great modera went rapidchange. Somerset had been a man was tion, anxious to conciliate all parties. Northumberland without religiousprincipleshimself, but he pushed forward for political and the movement the Protestant cause reasons, radical character. took on much more a Though ap now parently reconciled to Somerset, he distrusted the former in 1552. beheaded protector'spopularity,and had Somerset His own greed,tyranny, and misgovernment made him cor diallyhated. The not popular. Conservatives Prayer Book of 1549 was felt that it retained too disliked the changes. Protestants of Roman These criticisms were much supportedby a usage. of prominence,driven from Ger number of foreigntheologians by the Interim,who found welcome in England, of whom many Butzer of Strassburg. This hostility the most influential was radical policyof able to be effective under the more was now Northumberland, and led to the revision of the Prayer Book, Much Act of Uniformity in 1552.1 and its reissue under a new done away. of the ancient ceremonial was now Prayers more most
for the dead for the the
were
now
altar,common
Supper, exorcism
ments
table substituted omitted, a communion bread, instead of a specialwafer, used in and anointingset aside,the priests' vest
and restricted to the surplice,
what
is
now
the second
Anglican form of the deliveryof the elements substituted,implying a doctrine lookingtoward the Zwinglian conceptionof the Supper. of a creed, had been engaged in the preparation Cranmer which submitted by order of the Council of Government was The of whom John Knox in 1552 to six theologians, was one. authorized by the Forty-two Articles,which were result was June 12, 1553, less than a month the young King's signature, before his death. Though moderate for the period,they were Protestant in tone than the Prayer Book. decidedlymore determined to was Unpopular as he was, Northumberland clause
of the
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
369-372.
EXECUTIONS
412 thus
UNDER
restoringthe church
1529,
that
save
to the state
church
former
MARY in which
property
it had assured
was
been in
by
the
its present
possessors.1 Severe persecutionat once began. Its firstvictim was John Rogers,a prebendary of St. Paul's,who was burned in London The attitude of the people,who cheered on February 4, 1555. him on the way ominous for this policy; but to the stake,was before the end of the year, seventy-five had suffered by fire in various parts of England, of whom the most notable were the former and Nicholas bishops,Hugh Latimer Ridley, whose statute
heroic
to
fortitude
created
at
their
deaths
in
Oxford,
on
October
16,
profound popular impression. Another conspicuous victim of this year was John Hooper, former bishop of Glou cester and Worcester. Mary was determined to strike the high est of the anti-Roman Cranmer clergy,ArchbishopCranmer. not of the heroic stuff of which was Latimer, Ridley,Hooper, and Rogers were made. He was formallyexcommunicated by November and sentence at Rome Pole on 25, 1555, was shortly after made of in his stead. Cranmer archbishop Canterbury in dilemma. He had was now a logical asserted, since his under appointment Henry VIII, that the sovereign is the authorityin the English church. His Protestantism supreme Roman In Catholic. real,but that sovereignwas was now a his distress he now made submission declaringthat he recog nized papal authority as established by law. Mary had no intention of sparingthe man who had pronounced her mother's die. But it was must marriage invalid. Cranmer hoped that at his death he would by a publicabjurationof Protestantism That discredit the Reformation. hope was nearly realized. Cranmer signed a further recantation denying Protestantism wholly; but on the day of his execution in Oxford, March 21, returned. He his his retractions 1556, repudiated courage d eclared his Protestant and held the offending faith, absolutely, renounced hand, which had signedthe now submissions,in the flame tillit was consumed. His dying day was the noblest of a
his 'ife.
Philip had with
left
England
in
1555, and
this
absence, coupled
childless state, preyed on Mary's mind, inducing own her to feel that she had not done enough to satisfy the judgment of
her
God.
Persecution JGee
therefore continued and
Hardy,
pp.
385-415.
unabated
till her
OF
ACCESSION death
on
hundred
November were
17, 1558.
burned
"
toll of sufferers in the
ELIZABETH
In all,somewhat
scanty number
a
413
Netherlands.
But
less than
three
compared with the Englishsentiment
for the spread martyrdoms did more all previous governmental than of anti-Roman sentiment efforts had accomplished. It was certain that the accession of the next sovereignwould witness a change or civil war. Elizabeth (Queen 1558-1603) had longpassed as illegitimate, though her place in the succession had been secured by act of Of all Henry's Parliament in the lifetime of Henry VIII. who children she was the only one reallyresembled him in ability, insight,and personal popularity. With a masculine adorn force of character she combined a curious love of personal inherited from her light-mindedmother. Of real religious ment denials of her feelingshe had none, but her birth and Roman mother's a Protestant,though marriage made her necessarily under Mary, when her life had been in danger, she had con formed ritual. Fortunately her accession had to the Roman the support of PhilipII of Spain, soon to be her bitterest en That favor helped her with EnglishCatholics. Earnest emy. Roman he was, Philipwas as politician enough not to wish to under the rule of a see France, England, and Scotland come not Queen of England, singleroyalpair,and if Elizabeth was then Mary "Queen of Scots," wife of the princewho in was 1559 to become rightfully King Francis II of France, was In her first measures entitled to the Englishthrone. on acces sion Elizabeth enjoyed,moreover, the aid of one of the most cautious and far-sighted statesmen England has ever produced, Lord William Cecil (1521-1598), better known as Burghley,
deeply revolted.
whom
she at
These
her secretary and chief adviser tillhis death. For Elizabeth
made
that she
who it
to
was was
a
be her
great ad
thoroughly English in feeling, and deeply sympathetic with the politicaland economic ambitions of the nation. This representative quality recon ciled many whom to her government considera mere religious tions would have repelled. No one doubted that she put Eng vantage
also
once
was
land first.
Elizabeth
proceeded cautiouslywith her changes. Parlia ment passed the new Supremacy Act,1 with much opposition, on April29, 1559. By it the authorityof the Pope and all pay1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
442-458.
ELIZABETHAN
THE
414
and appealsto him
SETTLEMENT
rejected. A significant change of title appeared, however, by Elizabeth's own insistence. Instead of the old "Supreme Head," so obnoxious to the of the now Catholics, s j was styled "Supreme Governor" church in England less objectionable a much phrase,though the in The tests of heresy same amounting to thing practice. the firstfour General Councils, to be the Scriptures, now were ments
were
"
and had
the
decisions
of Parliament.
Meanwhile
a
commission
been revisingthe Second
Prayer Book of Edward VI (ante, againstthe Pope was omitted,as was the p. 410). The prayer declaration that kneelingat the Supper did not imply adora left tion,while the question of Christ's physicalpresence was undetermined by the combination of the forms intentionally of deliveryin the two Edwardean books (ante,pp. 409, 410). These modifications service were designed to render the new more palatable to Catholics. The Act of Uniformity1 now ordered all worship to be conducted, after June 24, 1559, in accordance and provided that the ornaments with this liturgy, the vestments those of the second year of Edward of the
The
and
church
oath members
of
was
supremacy
of its ministers should
be
VI. refused
by
all but
two
ob
of the Marian
but among the lower episcopate, the obstinate not amount clergygenerallyresistance was slight, New be provided,and bishops must ing to two hundred. Elizabeth directed the election of her mother's one-time chap Parker lain,Matthew (1504-1575),as archbishop of Canter bury. His consecration was a perplexingquestion; but there had those in England who received ordination to the were Parker was VI. now bishopricunder Henry VIII and Edward scurer
consecrated,on December 17, 1559, at the hands of four suchWilliam Barlow, John Scory,Miles Coverdale, and John Hodgkin.
The
succession validityof the act, on which the apostolic of the English episcopatedepends, has always been strongly affirmed by Anglican divines,while attacked theo by Roman various grounds,and declared invalid by Pope Leo on logians, XIII Thus in 1896, for defect in "intention." inaugurated, was a new speedilyestablished. A defini Anglican episcopate tion of the creed, other than implied in the Prayer Book, was purposely postponed; but in 1563 the Forty-two Articles of 1553
(ante,p. 410)
were
1
Gee
somewhat and
Hardy,
revised,and pp.
458-467.
as
the famous
REFORMATION
THE
BEFORE
SCOTLAND
415
of faith of the Thirty-nineArticles,became the statement Church of England.1 accom Thus, by 1563 the Elizabethan settlement was from sides: of Rome, plished. It was threatened from two t^iat from the earnest who rerormers more and, even dangerously, wished
to go
further and
duced
Puritans.
English revolt is that it pro outstandingreligiousleader no Luther, Zwingli,
no
of the
feature
remarkable
The
to be nicknamed
were
soon
"
did it,before the beginningof Eliza considerable spiritualawakening beth's reign,manifest any and social. A the people. Its impulses were _pplitical among Knox.
Calvin, or
Nor
life of England great revival of the religious
earlier historyof which reign,but which was to
the dawn
At
backward
and
be coincident with
was
to
owe
nothing to her.
X.
SECTION
the
come,
Elizabeth's
REVOLT
SCOTTISH
THE
to
was
of the sixteenth century Scotland country. Its social conditions were
was
a
poor
mediaeval.
small. Its nobles were turbulent. of its Kings was rich in land, owning about one-half Relativelyits church was
The
power
that of the country, but
supplyplacesfor younger property
were churchlypositions sons
in the hands
was
of noble
of the
used largely
houses,and much
lay nobles.
The
to
clerical
weak
mon
archy had usually leaned on the church as againstthe lay backward, though universities had nobility. Education was in the fifteenth century in St. Andrews, Glas Aberdeen. Compared with continental seats of learn
founded
been
and
gow,
weak.
ing they were
determiningmotive of most of fear of dominance this period was
The in
Three
annexation
or
grievousdefeats by
(1513),Solway Moss
more
in alliance with serious when
"
France
England
was
had
even
On
those
Flodden
Englishsuperi the other
hand,
for England, a great peril broken with the papacy.
Therefore and
with
(1542),and Pinkie (1547)" strengthened
of antagonism,but showed that feeling orityin force could not conquer Scotland. the
by Eng
the English
this
Scotland
history political
to link the fortunes of the land
land, persuadingit of France.
Scottish
England and France both sought to build up parties strengthenfactions favorable to themselves in Scotland. 1
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom,111
:
487-516.
BEGINNINGS.
PROTESTANT
416
while
England,
toward
of
that
Hamilton
inclined
was
favored
France.
strong supporters in ArchbishopJames
also had
France
powerfulfamily of Douglas
the
the whole
On
KNOX
Beaton
(?-1539) of St. Andrews, the primate of Scotland, and his Beaton (14947-1546), his successor nephew, Cardinal David in the same see. Though King James V (reigned1513-1542) was nephew of Henry VIII, and his grandson,James VI, was to I of
James
become
after the death
England in
1603
unite the two
crowns
V threw in his fortunes with
Elizabeth,James
of
and
a daughter of Francis I,and, after France, marrying successively Catholic her death, Mary of Lorraine, of the powerful French familyof Guise. This latter union, so important in the history of Scotland,was to have as its fruit Mary "Queen of Scots."
Protestant
Some
beginnings were
early made
(1504?-1528), who
Patrick Hamilton
had
visited Wittenberg
studied in Marburg, preached Lutheran The burned on cause February 29, 1528.
doctrine,and
and
1534
and
there
1540
Scottish Parliament It
Bible.
the
but 1544
a
was
slowly.
grew
In
Yet, in 1543 the
executions.
reading and translation of temporary phase, due to English
authorized
was
influence,and by
other
were
in Scotland.
the
Cardinal
and
Beaton
the French
party
were employing strong repression. Chief of the preachersat this time was George Wishart (1513?-!546),who was burned by
Beaton
Cardinal
on
March
On
2, 1546.
May
29
Beaton
brutallymurdered, partlyin revenge for Wishart' s death and partly out of hostility to his French policy. The murderers gained possessionof the castle of St. Andrews and rallied their sympathizersthere. In 1547 a hunted Protestant a friend of Wishpreacher,apparently a convert and certainly took refuge with art, of no considerable previousconspicuity, This was their spiritual teacher. them and became John Knox, himself
to
was
be the hero Born
in
or
of the Scottish
reformation.
Haddington, between 1505 and 1515, Knox's obscure. He was certainlyordained to the
near
was early career priesthood,but when Wishart was martyr, and prepared to defend
reduce
the rebels in St. Andrews
and
Knox
the
cruel lot of
his way
rulingin
was
carried to France
arrested him.
castle
he
French
was
with
that
forces sent
to
compelled its surrender,
to endure
for nineteen
months
galley-slave.Released at length,he made under the Protestant to England, then government of Edward the name VI, became one of the royalchapa
417
LEADERSHIP
KNOX'S I
in 1552
lains,and
the
declined
The
Rochester.
bishopricof
in 1554, but the English accession of Mary compelled his flight, divided by whom he first joined in Frankfort were refugees his criticisms of the Edwardean Prayer-Book,1and he soon found
in
welcome
a
Geneva, where
he became
ardent dis
an
version of the cipleof Calvin, and labored on the Genevan English Bible, later so valued by the English Puritans. than Meanwhile the English had alienated Scotland more ever by the defeat of Pinkie,in 1547. Mary "Queen of Scots" had
betrothed
been of
Mary
her
safety in 1548, while
for
France
to
the heir to the French
to
sent
mother, the Guise, in 1554.
regent of Scotland
Lorraine, became
and
throne
large portionof the Scottish nobles and people this submission hateful as any full dependence on France as was and national inde Protestantism to England could have been. in this to be bound together,and it was pendence seemed Knox double now to be the leader. strugglethat Knox was To
a
dared
to
to
return
months; but
the situation
returned
Knox
to
Geneva
was
to
not
become
English-speakingrefugeesthere.
of
fruitful seed. and
On
anti-French
December
blessed
most
six
yet ripe for revolt,and the pastor of the church
had, however, sowed
He
3, 1557,
in Scotland
nobles
"establish the
to
preached for
Scotland, in 1555, and
of Protestant
number
a
entered
into
a
of God
and
His
Word
covenant congre
of the they were gation" given to this dissent Congregation."2 Additional fuel was by the marriage of Mary to the French heir on April24, 1558.3 Scotland now seemed a province of France, for should there be
a
of this union
son
he would
be ruler of both
grip was made doubly sure by Mary, kept secret at the time, that French
Scotland
should
Elizabeth
was
she die without
an
heirs.
Lords
"The
nicknamed
which
from
"
lands,and the
signedby
agreement
France Before
Queen of England, and Mary
should 1558
receive
was
ended
"Queen of Scots"
and proclaiming denouncing her as an illegitimate usurper, herself the rightful occupant of the English throne.
was
pendence and
more
could
be
Knox
saw
1
Kidd,
of Scottish inde the advocates of Protestantism rapidlyincreased and became
these circumstances
Under
and more
fused into
one
party.
Elizabeth, moreover,
expected to assist,if only for her that the time was ready. On May p. 691.
2
Ibid.,p.
696.
3
own
protection.
2, 1559, he Ibid.,p.
690.
was
THE
418
SCOTTISH
in Scotland.
back
CHURCH
Nine days later he preachedin Perth.
The
mob
destroyed the monastic establishments of the town.1 This action the regent naturallyregarded as rank rebellion. and both sides promptly She had French troops at her disposal, armed for combat. They proved fairlyequal,and the result undecided.
was
Churches
and
wrecked
were
monastic
property
Knox's
On disgust,in many parts of Scotland. July 10, 1559, Henry II of France died, and Mary's husband,
sacked,
to
Francis
II became
French
in his stead.
King
reinforcements
promptly sent to the regent in Scotland. Matters went badly for the reformers. At last,in January, 1560, English The contest dragged. On June 11, 1560, the re help came. gent died, but her cause perished with her. On July 6 a made between France and England by which treaty was were
French
soldiers were debarred
from
withdrawn
important posts in its government. The revolution had triumphed through English aid, but with Scottish national independence,and its inspirer out forfeiting were
from
Scotland, and Frenchmen
had
been
had
first shown
for the
Knox.2
all
In this contest
themselves
a
the
power,
Scottish middle and
classes
their influence
was
order.
newer
The
victorious party now pushed its triumph in the Scottish Parliament. On August 17, 1560, a Calvinistic confession of faith,largelyprepared by Knox, was adopted as the creed of the realm.3
A
week
later the
same
body abolished papal juris
and forbad the mass under pain of death for the third diction, offense.4 Though the King and Queen in France refused their approval,the majorityof the nation had spoken. Knox work.
and
his associates
now
proceeded to complete their
is re In December, 1560, a meeting was held which the first Scottish "General as Assembly," in January
garded followingthe First Parliament.5
It
Book
was
a
presented to
of Disciplinewas most
remarkable
document, attempt
ingto apply the system worked out by Calvin dom, though the Presbyteriansystem was far developed as and
elders
Minister 1 3 "
Kidd,
yet.
In
each
parishthere
to
a
from
should
be
whole
king thoroughly a
minister
of the congregation. the consent the board elders constituted the disciplinary
holdingoffice with
and
"
Ibid.,pp. 698-700. Ibid.,pp. 700, 704-707; Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3 : 437-479. ' Ibid.,pp. 701, 702. /wdi" p" 707. p. 697.
the
2
MARY
420
dependence might which
domination
revolution
had
prudence.
While
had
mass
who
was
well think that the had
passed. Mary
said in her now
induced
she made
minister
danger of pressing
acquiescencein behaved,
at
the
French
religious
first,with
of her
great
faith,and the furious disapprovalof Knox, secret
no
chapel to
SCOTS
OF
QUEEN
of St. Giles in
own
Edinburgh, and
admired
by the burghers of that city,she did not interfere in the re settlement effected in 1560. She strove to secure ligious recog nition as Elizabeth's heir to the English throne, a thing which Elizabeth had no mind to grant. Mary had the sage advice of her half-brother, James Stewart, later to be earl of Moray (1531?-1570), who
Congregation." skill to
had
She
been
tried
him.
divided.
Mary The
"Lords
any
overture
and
of the of
great
remained
Still the prospect darkened The Protestant nobles were
party.
friends.
won
of the
by personal interviews
Knox, but he refused
win
the soul of the Protestant for
leader
a
had increasingly being used. Knox to fear that Mary would good reason give a Catholic King to Scotland by marrying some great foreignprince. A marriage of Philip II of Spain was with the son seriouslydiscussed. Even in Scotland and more alarming for the Protestant cause England was Mary's actual marriage on July 29, 1565, to her cousin,Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley (1545-1567), with whom she had fallen in love. Darnley's claim to the English throne stood next herself. He to that of Mary was popular with English Catholics,and though he had passed as a Protestant in England, he now avowed himself a Catholic. The marriage increased Elizabeth's danger at home and strengthenedthe Catholic party in Scotland. driven Moray opposed it, was into exile,and Mary made much from court, and soon progress in subduing,one after another, the Protestant lords who sym pathizedwith Moray. She thus lost her wisest adviser. Thus far Mary had acted fairly shrewdly,but Scottish Protes and want tantism was saved by Mary's mistakes of selfnow vicious. control. certainly disagreeableand Darnley was Her feelings for him changed. On the other hand, his jealousy roused by the favor which Mary showed to David Riccio, was Italian whom an Mary employed as a foreignsecretary, and who looked upon was by the Protestant lords as their enemy. of Protestant nobles,therefore,entered Darnley and a number into a plot by which Riccio was dragged from Mary's presence mass
was
421
DOWNFALL
MARY'S I
murdered
and
in the
palaceof Holy rood,
on
March
9, 1566.
Mary behaved with great cunning. Dissembling her anger at of his fellow the weak Darnley, she secured from him the names in outlawed those who had actuallyparticipated conspirators, deed, and took the others back into favor, of
the
the knowledge On
ance.
June
future
the
Mary was
19, 1566, Mary
seemed thrown
now
surer
on
had
realityMary
with
to
of her weak
rid
Mary
of
man,
husband.
Darnley, with
I of
James
suffer
was
born,
England.
forgivenher husband, and a
noble, James
Protestant
she
Hep
rough, licentious,but contrasted with whose qualities Bothwell now led in a conspiracy
(1536?-1578),
brave, loyal,and martial those
and
on
the Scottish throne.
never
much
burn, earl of Bothwell
received they were and Darnley's son
of Scotland
VI
James
never
In
their part that
on
with
course
a
the part of of the disputed questionsof history. how
much
share
on
Mary herself is stillone removed Darnley, who was recoveringfrom smallpox,was by Mary from Glasgow to a house on the edge of Edinburgh, where Mary spent part of the last evening with him. Early the morning of February 10, 1567, the house was blown up, on and Darnley'sbody was found near it. Public opinioncharged Bothwell with the murder, and it widely believed, probably with justice, that Mary also was guiltyof it. At all events she heaped honors on Bothwell, who succeeded in securingac quittalby a farce of a trial. On April 24, Bothwell met Mary of her journeys and made of her captive by a show on one force He was it was generallybelieved with her connivance. divorced from his wife for adultery on married, but he was married by Protes May 3, and on May 15 he and Mary were "
tant
rites.
These
shameless
transactions
Scotland, while they robbed
sympathy Catholics
in
England
in Scotland
and
on
roused
Mary,
general hostilityin
for the
the Continent.
time, of Catholic Protestants
and
joined forces againsther. Just a month after the wedding Mary was and on July 24, 1567, a prisoner, she was compelled to abdicate in favor of her year-old son, and appoint Moray as regent, while she was herself imprisoned in Lochleven Castle. On July 29 John Knox preached the VFs the coronation. With at James sermon Mary's fall came established triumph of Protestantism, which was now definitely in December. herself escaped from by Parliament Mary
in
Lochleven
May,
MELVILLE
AND
KNOX
422
promptly
1568, but Moray
defeated
her
England, where she was to remain, till her execution for conspiracy of Catholic intrigue, a centre in February, 1587. againstElizabeth's life, about over. On November Knox's fierycareer was 24, 1572, he died, having influenced not merely the religionbut the supporters, and
she fled to
character of the nation
history.
Knox's
(1545-1623), who
work had
than
more
to be
was
taught
as
other
any
in Scottish
man
taken up by Andrew Melville Beza's colleaguein Geneva,
He was the edu his return to Scotland in 1574. cational reformer of the Universities of Glasgow and St. Andrews from
1568
to
the perfecter of the Presbyterian as distinguished system in Scotland and its vigorousdefender againstthe royal of James VI, who compelled him and episcopal encroachments to spend the last sixteen years of his lifein exile from his native and
more
even
land.
XI.
SECTION
THE
REVIVAL
ROMAN
(ante,pp. 321-325) that a genera tion before Luther's breach with Rome, Spain was witnessing and Car work led Isabella by Queen a vigorousreformatory It has
alreadybeen
dinal Ximenes.
noted
zeal for
It combined
a
gent clergy,abolition of glaringabuses, and the
learned, not
for the
the
It inquisition.
was
and
intelli
Biblical studies for
people,with unswerving orthodoxy, of heresyby repression that was to give life
standards, and
judged by mediaeval
moral
more
this movement
revival,often, though rather incor vigor to the Roman Outside of Spain it rectly,called the Counter-Reformation. had very littleinfluence when Luther began his work. Indeed,
and
the
Church
decline of the Roman in the feebleness with
than
which
was
nowhere
Protestant
more
evident
onslaughtswere
met by the contemporariesof the firstquarter century of the great revolt,and the incapacityof the Popes themselves to and to put their inter realize the real gravityof the situation,
petty Italian VI (1522-1523) exhibited a real, princes. Though Adrian though utterly ineffective, reformatory zeal, in the Spanish
ests
as
great churchmen
above
their
concerns
as
neither his during his brief and unhappy pontificate, Clement VII Leo X (1513-1521),nor his successor, predecessor, leader,and the politi(1523-1534),was in any sense a religious
sense,
REFORM
REVOLUTION
AND
IN
of the latter contributed
cal ambitions
ITALY
423
materiallyto the spread
of Protestantism. Yet
there
reform, though Rome
about
leaders
Pope age,
Paul
who
Italy,who
for revolution.
not
the
1517
Giovanni
was
in
those, even
were
"Oratory
Such
a
of Divine
Pietro Caraffa
were
group
Love."
anxious
for
founded
in
Among
its
(1476-1559), later
to
be
IV (1555-1559),of distinguished Neapolitan parent of years in Spain, and had had lived for a number
broughtfrom
there
for the
admiration
an
Spanishreformation,
though no love for the Spanish monarchy. Another member was Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547) ; and in -close sympathy, though not one of the Oratory,was Senator Gasparo Contarini still a layman. Of these, (1483-1542) of Venice, who was Caraffa was of unbending devotion to mediaeval dogma, while Contarini had much sympathy with Luther's doctrine of jus of the tification by faith alone, though not with his rejection ancient hierarchy. Pope Paul III (1534-1549), more alive than his predecessorsto the gravity of the situation,made Contarini,Caraffa, Sadoleto, and the English Reginald Pole and appointed (1500-1558) cardinals early in his pontificate, the betterment of the them, with others, a commission on but resultless, church, which made a plain-spoken, report in .
1538.1 These
far removed
reallyProtestant views. But there were considerable number whose sympathies led a them much further. In Venice they were numer particularly real leader there. that In city ous, though they produced no men
were
Bruccioli's Italian translation
printed in 1530, under hospitality,
and
of the
from
of the
whole
New
Testament
Bible in 1532.
was
Ferrara's
Renee, has already been noted in connection with Calvin (ante,p. 394). The remarkable most of these groups that gatheredin Naples about Juan Valdes, was (1500?-1541),a Spaniard of high rank, employed in the ser vice of Charles V and a man of devout, Evangelicalmysticism. From his disciple, Benedetto of Mantua, came about 1540 the most popular book of this circle,The Benefits of Christ's Death. Pietro Martire Among his adherents were Vermigli (15001562),whose father had been an admirer of Savonarola,himself Duchess
priorof the monastery professorof Protestant
of St. Peter
theologyin !Kidd,
pp.
Naples, destined to be Strassburgand Oxford;
in
307-318.
and
LOYOLA
IGNATIUS
424
Bernardino
(1487-1564), vicar-generalof the
Ochino
Capuchin order, later Protestant pastor in Zurich,and ultimatelya Another eazzo
friend of this group Caraccioli,marquis of
prebendary wanderer
for
Caraffa's
was
own
of
Canterbury, erratic opinions. nephew, Gal-
Vico, later to be Calvin's intimate
Evangelicals were, however, unorganizedand without princelysupport, save very cautiously the common did they gain followingamong in Ferrara, nor exotic growth; and the same an people. In Italythey were associate in Geneva.
may
in
These
be said of the very
Spain. Pope Paul
Italian
few
III wavered
who
Protestants
for
a
time
between
were
the
to be found
method
of
by Contarini,who took part in the re union discussions in Regensburg (ante,p. 376) as papal legate, and that of Caraffa, who urged stern repressionof doctrinal divergence,while advocating administrative and moral reform. Eventually he decided for the latter,and his decision became On Caraffa's urgent appeal Paul the policyof his successors. III,on July 21, 1542, reorganizedthe inquisition, largelyon the its actual Spanish model, on a universal scale,1 though of course the support of it had took place only where establishment friendlycivil authority. Before it, the feeble beginnings of Italian Protestantism rapidlydisappeared. One of the main thus forged. of the Catholic Counter-Reformation was weapons Much more important was a revival of missionaryzeal which the fresh geniusof Spain contributed to kindle Catholic enthusi of Viewed from any standpoint,IgnatiusLoyola is one asm. the master epoch. Inigo Lopez de figuresof the Reformation Recalde born of a noble family in northern Spain in 1491. was After servingas a page at the court of Ferdinand, he became a exhibited when soldier. His intrepidfirmness was Pamplona was besiegedby the French in 1521, but he received there a further militaryservice impossible. During wound that made his slow recovery he studied the lives of Christ,St. Dominic, ideals still lingered in Spain, and St. Francis. Chivalrous and he determined be a knight of the Virgin. that he would he journeyed to Monserrat, and hung Recovered,in a measure, his weapons altar. Thence he went to Manresa, the Virgin's on where, in the Dominican monastery, he began those directed into his SpiritualExafterward visions which were to grow conciliation
advocated
1
Kidd,
pp.
347-350.
JESUITS
THE
ercises. The the
Franciscans
pilgrimin Jerusalem, but with there maintaining the cross were dangerous and sent him home.
1523
year
who
difficulty, thought him Convinced have and
that if he
to
was
rapidly forward
went
A born
Salamanca. whom
with
him
saw
a
do the work
education,Ignatiusentered
an
he
425
a
he desired he must
boy's class
the Universities
to
in
of Alcala
leader,he gatheredlike-minded
practisedhis
exercises. spiritual
Barcelona, and
companions This aroused
in and his life was suspicionof the Spanish inquisition danger. In 1528, he entered the Universityof Paris, justas Calvin was leavingit. There he made no public demonstra tion,but gathered round himself a handful of devoted friends and disciples Pierre Lefevre, Francis Xavier, Diego Lainez, Alfonso Salmeron, Nicolas Bobadilla, and Simon Rodriguez, mostly from the Spanish peninsula. In the church of St. Mary on Montmartre, in Paris,on August 15, 1534, these com to go to Jerusalem to labor for the church panions took a vow and their fellow men, or, if that proved impossible, to put them little student of the Pope. It was selves at the disposition a love to God and the connectingbond of which was association, the church, as they understood it. the
"
The
1536
year
them
saw
in
Venice; but Jerusalem
was
barred
determined to ask the Pope's direction. by war, and they now Ignatiuswas beginning to perceivewhat his societymight be come. Italy had seen militarycompanies in earthly many be the militarycompany of Jesus, bound service. His would by a similar strictness of obedience, and a like careful,though exercise of arms, to fightthe battle of the church spiritual, againstinfidels and heretics. In spiteof ecclesiasticalopposi induced tion, Paul III was by the favorable attitude of Contarini and the skill of Ignatiusto authorize the company on 1540.1 The constitution of the as September 27, societywas that
save yet indefinite,
obedience
was
due, and
the Pope should the
first
July 31, The
should
direct.
"general" "
was
In
to
have
labor
head
wherever
to
whom
that
he
held
full
head
April,1541, Ignatiuswas
office which
an
a
till his
and
chosen
death,
1556.
of the Jesuits
constitution
indeed it its main
it
was
not
features
was
completed tillafter were
his work. 1
Kidd,
pp.
At
gradually worked out, death, though Ignatius's the head is a "general,"
335-340.
THE
426
JESUITS
absolute obedience
to whom
is due; but
who, in turn, iswatched
appointed by the order, and can, if necessary, be deposed by it. Over each district is a "provincial,"ap is admitted, after a pointed by the "general." Each member careful novitiate,and pledgesobedience to the fullest extent in all that does not involve sin. His superiors assignhim to the work which they believe him best fitted to do. That that work may be better accomplished the Jesuits are bound to no fixed hours of worship or form of dress as are monks. Each member is disciplined by use of Ignatius's SpiritualExercises, by
assistants
work, in accordance
remarkable
a
"
drilled in
with
which
the Jesuit is
manual of arms, spiritual by four weeks of intense contemplation of the principalfacts of the life and work of Christ,and of the Christian warfare with evil,under the gui dance
a
of
a
drill-master. spiritual
It
was
marvellous
a
instru
Ignatiusconstructed,combining the individualism of the Renaissance each man assigned to and trained for his with the sacrificeof will and complete obedience peculiarwork aims of the whole. It stands as the very to the spiritand that
ment
"
"
antithesis of Protestantism.
Though the Jesuit societyspread rapidlyin Italy,Spain, and Portugal,it was slower in gainingstrong foothold in France and Germany, but by the latter half of the sixteenth century it was the advance-guard of the Counter-Reformation. Its chief agencies were its excellent preaching,the confessional, schools
for
not
"
well-to-do
"
and
the
its
multitude, but
for
foreignmissions.
the
Under
well-born
and
Jesuit influence
became the rule in frequent confession and communion Catholic countries; and, to aid the confessional,the Jesuit moral practicewas graduallydeveloped,chieflyafter Ignatius's in the earlypart of the seventeenth cen death, and especially tury, in a fashion that has aroused the criticism not only of more
Protestants
arightit not
but
should
of be
Catholics.
many
remembered
that
In
estimatingthem
these moral
represent ideals of conduct, but the minima
solution
can
phasizedthe
which consent
which
ab
given; and, also,that the Jesuit moralityem universal Latin tendency to regard sin as a series as
of sin itself
nature
is done
on
be
of definite acts rather than The
treatises do
with
of the
a
will.
clear
was
a
state.
minimized.
knowledge
Personal
That
only
of its sinfulness and
was responsibility
is sin a
full
undermined
REFORMS
428
The is
church
AND
alone has the
defined, yet skilfully
The
sacraments
way.
The
had
the door
tion of mediseval
OF
ZEAL
rightof interpretation.Justification so
the
are
mediseval shut
INCREASE
as
leave
to
mediaeval
for work-merit.
scope
and
seven
defined
in the
result is
ably expressed,but the church completely on all compromise or modifica
doctrine.
Though the reforms the wishes of realizing inconsiderable.
effected
by
the
council
in the Roman
many
Provision
made
far from
were
Church, they
were
for the
public inter pretationof Scripturein the largertowns. Bishops were bound the parishclergyto teach plainlywhat is need to preach and ful for salvation. Residence was required and pluralities restrained. Seminaries for clerical trainingwere ordered, and better provisionfor the moral supervision of the clergy. Regu lations were enacted to prevent clandestine marriages. A less the approval of an index of prohibited praiseworthystep was books, to be prepared by the Pope, followingthe example IV in 1559. It resulted in 1571 in the creation by set by Paul Pius V (1566-1572) of the Congregation of the Index, at Rome, to censure publications. From a Spanish theologian,influential at Trent, Melchior Cano (1525-1560), came the ablest defense of the Roman posi tion that had yet appeared,in his De Locis Theologicis Libri XII, published three years after his death. Theology, he taught, is based on authority. The authorityof Scripturerests on the siftingand approving power of the church, which determines what is Scriptureand what all of not; but as by no means Christian doctrine is contained in the Scripture,tradition, handed down and sifted by the church,is another authoritative not
was
basis.
The the
middle
prime
of the sixteenth century witnessed
interest of the
holders
of the
papacy.
still Italian had
temporal princes,but the concerns assumed the first place. With Paul
now
1555-1559)
the
Counter-Reformation
throne,with the result done
that
Rome
reached
of the
many
a
abuses
change in They were
of the church IV
(Caraffa, the papal
of the
curia
sombre, a much more than in the the but ecclesiastical, Renaissance, city Popes were
were
away.
men prevailingly
now
was
a
more
of strict life, religious earnestness, and
strenuous
Catholicism.
The
result of all these
influences
was
that
by
1565
Catholic
REVIVAL
ROMAN
THE
429
I
spirit,intense in its oppositionto Protestantism, mediaeval in its theology, but ready to fightor to suffer for its faith,was wide-spread. Against this renewed zeal Protestantism not merely ceased to make new conquests, its hold on the Rhineland and in southern Germany had
earnestness
soon
to
hope This
A
in considerable
shaken
was
revived.
been
revival
Catholic
Catholicism
measure.
all that it had
to win back
new
lost.
also characterized
was
velopment of mysticalpiety,in which, as The
the leader.
was
in
so
by
much
large de else,Spain
a
chief traits of this
renouncing quietism "
and
began
raisingof
a
to God
voiceless prayer
life were selfreligious the soul in contemplation
"
till a union
in divine
love, or in
believe to be achieved. Often thought to aid this mystic exaltation.
ecstasy of inner revelation,was ascetic practiceswere Conspicuous in this movement
Teresa
de Jesus
(1515-1582) Ontiveros,in Spain. (1542-1591) Francois de Sales (1567-1622), nominally bishop of Geneva, to of Avila and
whose
Savoy and
it
efforts the
de la Cruz
winning
Geneva
near
was
spread in
was
Fremyot treme
Juan
de
Chantal
devotion
to
were
of
for Catholicism
due, representedthe France
by
his
and
same
was
combined
its sacraments.
Catholic earnest religious longingsof more church, in turn, recognizedit by enrolling many the
among
portions of type of piety,
Jeanne disciple,
(1572-1641). It
the church
of the
Francoise with
ex
It satisfied
souls,and
the
of its exemplars
the saints.
forth,in full measure, also,in the work These were primarily the endeavor of the monastic orders,notably the Dominicans and Franciscans, with whom of Jesus eagerly from its foundation the Company Catholic
zeal went of foreignmissions.
shared
in the
labor.
To
the work
of these orders the Chris
tianityof Southern, Central, and largeparts of North America is due. famous of They converted the Philippines.Most these Roman missionaries was Ignatius'soriginalassociate, Francis Xavier (1506-1552). Appointed by Ignatiusmission III of Portugal,he ary to India, at the request of King John reached Goa in 1542 and began a career of marvellous activity. In Goa he founded h e a missionarycollege, preached through southern India, in 1549 he entered Japan and began a out work which had reached largedimensions, when its severe re undertaken the native rulers in 1612. Xavier by pressionwas in His work died, 1552, just as he was enteringChina. was
ROMAN
430
MISSIONS
an explorationrather superficial,
example was China
a
than
contagiousinfluence
the labor which
Xavier
had
a
his
structure, but
of
far-reachingforce. In attempted was begun, in
1581, by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), but his desire to be "all thingsto all men," led him to compromise with an a relaxation cestor-worship,
orders
which
missionaries of other Catholic In India the converts almost were
stronglyopposed. entirelyfrom outcasts or low-caste ranks. The Jesuit,Roberto de' Nobili (1576?-1656), began a work for those of high caste in Madura, in 1606, recognizingcaste distinctions and other wise accommodating itselfto Indian prejudices. Its apparent
large,but its methods mate by the papacy. prohibition experiment of Jesuit missions was success
was
aroused
criticism and
ulti
Probably the most famous that in Paraguay. Their In 1610, they commenced work there began in 1586. gathering the natives into "reductions,"or villages, each built on a sim ilar plan,where the dwellers were kept at peace and taught the elements
of
and industry, but religion
held
in strict and
semi-
childlike dependence on the missionaries,in whose hands lay the administration of trade and agriculture.Greatly admired, the system fellwith the expulsionof the Jesuits, in 1767, and has left few permanent results. rivalries of the several orders,and supervisionof missionarylabors,induced The
the
more
effective
Pope Gregory XV (1621-1623) to found, in 1622, the Congregatiode Propaganda Fide, by which the whole field could be surveyed and superin tended
from Rome.
XII.
SECTION
THE
STRUGGLE AND
The
rivalries of France
IN
FRANCE,
THE
ENGLAND
and
Spain,with
their
had made the growth militaryconsequences, tion possible, and had facilitated the division tween
Lutherans
burg of
1555.
and
NETHERLANDS,
Catholics recorded in
Henry II (1547-1559) had
and political
of the Reforma of
Germany be the Peace of Augs
succeeded
Francis I
in France, and Charles V had transferred to his son PhilipII (1556-1598) the sovereigntyof Spain, the Netherlands,and of the Spanish territories in Italy; but the old rivalrycontinued. In war, however, PhilipII at first proved more successful than his father had
been, and the battles of St. Quentin in August,
IN
PROTESTANTISM
DANGER
431 to the
1557,and Gravelines in July,1558, forced France of
of Cateau-Cambresis
April 2,
That
1559.
Treaty
treaty
was
a
reckoningpointin the historyof Europe. France abandoned the long strugglefor Italy. Spanishleadership evidently was bound France to follow,or at first in Europe, and had largely its interests.
least not to oppose,
Protestantism
was
confronted
united Catholicism than it had yet politically head of that Catholicism was The political met. PhilipII of deter Spain, methodical, industrious,patient,and inflexibly of mined, who saw as his God-appointedtask the extirpation Protestantism, and bent every energy to its accomplishment. in the The next thirtyyears were to be the time of chief peril historyof Protestantism. The pointof highestdanger was, perhaps,in the year 1559,
by
much
a
more
after the death of Henry II,in July,the crown passed to Francis II, whose wife was Mary "Queen of Scots," and by her own claim Queen of England also. Yet even ar Philip's
when
dent Catholicism
Spain as that single pairof rulers.
gerous a
not
was
to
to willing
see
combination
a
so
dan
of France, Scotland, and England under He therefore helpedElizabeth,an action
he must afterward Calvin's influence had
which
have
regretted(ante,p. 413). increasingly penetratedFrance,
and
from known Huguenots, as they were in spiteof severe persecution.By 1555 there 1557, multiplied
French
was
a
Protestants,or
in congregation
Paris.
Four
later the number
years
of
seventy-two. That year, Huguenot Churches in France was 1559, they were strong enough to hold their First General Synod in Paris,to adopt a stronglyCalvinistic creed prepared by Antoine de la Roche Chandieu,1 and a Presbyterianconsti tution
drawn
estimate
Calvin's ecclesiasticalprinciples. Popular
from
them
credited
with
400,000 adherents.
Besides
from the of whom most were religion, economicallyoppressedand discontented artisan classes,the soon strengthenedby the accession of political party was
these Huguenots
of
Huguenots. The
death
of
Henry II and the accession of Francis II left
the family of Guise, uncles of Francis's Queen, all powerfulin from Lorraine, and were looked his court. The Guises were upon
by
many
of the French
ously Catholic, the ,
two
nobilityas foreigners.Strenu brothers, Charles (1524-1574),the
Creeds of
Christendom,3
:
356-382.
GROWTH
432
THE
OF
HUGUENOTS
head of the French of Lorraine," was clergy as archbishop of Rheims, while Francis (1519-1563), duke of "cardinal
Guise,
Opposed
the best soldier of France.
was
the Guise
to
the chief in rank family of Bourbon, of whom of Antoine of Vendome, titular King of Navarre, a man was abler brother,Louis, and his much weak and vacillating spirit, Of the house of Chatillon,also opposed to prince of Conde. the Guise brothers,the leader was Gaspard de Coligny,known character and devoted Admiral of sterling Coligny, a man as moved in largepart by These high nobles were to Calvinism. oppositionto the centralization of power in the King. They of the old feudal nobility thus the hostility to royal represented the
family were
middle-class
Calvinists
should
France
toward
a
continue
not
revolution
capture the young Bourbons.
would
have
of Francis
II
late King, brought a The Guises lost much
garded stillas in constant
chief
new
humbler
things in
desire that The
were.
first step "
the badly planned Con 1560, failed in its attempt to
to transfer the
been
it not
had
been
5, 1560.
(1560-1574), brother
IX
to the
government
executed
December
on
succession of Charles
The
were
and
the
when
March,
King
Conde
for the death
in
a
they
as
taken
was "
spiracyof Amboise
in
coincided
of
those
interests and
Their
encroachment.
party into the confused
of the
struggle.
of their power at court, but were re the head of Catholic interests in France, and
PhilipII sovereign,who
communication
influence about
the
with
new
of
The
Spain. was
not
yet
that of his mother, Catherine de5 Medici (1519eleven,was now 1589),able and unscrupulous,determined to maintain the rights of the
by playingoff the
crown
great noble factions of France
two
of broad and by a statesman be Michel de 1'Hopital(1505-1573), who in 1560. Catherine now chancellor of France sought a came from prison,per reconciliation of the factions,released Conde Catholic and Protestant mitted a public discussion between in which Beza took in Poissy,in September, 1561 theologians part and followed it, in January, 1562, with an edict per mitting the Huguenots to assemble for worship except in
againsteach other. views, conciliatory
She
was
aided
"
"
walled
towns.
Rather voke
Guise
war.
than On
attacked
submit, the Catholic March a
party determined
1, 1562, the body-guard
Huguenot
to
pro
of the duke
congregation worshipping
of in
NETHERLANDS
THE
WARS.
HUGUENOT
433
followed between the Huguenots wars Vassy. Three savage and Catholics, 1502-15(53, 1567-1568, and 1568-1570, with short
by
Protestant
a
of Guise
wras
murdered
Antoine, King of Navarre, and
assassin.
Coligny
of wounds.
died
Conde
Francis
Duke
between.
truces
was
left the
head
of the
On the whole, the Huguenots held their Hugueriot cause. and jealousyof Spanish influence helped their cause, so own, St. made at that in August, 1570, peace was Germain-en-Laye, given freedom of worship,and two places by which nobles were for services were people permittedto the Huguenot common in each
governmentaldivision
put in Huguenot control
as
a
of France, while four citieswere
guarantee.
The situation at this juncture was greatlycomplicatedby the of un in Netherlands. The sources of events the course and economic than more even political rest in that regionwere assumed in their origin, though in the strugglereligion religious a constantlyincreasingprominence. The Netherlands, which his father,Charles V, in had come to PhilipII of Spain from
1555,
a
were
group
of seventeen
tenacious provinces,
of local
predominantlycommercial and manufacturing,and dis rights, or posed to resent all that interfered with existingcustoms Lutheranism had early entered, but had disturbed trade. the lowest stratum been largely displacedby Anabaptism among while by 1561 when the Belgic Confession of the population, drafted by Guy de Bray,1 Calvinism was winning converts was the middle classes. The as nobilitywas yet hardly among in
touched, and
1562
the
total number
of Protestants
was
only 100,000. the inroads of Charles V, though strenuously resisting rightsand Protestantism,had largelyrespectedNetherlandish politi jealousies.Not so PhilipII. He determined to secure similar in there that cal and religious to Spain. uniformity his of In 1559 he appointed Parma, regent, sister,Margaret of three, of which the leading with an advisory committee his devoted spiritwas supporter, Cardinal Granvella (1517This committee usurped practically 1586), bishop of Arras. of the old councils of state, in which the high nobles the power had shared. The next year Philip secured from the Pope a reconstitution of the ecclesiastical geography of the Nether reckoned
at
had
lands, which 1
merit
in that
it freed the
Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
383-436.
Netherlandish
IN
STRUGGLE
THE
434
THE
NETHERLANDS
from foreignecclesiasticalsupervision, but bishoprics since the new nominees prelateswere Philip's jealousy,
places in the Parliament,
or
"States
strengthening Spanish influence. crush
to
power
"heresy"
emigration.Nobles
and
and
had
General," thus greatly
Philip,moreover, that
course
it hurt
classes,because
middle
a
"
aroused
was
trade and
merchants
used every disliked by the
were,
drove
workmen
to
therefore,increas
inglyrestive. the opponents of these changeswere three emi nobles,William of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1533-1584), nominally at least,a Catholic, to a Lutheran, but now,
Chief among nent
born
be the hero of Dutch and
Egmont
plans.
They
Horn.
Philipnow
1564.
and independence; saw
demanded
He
Council of Trent
forced
in them
the Catholic counts Granvella's dismissal
the
the enforcement
and
a
chief hindrance
to
of
in his
of the decrees of the
stricter punishment of
heresy.
A peti
circulated and presentedto the regent on tion of protest was the nickname "Beggars" given to its signerson April5, 1566 "
becoming the name Popularexcitement was
that occasion freedom.
of the party of Netherlandish intense. Protestant preach
ing was openly heard, and in August, 1556, iconoclastic riots, hundreds as William of Orange,wrecked opposed by such men of churches. To
He
Philipthese therefore
events
sent
the
were
duke
rebellion in of Alva
to Brussels with Spanish general, as practically
governor.
His
and religion. politics
(1508-1582),
an
picked Spanish army arrival in August, 1567, was a
able and fol
them those of Egmont lowed by hundreds of executions,among and Horn. William of Orange escaped to Germany, and organ beaten down but it was ized resistance, by Alva's skill. Alva,
however, completed the alienation of the mercantile in
1569, by
introducing the
heavy Spanish
taxes
classes, on
sales.
commissioning sea-rovers, Orange was uncertain and found who an preyed on Spanish commerce had refugein Englishharbors,where the English Government attitude of hostility to all been driven into a more strenuous Catholic forces,of which Philipwas chief,by the bull of deposi tion, issued against Elizabeth by Pope Pius V on February Meanwhile
William
of
25, 1570. In April,1572, these sea-rovers capturedBrill. The northern William of Orange put himself at the head of provincesrose.
WAR
IN
NETHERLANDS
THE
The
fourth,fifth, sixth, seventh Huguenot Wars, 1573, 1574-1576, 1577, 1580, ran
gain in
not
and
their
France
what
they hoped.
of destruction and
course
Charles
crushed.
not as
LEAGUE.
THE
436
IX
misery,but
died
in
1574
King by his vicious brother,Henry A
III
the and
was
were
succeeded
(1574-1589).
the Catholics themselves
division among
Huguenots
was
developing.
which, while long been a considerable element Catholic in religion, felt that the protractedwars were ruining the land and permittingforeign,especially Spanish, intrigue. basis of the Huguenots that with believed some They peace should be reached, and were known the Politiques.On the as other hand, those who willingto put religionfirst and were of Spain,if therebyCatholi France become a mere see appanage cism could triumph, had been for some time organizingassocia had
There
Church. tions in various parts of France to maintain the Roman " In 1576 these were developedinto a general League," led by
supported by Spain and the Pope. Its and into alliance existence drove the Politiquesmore more head in Henry with the Huguenots, who found their political faith in 1576. of Navarre, he having reasserted his Protestant The of St. Bartholomew shattered the hopes of massacre William of Orange for the speedy expulsionof Spain from the those of intensThe Netherlands. two followingwere years the soul. Alva's generalship of which William was est struggle, seemed at firstirresistible. Mons, Mechlin, Zutphen, Naarden, and Haarlem fell before the Spanish forces; but Alkmaar they Henry of Guise
and
failed to take,in October, 1573.
request, and
was
Alva
was
recalled at his
own
succeeded,in November, by Luis de Requesens
the Spanishpolicywas substantially (1525?-!576), under whom end of the the successful But October, 1574, saw unchanged.
Leyden, and it was evident that the northern Nether lands could not be conquered by the forces then available for Spain. In 1576 Requesens died, and the Spanish troops sacked Antwerp, an event which roused the southern provinces to resistance. The new Spanish commander, John of Austria defense
of
(1545-1578), revolted
was
able
Netherlands
to
from
effect little. Elizabeth 1576.
In
aided
the
September, 1577, William
triumphal entry into Brussels. John of Austria died, a disappointedman, in October, 1578; but he was succeeded Farnese, duke of Parma by his nephew, Alexander of commanding talents. (1545-1592),a generaland a statesman
was
able
to
make
a
PROTESTANTISM Matters
better for the
went
the
of jealousies
The
former
the
in
Catholicism
and
south
League
played on
the Calvinist north.
of Arras for the the
January, 1579;
437
Parma
Spanish cause.
Catholic
united in the
NETHERLANDS
THE
IX
latter
protectionof repliedthe same
Protestants leftthe south for by the Union of Utrecht. Catholics went southward. the north by the thousands, many saved by Parma Ultimately the ten southern provinceswere The seven for Spain, and modern Belgium is his monument. declared their independence of Spain in 1581, northern states remained to be done before all dangers were and though much passed,their freedom was so stronglyintrenched that not even the murder of William of Orange, on July 10, 1584, by a fanatic encouraged by Parma, could overthrow it. During this strugglethe Calvinistic churches of the Nether lands had been shaping. The First National Synod had been in Emden, in 1571. held outside of Netherlandish territory, later. two William of Orange had accepted Calvinism years established in Leyden, soon to be In 1575 a universitywas The Re famed for its learningin theology and the sciences. like the Huguenot of the Netherlands Church formed ,was, of France, Presbyterian in constitution,though its Church of long a matter degree of independence of state control was controversy, and varied with the different provinces. The severityof the strugglefor national independence,the wish the aid of all who were friendlyto it,and the mer to secure Netherlands to a largerdegree led the Protestant cantile spirit
month
of
toleration than
Catholics
elsewhere
at
not, indeed, allowed
were
the
time
in
Christendom.
publicworship or political
but they had rightof residence and employment. office,
To the
Anabaptists William of Orange granted in 1577 the first pro This tection in rightsof worship that they anywhere received. the Nether it was, soon made as degree of toleration,partial lands a refuge for the religiously oppressedand added to the strengthof the nation. William of Orange, brought Yet the death of their wise leader, They did not feel able great perilto the revolted Netherlands. to stand alone, and offered their sovereigntyfirst to Henry III and then to Elizabeth of England. Both of France refused; but with
Elizabeth a
his rule
small was
a
sent
army.
her
favorite,the earl of Leicester,in 1585, He
now
and he failure,
but governor-general, It returned to England in 1587.
became
AND
ELIZABETH
438
looked
ENGLISH
CATHOLICS
skilful
if Parma's
generalshipmight reduce rebellious provinces; but, fortunately, Philip demanded attention for a largerenterprise.The Spanish King had termined on nothing less than the conquest of England. At the beginningof her reignPhiliphad aided Elizabeth as
the his de for
ceased to soon reasons (ante,p. 413) but those reasons political in became her and Elizabeth the Philip apply, seeing enemy, of that Protestantism
his chief desire to over The earlypart of Elizabeth's reignhad been surpris throw. ingly free from actual trouble from her Catholic subjects.
head
"
Mary and
Queen of Scots constant
a
bellion broke
centre
In
bull
1571, a
beth's
by
the
It
the heir to the throne,however, of conspiracy.In 1569 a Catholic re was
of
England, aided by Spanish
put down.
was
In 1570
there followed the
and deposed. declaringElizabeth excommunicate wide-spreadplot that of Ridolfi aiming at Eliza "
assassination new
"
in the north
out
encouragement.
papal
that it was
turn
"
uncovered.
was
of French
Elizabeth
affairs justbefore the
saved
was
of
massacre
St. Bartholomew
(ante,p. 435) and the outbreak of the Nether
lands rebellion.
Parliament
answered
by making attacks
on
Elizabeth's person, orthodoxy,or title to the throne high trea For the immediate son. present,however, England had com
parativepeace. '
"'"""*"
During Elizabeth's earlyyears the EnglishCatholics had been left by Rome and their fellow believers on the Continent with littlespiritual aid or leadership.To remedy this surprisingly situation,William Allen (1532-1594), an able English exile who became a cardinal in 1587, established a seminary in Douai, in 1568, for trainingmissionary priestsfor England. His students were soon flockingto England. Their work was al but was looked upon with great hostility most whollyspiritual, situation was intensified by the English authorities. The when, in 1580, the Jesuits began a mission under the leadership of Robert
(1546-1610) and Edmund Campion (1540seized and to executed, 1581). Campion was though he seems
have
intended
course
land, a
no
movement. political
Not
so
Parsons.
He
Allen for his plans,and began Continent,won of intrigueto bringabout a Spanishinvasion of Eng of Catholic risingthere,and the death or dethronement
escapedto a
Parsons
the
Elizabeth.
His work
lics. Most
of the
was
most
unfortunate
for his fellow Catho
priests laboringin England are
now
known
THE to
SPANISH
ARMADA
439
have been free of traitorous designs;but it was
not
so
under
them all as stood, and the English authorities looked upon publicenemies, and executed such as its spiescould discover. Their work
Church in England, but it was preserveda Roman carried on at frightful Elizabeth now sent cost. to an army the Netherlands,in 1585 (ante,p. 437), while she encouraged a semipiratical expeditionunder Sir Francis Drake, the same the year, which burned and plundered Spanish settlements on Caribbean
Gulf of Mexico.
and
In 1586, a new scheme was hatched againstElizabeth's life the Babington Plot in which English spies discovered that "
"
Mary "Queen
of Scots"
personallyinvolved. As a con she was executed, on February 8, 1587, after a good sequence, deal of wavering on the part of Elizabeth. deter Philipnow mined on an invasion of England. Its conquest would estab lish Catholicism and his own mastery there,and make hopeful was
the reduction
of the rebellious Netherlands.
would
collect
a
while
Parma
brought
Netherlands.
got away
After
from
appealed to
great fleet which
the
over
his seasoned
infinite trouble, the
numbers
of
Europe generallyit was
it
was
badly equipped
the battle in which old and
hold
the
North
he
Sea,
soldiers
from
"Great
Armada"
the
had Spain on July 12, 1588. The enterprise of dis zeal of the nation and men religious
tinction in unusual
tween
could
the work
For
new
it
had enlisted for it.
In the estimate
believed invincible;but, in reality, and the sailors inefficient. Moreover,
was
naval
about
to engage
tactics. The
was
a
contest
Spanish plan
be
of battle
lightand grapplingand boarding. Their guns were few, their vessels slow, though large. England had developed swifter ships,armed with far heavier guns, able to avoid grap pling,and to punish the unwieldy Spaniards frightfully.On July 21 the battle was joined off Plymouth. Then followed of running fightup the Channel, culminatingin a great a week battle off Gravelines on the 28th. The Spanish fleet, hopelessly defeated,fled north, to escape home around Scotland and Ire land. Any crossingby Parma was impossible. While it is a defeated by storms, it reallyfell was legendthat the Armada before the English gunnery and seamanship, though a week its retreat storms later, on completed its wreck. England was the rock on which Philip's plans of a victorious Catholicism had and they had shattered for a cause which he could shattered, was
that of
HUGUENOT
LATER
THE
440
STRUGGLES
In the contest, instead of the Catho have understood. scarcely in England, and which men which he had anticipated lic rising had predicted,Catholics and Protes Parsons like Allen and had stood shoulder to shoulder tants as Englishmen against Spain. thus crushed in 1588, he While Philip'slargerhopes were held as tenaciously to the plan of uprootingProtestant as ever The death of Henry Ill's brother,the duke of ism in France. of Navarre Anjou, in 1584, left the Huguenot Henry Bourbon To prospectiveheir to the throne. prevent this succession, Philipand the League entered into a treaty, in January, 1585, should go to Henry of Navarre's uncle, by which the crown In July, Charles, Cardinal Bourbon, on Henry Ill's death. all forced by the League to withdraw 1585, Henry III was rightsfrom the Huguenots, and in September a bull of Sixtus V (1585-1590) declared Henry of Navarre incapableof succeed the result The eighthHuguenot War was ing to the throne. that known War of the Three Henrys," from Henry III, as the Henry of Guise, the head of the League, and Henry of Navarre. Paris was entirelydevoted to Henry of Guise. On May 12, 1588, its citizens compelled Henry III to leave the city. The of the League weak to resist the demands no King saw way December and its imperious head and, on 23, had Henry of murdered. Thirteen Guise treacherously days later Catherine "
"
de' Medici
closed her stormy life.
leadershipof the League by his brother Charles, duke of Mayenne. Henry III now with Henry of Navarre, and the two were made terms jointly III murdered when to was Paris, by a laying siege Henry fanatic monk, dying on August 2, 1589. But Henry of Navarre, or became, Henry IV of France (1589-1610),was still as he now A brilliant victory at far from his new throne. secure on Ivry,in March, 1590, defeated the League, but Spanish troops under Parma's able generalship prevented his capture of Paris Henry
that year,
of Guise
and
was
succeeded
of Rouen
in the
in 1592.
till after the death
last
named,
of
Henry IV for purely political And Henry reallymaster. now, reasons, received into the Roman IV declared himself a Catholic,being with Church on July 25, 1593, though terms were not concluded the Pope tillmore than two years later. However to be criti cised morally and Henry's life, whether Protestant or as as a Parma,
on
December
"
3, of the year
Not
was
THE a
Catholic,showed his conduct
over
"
HUGUENOTS
441
had littleinfluence principles religious
that
the step
wise.
was
It gave
peace
to the dis
pleased the vast majority of his subjects. did Henry forgethis old associates. In April,1598, the Nor ad Edict of Nantes issued,by which the Huguenots were was mitted to all publicoffice, publicworship was permittedwhereland.
tracted
and
Lyons, forced
It
existed in 1597,
it had
ever
"
Dijon, receive
to
and
The
same
convinced
Huguenots could not be training. Certain fortified towns
Catholic
hands
as
(1598), Philip
year to the end
Paris,Rheims, Toulouse,
of
children
placed in Huguenot
were
in
save
that what
guarantees. II
he had
died, done
on
September 13,
was
for the service
of God, but having failed in his great life effort to overthrow Protestantism. The ous
entered on their most Huguenot Churches now organizationwas completed, period. Their
prosper
and
their
schools at Sedan, Saumur, Montauban, Nimes, and elsewhere flourished. They were a political corporationwithin the state.
such, they were opposed by the centralizing policyof Riche In 1628, Rochelle was taken lieu,Louis XIII 's great minister. from them, and their political semi-independenceended. By the Edict of Nimes, in 1629, their religious were privileges pre from suffered attack Jesuit and but served, increasing they As
other Catholic
influences
tion of the Edict them
to
persecuted,martyr church, to
a
numbers
proscribedtillthe
French
Prussia,and SECTION
be
of their Revolution, and drove thousands into exile,to the lastinggain of England, Holland,
of the
eve
the century went on, tillthe revoca of Nantes, by Louis XIV, in 1685, reduced as
XIII.
America.
GERMAN
CONTROVERSIES
AND
THE
YEARS*
THIRTY
WAR
It
bond
was
the misfortune
of Lutheranism its
that it had
no
other
in its several terri representatives tories than agreement in "pure doctrine,"and that differences in apprehension were regarded as incompatiblewith Christian Lutheran fellowship.The original conceptionof a faith which between God constitutes a new and the personalrelationship believingsoul tended to shade off into a belief which, as Medefined it,is "an assent lanchthon once by which you accept of union
between
442
INTERNAL
CONFLICTS
all articles of the faith."
The
OF
LUTHERANISM
result
was
a
Protestant
new
scholasticism.
Melanchthon, influenced by humanistic moved
thought,gradually
from
his originalagreement with Luther to some em from those of his phases different greater colleague. By 1527 he had lost sympathy with Luther's denial of human freedom and had reached the conclusion that salvation is only possible view to through the co-operant action of the will of man a which the name "synergism" is usuallygiven. By 1535 he but was emphasizing good works, not as the priceof salvation, its indispensable evidence. as Regarding the Lord's Supper he had overemphasized Christ's physical to feel that Luther came and, without quite reaching Calvin's position(ante, presence p. 394), to hold that Christ is given "not in the bread,but with the bread," that is,to lay stress on the spiritual rather than the made breach physical reception. These differences never a with Luther, partly because of Luther's generous affection for his younger friend,and partly because of Melanchthon's cau tion in their expression, though they made Melanchthon un comfortable at times in Luther's presence during that reformer's later years. They were to cause trouble enough in the Lutheran "
communions. One
chief
cause
of bad
was feeling
Melanchthon's
reluctant
Leipzig Interim, in 1548. To Melanchthon Roman "non-essen practicesthen reintroduced were many tials." To Matthias and Nikolaus von Flacius Illyricus Amsdorf, in the securityof Magdeburg, nothing could be "nonin such a time essential" (ante, p. 380). They attacked Melanchthon and perhaps he deserved of their some bitterly, This strain was blame. increased by the feelingof the soon princesof the old deprived Saxon electoral line that Melanch thon by remaining in Wittenberg, which now belonged to their successful despoiler, Moritz, was guiltyof desertion of a family which had faithfully supported him; and they magnified the school in Jena, making it a universityin 1558, and appointing Flacius to one of its professorships. Other theological Andreas Osiander (1498disputesarose. of all other Lutheran 1552) roused the opposition partiesby that with Paul, the sinner receives actual righteous declaring, from the indwellingChrist, and is not ness simply declared righteous.Georg Major (1502-1574) affirmed, in essential consent
to
the
LUTHERAN
444
ORTHODOXY
chief,it was
(1530-1592) of Leipzigwere
Selnecker
put forth,
in 1580, on the fiftieth anniversaryof negotiation, the Augsburg Confession,with the approving signaturesof and between cities, eightand nine princes,thirty-five fifty-one of Lutheran thousand ministers. A number princesand cities refused their approval; but it undoubtedly representedthe de cided majority of Lutheran as Germany. Not as extreme after infinite
Amsdorf, it represents the stricter Lutheran in terpretation.It is minute, technical,and scholastic in marked Flacius and
Augsburg Confessionhalf a The period of Lutheran high orthodoxy had century before. begun, which was to have its classic expositionin 1622, through Gerhard the Loci Theologici of Johann (1582-1637) of Jena. Its scholasticism was as complete as any in the Middle Ages. turned the Philippists this repression, Under increasinglyto Calvinism, and Calvinism made largerinroads in Germany. added in 1577, Bremen To the Palatinate,Nassau was by 1581, in 1597, and part of Hesse in the same Anhalt period. The electoral house of Brandenburg, from which the present Ger the
to
contrast
freshness
of the
Calvinist is descended, became the inhabitants of Brandenburg
imperialline
man
though
of
most
This
Lutheran.
transformation
often
was
in 1613, remained
accompanied by
retention of the Augsburg Confession. Yet though these churches became Calvinist in doctrine German "Reformed"
the
and
worship, Calvin's
foothold
among
Protestantism advance
about
revived
characteristic disciplinefound
little
them.
Germany reached its flood-tide of territorial The From that time it began to ebb. 1566. in
led by creasinglyaggressive, nest Catholic princeslike the
the Jesuits and dukes
supported by Divided
of Bavaria.
offer united resistance.
in
became
Counter-Reformation
of the
Catholicism
Bavaria, Duke
estantism
could
Albert
(1550-1579) vigorouslyapplied the principlecujus
V
not
to regio,ejus religio,
The
of
abbot
Protestantism for
a
Fulda in his
nobilityand people. similarlyattempted the repressionof territories in 1572. Successfully opposed
crush
his Protestant
time, he effected his task in 1602.
torations
were
effected in the
Catholic
Similar
inhabitants of which
had
res
territories be
Protestantized
longing to the archbishopricsof Mainz similar Catholic advances Jesuit leadership the bishoprics,
In
ear
Prot
and
Trier.
were
made
embraced
Under in other
Evangelical
PARTIES
views.
seven
from
forced
his
fullyrestored there
Catholicism.
to
ganda gained and
confident
In
him.
to
came
He
see,
and
the
Austria
and
Bohemia
unfavorable
steadilymore
well
as
help
situated strategically
situation became and
Little
Protestantism.
braced
445
archbishopof Cologne, Gebhard Truchsess, one in 1582, and em Electors, proposed to marry,
The
of the
GERMANY
IN
was
territory the
for Protestantism
;
elsewhere in the empire the Jesuit propa It was individual converts. aggressive
as
many
ultimate
victory. The situation between Protestants and Catholics was constantlystrained. An of the years 1606-1607 event markedly increased this bitterness. The was city of Donauworth overwhelmingly of
Protestant, yet Catholic monasteries A
of procession
Catholic
1606
Catholic
worship.
At
the
able
Reichstag of
been
stoned.
was
mand, Maximilian, 1651) occupiedthe cityand began the
had
a
duke
there
On
allowed.
imperialcom
of Bavaria
(1597-
of itsEvangelical repression
1608
the Catholics
demanded
restitution of all ecclesiastical property confiscated since For this claim they had the strict letter of the law in 1555.
the
of
the Peace
; but
Augsburg
had
that generations
in the two
of these districts had
many
become,
elapsed,solidlyProtestant
in
population. these circumstances
Under formed
"Union"
defensive
a
Calvinist
Elector
lic princes, led
a
number
on
May
of Protestant
4, 1608, headed
Frederick IV of the Palatinate.
by Maximilian
of
states July 10, 1609. The strong Lutheran unwillingto join the "Union/' Germany were Emperor in the "League." Had Henry IV of
probably have
would
assassination in 1610
and
To
by
the
it Catho
Bavaria, opposed a "League,"
on
war
princes
of northern nor
the
was
France
lived,
this time; but his the uncertaintyof the imperialsuc broken
out
at
cession in Germany delayed it for a time. Catholics and Lutherans, Besides the bitter disputesbetween the condition of Germany was, of unrest. in many one ways, Business the
country
debased
coinagecaused great suffering,
growing impoverished. The
was
unity of belief in damaging to the witchcraft
The
bad.
was
Protestant
delusion
and
intellectual which
life of
cost
equally entertained by Catholics worst
between
1580
and
1620.
Catholic
the
thousands and
enforcement
territoriesalike
people; while of
of was
the
lives,and was at its Protestants,was
THIRTY
THE
446
The
actual outbreak That
Bohemia.
then
YEARS'
WAR
of the Thirty Years'
largelyProtestant
War
land
from
came
had
from
wrung
its King, the Emperor Rudolf II (1576-1612), in 1609, a char the Majestdtsbriefgranting a high degree of toleration. ter "
"
Rudolf
succeeded, both
was
Matthias
feeble brother
1619), but he of
Styria,a the
Emperor
and in 1617 his cousin, Ferdinand childless,
was
of the Counter-Reforma representative in securingrecognitionas Matthias's successor
strenuous
tion,succeeded from
and
King, by his (King, 1611-1619; Emperor, 1612as
Bohemian
influences
Catholic
estates.
were
aug
in May, 1618, a party of disaffected Protestants mented, flung the two Catholic regents representingthe absent Mat and
thias from
high window
a
into rebellion and
began
favorable for the Bohemian
in the
Prague.
(1610-1632), Elector of Styria
Ferdinand
was
in 1619, after the Calvinist,Frederick V
and insurgents,
the
Palatine, their King. chosen
was
put Bohemia
act
Its commencement
war.
of Matthias, they elected
death
This
Emperor
The
week
same
Ferdinand
as
II
(1619-1637). Frederick
found
littlesupport outside
Maximilian
of Bavaria
lands
to
of
a
came
Walloon
and
Ferdinand's
a
of
Spanish force
assistance.
combination
overwhelmed
from
Under
general,Jan Tzerklas, Baron
this Catholic
Bohemia, and
now
the Nether
the command
Tilly (1559-1632),
the
Bohemian
Frederick
forces,
fled the
land. 8, 1620. Prague, on November The annulled, the property of Bohemian was Majestdtsbrief Protestants largelyconfiscated, to the great financial advantage near
enforced with a Jesuits,and the Counter-Reformation Among those high hand in Bohemia, Moravia, and Austria.
of the
of confiscated property was by the acquisition destined to play a great part in the further historyof the
enriched
Albrecht dissolved.
place in
Wallenstein
von
A
"Union"
Protestantism
repressionof
war, was
took
now
Austria.
Meanwhile
Spanish troops,
Palatinate
in
"League"
soon
cism
similar
(1583-1634).
The
one
under
Spinola,had
the
of the thither Tilly and the army followed. The land was conquered, Catholi
1620, and
enforced,and Frederick's electoral titlewith
of the Palatinate transferred to Maximilian
Northwestern
invaded
Germany, where Protestant possessionssince the
many
Peace
a
good
of Bavaria
share
in 1623.
bishopricshad become of Augsburg, was now
447
WALLENSTEIN threatened with
and the disasters to Protestantism
war,
which
foreign powers. already happened aroused Protestant done, however, except by Christian IV Nothing effective was of Denmark, to whom England and the Protestant Netherlands sent some slightaid. To the Emperor Ferdinand the enmity had
of the Danish
King
to raise
to Wallenstein
chief.
formidable,and he therefore turned
seemed a
new
adventurer, born
remarkable
This
nominally a Catholic, and A natural leader of men,
questionsof
no
race
or
imperialcommander-in-
as
army
a
Protestant, was
the richest noble of Bohemia.
now
he raised
an
in which
army
he asked
creed, but simply of capacityto fight,
had a force of great efficiency. and loyaltyto himself. He soon On April25, 1626, Wallenstein defeated the Protestant army under Ernst of Mansfeld, at the Dessau bridgeover the Elbe, the beaten forces to Hungary, whither they retreated following with in the vain hope of making effective stand in conjunction Bethlen Gabor, princeof Transylvania. the Emperor's enemy, beaten by was August 27, 1626, Christian IV of Denmark Tillyand the army of the League at Lutter. These successes Han followed up by the Catholics in 1627 and 1628. were Brunswick, and Silesia were conquered,then Holstein, over, Schleswig,Pomerania, and Mecklenburg. Wallenstein found
On
"
"
it impossible to capture the Baltic seaport of Stralsund, which aided by the Swedes, and thought it wise to make peace was before the able Swedish
might a
interfere.
treaty of May,
Accordingly,Christian
The
Catholics
IV
March
to
reap
6, 1629,
an
ordered the restoration to all ecclesiasticalproperty which had come Restitution"
therans,thus deprivingthe Calvinists of but
five
of the next
a bishoprics,
parish churches more
not
would
were,
have been the
the fruits of their
into Protestant hands from
territoriesruled
Protestants any
save
Lu
rightswhatever.
few years preventedits full execution, hundred monasteries, and hundreds of for
a
time, thus
had Catholic
success
transferred.
Many
continued, and had
the spoils.These over quarrelled of the "League," headed by Maxijealousy
the Catholics themselves
and disputes,
condition of
imperial"Edict of of Catholic possession
since 1552, the expulsionof Protestants of any by Catholics,and no recognition events
allowed, by
politics.
determined
had
great victories. On
The
was
1629, to keep his territories on
further share in German
no
Adolphus (1611-1632),
King, Gustavus
ADOLPHUS
GUSTAVUS
448
Bavaria, by
milian
of
power
which
of the great increase in
reason
had
Wallenstein
by the "League" that In September, 1630, the Emperor was his able general.
of
event
an
prime
were portance had occurred, though its consequences Adolphus of Sweden mediately apparent. Gustavus
small army had landed on the German coast on Two motives induced his interference in the
undoubtedly
as
champion
a
the Baltic
also desired to make
imperialattacks diate danger to his the
a
hostile power, he
but
on
ister,Armand which lieu had
be
26, 1630. He
war.
came
faith; but he
seaports
an
he in
saw
imme
they be held by great peril. Gustavus
Should in
drivingthe imperialforces out of Pomerania slowly,since he had no adequate allies.
moved
under
would
a
in
January, 1631, however, then
kingdom.
own
with
lake,and
Baltic
im im
not
June
Protestant
Swedish
a
the German
Sweden
succeeded
soon
of the
with
compelled to part
dismissal
Wallenstein's
before
led to a success Wallenstein be dismissed.
effected,now
ful demand
Even
imperial
the masterful
Plessis,Cardinal
du
considerable resumed
treaty with France, leadershipof Louis XIII's great min
he entered
into
;
In
Richelieu
financial subsidies
the historic
a
were
of hostility
(1585-1642), by
granted. Riche
France
to
the Habs-
burgs of Spain and Austria, and the ancient French policyof advantage of the French aidingtheir enemies for the political Protestants. if those Gusenemies were monarchy, even the tavus's next to secure important and difficult work was alliance of Brandenburg, which, though Protestant,had been and of Saxony, which had been neutral. On May imperialist, 20, 1631, Tilly captured Magdeburg, the inhabitants being treated with brutal ferocity. This loss of a great Protestant strongholdwas followed by an
alliance in June
between
Gustavus
and the Elector of Bran
denburg, and in August Saxony threw off its neutralityand On September 17, 1631, Gustavus, with joined the Swedes. little real help from the Saxons, won a great victory over The close at Breitenfeld, Tilly by Leipzig. imperialpower in northern Germany crumbled, and the Swedish King marched himself in Mainz, while to the Rhine, establishing victoriously the Saxons took Prague. In his extremity,the Emperor called and in April,1632, Wallenstein once to raise an on more army, that generalwas force. of a redoubtable at the head
DEATHS
GUSTAVUS
OF
Gustavus
againstMaximilian
marched
now
WALLENSTEIN
AND
of
449
Bavaria, de
featingTillyin a battle near Donauworth, in which that com mander Munich, the Bavarian capital, was mortallywounded. had
surrender
to
stein had
driven
the
Gustavus.
meet
other
the Swedish
to
Saxons
For
King. of
out
Prague, and
the two
weeks
some
Meanwhile
Wallen-
marched
armies
to
faced each
and was Nuremberg, but the fighting indecisive, northward Wallenstein marched to crush Saxony. Gustavus near
followed
him, and
16, 1632, in
November
slain.
defeated
His
Restitution
work a
a
him
fierce battle in which
enduring.
was
had
He
dead letter in northern
Leipzig,on
Liitzen, near
at
Gustavus
made
the Edict
and
Germany,
was
of
his memory
Protestantism. is deservedlycherished by German The control of Swedish affairs passed to the able chancellor, Axel Oxenstjerna,though the most capable Protestant general was
Bernhard
now
of Saxe- Weimar
(1604-1639). In Novem
ber, 1633, Bernhard
city of
captured the important south German to Regensburg, and opened the line of the Danube
Protestant
Meanwhile
advance.
Wallenstein
had
remained
comparatively inactive in Bohemia, partly jealous of large Spanish forces which had been sent to southern Germany, and with Saxony, Sweden, and France. Just what partlyintriguing he had in mind is uncertain,but the most probable supposition is that he aimed His
to
secure
for himself the
of Bohemia.
crown
failure to relieve
Regensburg was the last straw in rousing of the Emperor, and on February 25, the suspicioushostility soldiers as a result of imperial 1634, he was murdered by his own intrigue. On and the Swedish September 5 and 6, 1634, Bernhard badly defeated at Nordlingen,by combined imperial troops were and Spanish forces. In its way the battle was decisive as as Breitenfeld nearly three years before. That had shown that northern Germany could not be held by the Catholics; this that southern Germany could not be conquered by the Protes The war June 15, 1635, tants. to have ended; on ought now made the Emperor and Saxony. at Prague between was peace November siastical
propertiesshould
of those who decided
taken
12, 1627, was then
held
as
remain
the normal for
date.
forty years
them, and their ultimate
All eccle
in the hands fate should be
by a court composed equallyof Catholic and Protestant made of privileges for Calvinists. judges. No mention was
this peace few weeks. To
Yet
PEACE
THE
450
no
thirteen years aims original
to
was
the
more
WESTPHALIA
of Protestant Germany agreed in the
most
peace
OF
be had
war
for the wretched
continued
as
lost,and practically
land.
savagelyas it became
next
For Its
ever.
struggle, for on parties, the aggrandizement of Spain, France, and Sweden, in which succeeded by his son, Ferdinand II was France gained most. III (1637-1657), but the change brought no real Ferdinand of real leader alteration of the situation. Germany lacked men ship,the only conspicuousexceptionbeing Frederick William the "Great Elector" (1640-1688) of Brandenburg, but though he was he succeeded in enlarginghis territorialpossessions, too were
German
foughtout
young
to largely
soil with the aid of German
affect the
of the
course
war.
the "Peace At last, after infinitenegotiation, Sweden was made on October 27, 1648. was the German
a
shore of the Baltic.
Most
of
Westphalia"
firmlysettled
of Alsace went
on
to France.
independence of Switzerland was formally long-existing acknowledged. Brandenburg received the archbishopricof Magdeburg and the bishopricsof Halberstadt and Minden as compensation for surrender of its claims on part of Pomerania Maximilian of Bavaria kept his titleof Elector to the Swedes.
The
and part of the Palatinate,while the rest of the Palatinate was of the unfortunate Frederick V, restored to Karl Ludwig, son created. More important electoral title was for whom a new the Elector"
was
settlement. religious
secured the inclusion of
Lutherans,
taken
regarded as
were
one
the
abilityof the "Great the Calvinists who, with the against the party as over last secured full rights. The
Calvinists at and the year 1624 of Restitution was fullyabandoned ecclesiastical property was Whatever the norm. as
Catholics. Edict
Here
German
hands
should so remain. While of his of a lay sovereignto determine the religion the power modified by a provisionthat subjectsstillremained, it was in where divided religious worship had existed in a territory then in Catholic
or
Protestant
1624, each party could continue it in the
same
proportionas agreed change
then existed. Between Lutherans and Calvinists it was should be the date of the Peace, and that a that the norm of the
lay ruler to
one
the other form
or
of Protestantism
there
after should not affect his subjects.On the other hand, by accorded to the insistence of the Emperor, no privileges were Protestants in Austria
or
Bohemia.
SOCINIANISM
452 who
spent
a
year
in
Geneva, but found
it wise
to
leave for
Poland
in 1558, servingas physicianto the rulingfamilies of land and of Transylvania,helping to found Unitarian a
that
communion
in the latter
region,which
ultimatelyobtained
legal
standing. Those were
nus,
who
to the movement
destined to give their name
were
the two
Sozzinis,uncle and nephew. Lelio Sozzini (Soci1525-1562) was of a prominent Sienese familyand a student
and he lived for a opinionswere at firstEvangelical, friend year, 1550-1551, in Wittenberg,enjoyingMelanchthon's well received in Geneva, he was ship. Among other Swiss cities,
of law.
and
His
settled in Zurich, where
turned
his attention
to
the
he
died.
problem public in
Servetus's
of the
execution
Trinity,but
his
his lifetime. His more not made speculationswere distinguished nephew Fausto (1539-1604) was in Lyons in 1561 and Geneva in 1562. Although alreadya radical and influenced, though less than has often been represented, by his uncle's notes and papers, Fausto conformed Church outwardly to the Roman and lived from 1563 to 1575 in Italy. Thence he removed to Basel, tillhe went to Transylvania,in 1578, at the instance of The next year saw Biandrata. him in Poland, where he lived
tillhis death Thanks
in 1604.
Sozzini and others in Poland
to the labors of Fausto
the party gained considerable
foothold,and expressedits belief in the Racovian Catechism, on which Fausto had effectively labored, published in 1605, in Rakow, the city from which it took
its
name
and
headquarters.The
in which
these
catechism
"Polish
is
a
had
Brethren"
their
combination
remarkable
of rationalistic reasoning and a hard supernaturalism. The Testa basis of truth is the Scriptures, but confidence in the New is based
primarilyon the miracles by which its promulga tion was accompanied and especially by the crowning miracle The New of the resurrection. Testament, thus supernaturally The purpose of both attested, guarantees the Old Testament. is to show to man's understanding the path to eternal life. there above be in them matters Though there may reason, is nothing of value contrary to reason. The only faith that and they demand is belief that God exists and is a recompenser is by nature mortal and could not find the way a judge. Man Hence God to eternal life of himself. gave him the Scripture ment
and the lifeand
example of
Christ.
Christ
was
a
man,
but
one
SOCINIANISM who
lived
and exemplary obedience,filledwith peculiar
wisdom, and
divine and
lifeof
a
kind
a
of
453
therefore
was
rewarded
so delegateddivinity,
with
that He
is
a
resurrection
now
hearer
a
of
joy in God, prayer and thanksgiving,renunciation of the world, humility and patient endurance. Its consequences are forgivenessof sins and eter nal life. Baptism and the Lord's Supper are to be retained as commanded by Christ and possessinga certain symbolic value. Man's is asserted,and originalsin and pre essential freedom The
prayer.
life consists in
Christian
destination denied. The
most
attack
on
the Socinian polemic was the satisfaction theory of the atonement, which successful
portionof
its the
accepted. Satisfaction is no demand universally of God's nature. Forgiveness and satisfaction are mutually that the sins of exclusive conceptions. It is absolute injustice Christ's the guiltybe punished on the person of the innocent. death is a great example of the obedience which every Christian reformers
had
manifest; but that obedience was no greater than He o^gjfor Himself, and He could not transfer its value to others. Could it be so transferred,in so far as a should, if
necessary,
therebyrelieved from moral character would thereby be weakened.
felt himself
man
ness,
The
relation
peciallythat of
of Socinianism
to
the
effort for
later
righteous
Scholasticism,es
Scotus,is undoubted; but unlike that mediaeval
system, it rejectedall authorityof the church
and
found
its
in the
It rebelled interpretedby reason. Scriptures, and total de againstthe prevailingviews of human inability from the bondage pravity. It did not a littleto free religion of dogma and to favor the unprejudicedstudy of Scripture; but it had almost no conceptionof what religion meant to Paul, vital Luther be a personal relationship Augustine,or new, the believingsoul and God through Christ. tween Suppressed,largelythrough the efforts of the Jesuits in Po source
"
found
land, Socinianism and
even
more
supporters in the Netherlands
some
in England, where
it was
to have
no
littleinflu
ence.
SECTION
The
rigorof
Holland, where where
XV.
ARMINIANISM
Calvinism
produced
humanistic
traditions had
Anabaptism
was
a
in reaction,especially
widely spread.
never
It
died
out
manifested
and itself
ARMINIUS
454 in
an
emphasis
the
on
practicalaspects
more
and sharp creedal definitions,
inclination toward
thinker
attitude.
Such
Coornhert
(1522-1590); but
a
the
was
it
Dutch
religion, a dis a
tolerant
more
scholar
Dirck
its fullest expres (1560-1609) and his dis to
came
Arminius
of Jacobus
sion in the work
of
ciples. Arminius, whose relatives
glefor
1576
from
strug
educated
independence,was
Ley den,
of
killed in the Netherland
were
by friends at the University He was then sent to Geneva
1582.
to
In guild of Amsterdam. 1588, he entered on a pastorate in Amsterdam, winning distinc tion as a preacherand pastor of irenic spirit. In 1603 he was Franz Junius (1545-1602),as chosen to succeed the eminent professorof theology in Leyden, where he remained till his death. Though indisposedto controversy, he was appointed and to defend the "supralapsain 1589 to reply to Coornhert rian" position againsttwo ministers of Delft. The discussion the
at
had
last named
Did
of the
expense
the fall
as
a
fall,and
by which did
Or
then
Arminius
and predestination
congenialto Calvinism. and
his
Gomarus were
doubt
to
came
As
to
reprobation,and
the
could
then
permit
be carried out
studied whole
doctrine
ascribe to
and
freedom, which, however 442), had no place in pure
bitter controversy sprang up supralapsariancolleague in the soon
of unconditional
a
man
(ante,p.
A
(1563-1641), and
purposes.
permit that man of saving the method as the questions involved,
foresee election
he
Melanchthon
order of the divine
the decree
He
decree
(infralapsum)*!
some
the
election and
means
(supra lapsum)*? would
do with
to
"decree"
God
merchant's
between
Arminius
university,Franz
the Protestant
Netherlands
widely involved.
death, in 1609, the leadershipof the party taken by the court preacher Johan was Wtenbogaert (15571644) and by Simon Episcopius (1583-1643),Arminius's friend After
and
By
Arminius's
pupil,and them
soon
"Arminian"
be professorof theology in Leyden. views were systematizedand developed,
to
opposed the current emphasis on minutiae of doctrine, primarilyas a force for moral transforma viewing Christianity of tion. In 1610, they and other sympathizersto the number Dutch statesman, forty-one,at the instance of the eminent Johan Oldenbarneveldt lover of van religious (1547-1619), a of their faith called the "Redrew up a statement toleration, and
both
455
ARMINIANISM
monstrance,"1 from
which
gained the
the party
"
name
Re
againstthe Calvinist doctrine of absolute based on divine fore it taught a predestination predestination,' of grace. of the means would make knowledge of the use men Against;the doctrine that Christ died for the elect only, it receive the benefits asserted that He died for all,though none Over
monstrants."
of His
death
denying the abilityof
in
to
men
all is of divine grace. Pelagians (ante,p. 185). In
themselves not
It
except believers.
"
at
was
do
with Calvinism
one
anything reallygood the Arminians
Hence
oppositionto
of
were
the Calvinist
be doctrine of irresistible grace, they taught that grace may and they declared uncertaintyregardingthe Calvin rejected, that holding it possible
ist teachingof perseverance, received. lose grace once All
conflict. The and
that
Netherlands
Protestant
the
majority
vast
had
view
people
Calvinists,
were
support of the Stadholder
the
may
speedilyfilled with
were
of the
men
Maurice
favored Remonstrants by Oldenwere (1588-1625). The barneveldt,the leader of the province of Holland, and by the great juristand historian,the founder of international law, Hugo Grotius (1583-1645). The disputesoon became involved in
politics.The
Netherlands
classes and
of which
divided included
rights,"which
porters of "states chant
were
Oldenbarneveldt
the sup the wealthier mer between
and
leaders,and the national party of which Maurice
Grotius was
were
the head.
national synod to decide the controversy. The provinceof Holland, under Oldenbarneveldt, affairs and held that each province could decide its religious
The
national party
now
wished
a
proposal. Maurice, by a coup d'etat in July,1618, overthrew the "states-rights"party. Oldenbarneveldt, in beheaded on May 13, 1619, spiteof his great services,was and Grotius condemned to life imprisonment, from which he escaped in 1621. Meanwhile national synod, called by the states-general, a held session in Dort from November 13, 1618, to May 9, 1619. Besides representatives from the Netherlands, delegatesfrom England, the Palatinate, Hesse, Bremen, and Switzerland shared in its proceedings. By the synod of Dort, Arminianism Calvinistic in tone, condemned and "canons," aggressively was adopted,which, togetherwith the Heidelberg Catechism, and resisted the
1
Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
545-549.
GROTIUS
ARMINIANISM,
456
of the
basis
Calvinists
Church.1
Dutch it did
"
banished, but
the
againstthem though they were not to Netherlands
the
the
ianism
have
to
was
land, and
its home
type of piety
even
to
was
as
the
Dort
of Calvin-
Remonstrants
Maurice, in 1625, the letters. They returned,
of
dead
In
slowly,and still exists. Its intellectual and land was prevailingly Arminaffected by Socinianism. greater influence in England than in of John Wesley, prove, in the person
of association with its possibility a
views supralapsarianl
party grew
somewhat
was
individual
till1795. receive officialrecognition
type of pietyin the home
ethical,and
death
became
measures
of
synod
the
on
as
high-watermark
the
reached
synod of Dort istic creed-making. Immediately after
extreme
so
Gomarus's
adopt
not
"the
were
Not
the doctrinal
became
BelgicConfession (ante,pp. 433, 443)
the
as
and emotional
warm-hearted
of Christian truth interpretation
any
can
exhibit.
tius, in 1617, view
important theory
an
of Anselm
faction of the ers
the pen
of Gro-
atonement.
The
of this controversy there emerged from
Out
had
had
looked
injureddivine
viewed
of the
Christ's death
upon
as
reform
(ante,p. 263). The
honor
satis
the
of penalty for sin to outraged the payment Christ died, and had behalf of those for whom
it as
divine
justiceon representedthe
of
exaction
penalty as
a
fundamental
demand
be just. To be merciful but must nature, who may sufficient for all, Calvinistic conception,Christ's sacrifice was of God's
only for the elect in whose behalf He died. The Socinians had subjected these views to a radical criticism, punishment, or that the denying that God's nature demanded of an penalty due to one could justlybe met by the sufferings but
efficient
other
(ante,p. 453). To
replied. God His
is
Like
law.
chooses; but which
tempt.
to
Hence
great moral
ruler.
sense
is
the
wise
Christ's death
sacrifice of Christ
not
was
"
1
Sin is
an
is
a
now
offense
He
freelyforgiven but a divine government, showing that He vindicates the majesty of His "that
criticism Grotius
Socinian
earthlygovernor may pardon without making evident be to bring that His law would
a
holds
He
a
the
payment
against pardon if He the regard in law
into
for man's
con
sin
sanctityof the remits the penalty,
tribute to the
no
while God divine
government.
injustice.It
Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
550-597.
is the
In that divine
pardon
offer
to
only,and
were
not
all saved?
of
penalty.
ories of
for
Grotius
caused
the
gave
this the
Christ
sense
may as
He
repentance.
It relieved
the
their assertion that
by for
by denyingthe pay reply to the Socinians,a
answer
also gave, in the great sacrifice.
atonement
terms
all,and not for the of the penalty for sin,why then
He
for
reason
true
some
theory
payment
a
for satisfactory,
least in
was
such
on
of faith and
If that sacrifice was
Christ died for all. elect
earthlyruler,God
is undeniable.
of the Arminians
embarrassment
definite
condition
on
ingenuity of this
ment
wise
a
will receive it
all who
chooses, for eiample, The
Like
law.
tribute to offended
457
GROTIUS
HUGO
is the
message died, not
Yet, of all the the most
theatrical
and
Gospel is that but for general justice, of
the
me.
XVI.
SECTION
IN
ALISM
ANGLICANISM,
PURITANISM,
EPISCOPACY
ENGLAND.
IN
AND
AND
CONGREGATION
PRESBYTERIANISM
SCOTLAND
Queen Elizabeth's relations to the Catholics has been else where considered (ante,p. 438). Her position, at the beginning of her
reign,was
far from mies
united
abroad, it
of
With her people exceedingdifficulty. with plotsat home and ene belief, religious only by political manoeuvring of extreme
one
in was
skilfulness that she
was
able to steer
increased
a
successful
course.
by the divisions which
Her
appeared, after the beginningof her reign, those who accepted soon among of Rome. These her rejection were augmented, as that reign life which was advanced, by the quickened popular religious transforminga nation that had been previouslyrather spiritu allyapatheticduring the changes under Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary. the acceptance of her religious Elizabeth purposely made settlement as easy as possible. The church, in its officersand the older worship as fullyas Protestant services,resembled would sentiment tolerate. All but a fragment of its parish clergyconformed, and Elizabeth was well satisfied to leave them in their parishes,provided they remained undisturbed quiet, of their often Protestantism was hearty acceptance though doubtful and their capacityto preach or spiritual earnestness From often dubious. a political point of view her policywas
difficultieswere
England
wise.
spared such
was
PURITANS
THE
OF
RISE
THE
458
wars
as
devastated
France
and
Germany. the Queen the first, From
aggressiveProtestantism. Mary
had
come
under
faced, however, by
was
Many
who
the influence
admiration
had
been
of Geneva
a
more
exiles under or
Zurich
and
for their
thoroughgoing Protes of deep religious earnest tantism. prevailingly They were men Elizabeth whom must depend in her conflict with ness, upon Rome, yet who, if they could introduce the changes which they desired,the Queen believed would turmoil a situation kept at Yet the desires of these men at best with difficulty. are peace from a religiouspoint of view. They easilyunderstandable from the services what would they believed to be rem purge and procure in every parish an of Roman nants superstition, In particular, preaching minister. earnest, spiritual-minded, they objectedto the prescribedclerical dress as perpetuating the thought of the ministryas a spiritual in the popular mind to kneeling at the receptionof the estate of peculiarpowers, of the physicalpresence Lord's Supper as implying adoration of Christ therein,to the use of the ringin marriage as continuing the estimate of matrimony as a sacrament, and the sign of the in baptism as superstitious.Because they thus desired cross popularlycalled to purifythe church, this party, by 1564, was returned filled with
the "Puritans." of Mag (1527-1590), president Thomas dalen Sampson (1517-1589), dean of Christ Church, Oxford, both Marian exiles,the earliest Led
Puritan "the
by Laurence Humphrey College, Oxford, and discussion
"Vestiarian
the
of the
prescribedgarments Controversy." Cambridge Universitysym was
pathizedlargelywith
over
use
the Puritans.
But
in this matter
the
stronglyopposed to modification,and in issued his "Advertisements/'1 by 1566 Archbishop Parker fresh licenses from which all preacherswere requiredto secure the bishops,controversial sermons forbidden, kneelingat com and clerical dress minutelyprescribed. Under munion required, number of Puritan clergywere these regulations deprived of a their positions. who had learned in Zurich and Geneva to feel Among men could not be found that any worship for which Biblical warrant
Queen's policy was
1
Gee
467-475.
and
Hardy, Documents
Illustrative of
English Church
History,pp.
but
extreme
Field
THE
PURITANS
popularly effective pamphlet entitled An Admo Parliament, written by two London ministers,John
nition to the
To
OF
DESIRES
460
(?-1588) and
Thomas
Wilcox
(1549?-1608), in 1572. answered, in turn, by Cart-
it
Whitgift replied,and was wright. PresbyterianPuritanism was growing. To those more moderate than that it would Cartwright, it seemed require littlealteration of the existingchurchly constitution. relatively The obnoxious ceremonies could be discarded, the Prayer Book revised, elders instituted in parishes,and the bishops preserved as presidingofficers of the churches of each diocese A voluntary local organized as a synod, primi inter pares. of presbytery,was classis, a kind organizedby Puritan ministers in Wandsworth, near London, in 1572; and similar organiza tions sprang Meeting of ministers for preaching up elsewhere. and discussion the so-called "prophesyings" were begun "
about
the
vanced
by
by
a
All
this
time.
same
The
the Declaration
radical
Puritan
This
soon
aided
was
Canterbury,
on
became, in
by
the
Parker's
cause
was
ad
of Ecclesiastical Discipline, published
Cambridge scholar,Walter
young
in 1574.
"
a
Travers
the Puritan
sense,
succession
(1548?-1635),
to
the
standard.
archbishopricof
death, in 1576, of Edmund
Grindal
(1519?-1583), who
sympathized with the Puritans and was suspended for his conscientious objectionsto the Queen's orders to forbid "prophesyings." Cartwright and his fellow Puritans opposed all separation from the Church of England. Their thought was to introduce much of Puritan discipline and practiceas possible, and wait as for its further reformation Such a by the government. hope did not seem vain. Within the constitution and a generation, worship of the church of the land had been four times altered. be changed for a fifth time into what the Might it not soon Puritans deemed a more Scripturalmodel? They would agi tate
and
wait.
This
remained
generally. Naturally, there seemed unjustifiable. They ceived to be Scriptural at once. earlyCongregationalists. On
June
company
of the Puritans
whom
members
this
delay would establish what they con These were the Separatists or were
some
to
19, 1567, the authorities in London
prisoned the sembled
the programme
of such
seized and
im
Separatistcongregation,as for worship ostensiblyto celebrate a wedding. This had rejected the Church of England and had chosen at a
BEGINNINGS least two deacon. tion.
OF
officers Richard "
It
was
Whether
CONGREGATIONALISM
461
Fitz,minister,and Thomas
evidentlymoving remnants
of this
Rowland,
Congregationaldirec a congregation maintained
in the
subsequent corporate existence is not known. The first really conspicuous advocate of Congregational Browne Robert principlesin England was (1550?-1633), a student in Cambridge in the troublous time of Cartwright's brief professorship, and a graduate there in 1572. At first an advanced to adopt Separatist PresbyterianPuritan, he came principles by about 1580, and in connection with a friend,Robert in Norwich in Harrison, founded a Congregational Church As a result of his preaching he found himself speedily 1581. in prison. He and the majority of his congregationsought Here in Middelsafety in Middelburg, in the Netherlands. had printed,in 1582, a substantial volume burg Browne con three treatises. the Puritans One, directed against taining who would remain in the Church of England, bears its burden in its title: A Treatise of Reformationwithout Taryingfor anie, and of the Wickednesse of those Preachers which will not reforme commaunde and compel!them. tillthe Magistrate Another, A Booke which sheweth the Life and Manners of all true Christians, of Congregationalism. presentedthe fundamental principles According to Browne, the only church is a local body of believers in Christ,united to Him and to one experiential an other by a voluntary covenant. Such church has Christ a its immediate as head, and is ruled by officers and laws of His and chooses a pastor, a appointment. Each is self-governing ;
.
.
.
teacher, elders,deacons, and
designates;but
each
widows, whom
member
has
the
New
Testa
for the responsibility welfare of the whole. No church has authorityover any other, but each owes other to brotherlyhelpfulness.The system thus outlined was far more democratic than early essentially so Congregationalismin generalwas actuallyto be in its practice. Browne's system so closelyresembles the views of the Ana connection in thought at least baptists(ante,p. 368) that some seems well-nighcertain. Norwich, also,was largelypopulated by Dutch refugees. Yet Browne displayed no conscious in debtedness to the Anabaptists, and did not reject infant baptism. His emphasis on the covenant the constitutive element in the as church is much the Anabaptists. more positivethan among The probable conclusion is that Browne owed much to a some-
ment
"
PURITANS
462
AND
ANGLICANS
widely diffused Anabaptist way of thinking,rather than borrowed Browne's directlyfrom any Anabaptist source. own
what
stay in Holland
brief.
was
His church
was
turmoiled,and after
period in Scotland he returned to England, where he con formed, outwardly at least,to the Established Church in Octo from 1591 to 1633, ber, 1585, and spent his long remaining life, in its ministry. With such a record of abandonment of early that early Congregationalists principlesit is no wonder re sented the name "Brownists"; yet Congregationalism has been more never clearlyenunciated than by him. Under Grindal's archbishopricmany of the Puritan minis the Prayer Book in whole or in part, and the ters ceased to use establishment of the "Holy Discipline," that set forth in as Traver's Declaration called, of Ecclesiastical Disciplinewas a
went
on
Grindal
apace.
to
1604, in the
In
his
was
succeeded, however, from
1583
of
Canterbury by Whitgift. A thorough Calvinist in theology,he was martinet in discipline, and in a this had the hearty support of the Queen. He promptly issued articles enjoiningfull approval and use of the Prayer Book, prescribingclerical dress,and forbiddingall private re the hand of repressionrested ligiousmeetings;1 Thenceforth embit heavilyon Puritans and Separatists.This hostility was tered by the secret publicationof a telling satire againstthe and unfair,but extremelywitty and exasperat bishops,coarse ing,plainlyof Puritan origin,though disliked by the Puritans the "Martin as generally. Issued in 1588-1589, and known been fullyas Marprelate Tracts," their authorshiphas never certained, though probabilities point to Job Throckmorton (1545-1601), a Puritan layman. Puritan and Separatistassertion of the divine character of their systems was now rapidlyproducing a change of attitude in the leaders of their opponents, who may be called Anglicans. sermon
see
at
Paul's
Cross, in London, in 1589, Richard
Bancroft
as (1544-1610),to be Whitgift'ssuccessor archbishop, denounced not merely Puritanism, but affirmed a jure divino rightfor episcopacy. Adrian Saravia (1531-1613), a Walloon
theologian domiciled
in
England, advocated
the
same
view
Bilson to be later,as did Thomas (1547-1616), soon bishop of Winchester, in his PerpetualGovernment of Christ's Less the learned Richard extreme Church, in 1593. was
a
year
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
481-484.
MARTYRS
CONGREGATIONAL
463
of Ecclesiastical Polity,of 1594. Though episcopacy is grounded in Scripture,his chief over against argument in its favor is its essential reasonableness, (1553?-!600), in his Laws
Hooker
the
The
Biblicism of the Puritans.
extreme
foundations
of
a
high-churchparty had been laid. The and Separatism was greatly repressionof Puritanism From aided by the court of the High Commission. Henry VIIFs time it had been a favorite royalexpedientto control ecclesi astical affairs or persons by commissions appointed to investi gate and adjudicatewithout beingbound by the ordinaryproc of law. The system was esses a gradualgrowth. Elizabeth developed it,and made it more permanent ; but it did not be come a thoroughly effective ecclesiastical court till Bancroft of its members in 1587. had become one By 1592 it had fully attained its powers. The presumptionof guiltwas againstthe of proof was It could undefined. accused, and the nature examine and imprison anywhere in England, and had become of episcopalauthority. the rightarm Meanwhile, Congregationalismhad reappeared. In 1587 (1550?-1593), a lawyer of London, and John Henry Barrowe Greenwood arrested for holding (?-1593),a clergyman, were From their prison they Separatist meetings in London. smuggled manuscripts which appeared as printedtreatises in Holland, attackingAnglicans and Puritans alike,and explain A number were ing Congregational principles. including won, Francis Johnson
Church Congregational its
"pastor"
and
of
the
year
next
minister.
(1562-1618), a Puritan was
Greenwood Barrowe
in London
formed
and
1592
with Johnson
its "teacher," and Greenwood were
as
In
a as
April 6 hanged for on
in ecclesiasticalmatters. The denying the Queen's supremacy same passed a statute proclaimingbanishment year Parliament againstall who challengedthe Queen's ecclesiasticalauthority, refused to go to church, or were where other than the lawful its terms
of the
most
pelledto seek
a
London
controversy broke
out 1
Gee
and
Johnson
reign also
pp.
saw
Calvinism.
Cambridge, Hardy,
was
where
the dominant
in
"conventicle" Under com
continued
(1571-1623?) their teacher.
of Elizabeth's
reaction from
some
employed.1 were Congregationalists
Henry Ainsworth
closingyears
nings of
worship
refugein Amsterdam,
their pastor and
The
present at
where
492-498.
the
begin
By
1595
Peter Baro
a
(1534-
JAMES
464
THE
advocatingviews
been
1599) had
AND
I
called Arminian.
PURITANS that would
later have
been
discussion led to the publication, un the of Calvinistic "Lambeth Whitgift'sauspices strongly
der
This
Articles" j1but the tendency to criticiseCalvinism, thus started, increased,and through oppositionto Puritanism,in part, was to
become Elizabeth
succeeded
1625), who James to
his
and
more
VI.
characteristic of the
more
closed her
March
long reignon
Anglicanparty.
24, 1603, and
was
by Mary "Queen of Scots's" son, James I (1603had alreadyheld the Scottish throne since 1567, as All religious partiesin England looked with hope
accession,the Catholics because
of his parentage, the
of his Presbyterianeducation, PresbyterianPuritans by reason of his high conceptionsof divine and the Anglicanson account had devel to Presbyterianrule,which rightand his hostility oped in his long strugglesto maintain the power of the crown in Scotland. Only the Anglicans read his character correctly. "No bishop,no King/' was his favorite expression. In claim and action he was more no arbitrarythan Elizabeth ; but the from a popular and admired ruler country would bear much
which
it resented from
tative
sovereign.
and disliked,undignified,
a
unrepresen
his way to London, in April, 1603, James I was presented 2 with the "Millenary Petition," so-called because it was sup On
bear
posed to It a
was
a
very
thousand
a
moderate a
consequence,
signatures, though reallyunsigned. statement
of the Puritan
desires.
As
held at Hampton Court, in bishops and Puritans,in the royal
conference
was
January, 1604, between the leading Anglican disputant,besides the King presence No himself,being Bancroft, now bishop of London. changes of importancedesired by the Puritans were granted,except a "
translation of the Bible, which resulted in the "Author This ordered to conform. ized Version" of 1611. They were by convoca Anglicanvictorywas followed by the enactment new
in 1604, of tion,with royalapproval,
series of
elevating of the declarations and practices into church law many against here was which the Puritans had objected. The leadingspirit of Whit gift in the see to succeed soon Bancroft, who was now thoroughly Canterbury (1604-1610). The Puritans were alarmed, but
Bancroft
was
more
a
considerate
1
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom,
2
Gee
and
Hardy,
canons
pp. 508-511.
3
:
523.
in government
SEPARATIST than his declarations and
MOVEMENTS
465
previousconduct
would
have
proph
of ministers,estimated small number esied,and only a relatively variouslyfrom forty-nineto three hundred, were actuallyde also,from a gradual prived. Anglicanismwas gainingstrength,
improvement in the education and zeal of its clergy,which Whitgift and Bancroft did much to foster a conspicuousex and eloquent Lancelot Anample being the learned, saintly, drewes (1555-1626), who became bishop of Chichcster in 1605. Bancroft's successor as archbishopwas George Abbot (1611of narrow 1633), a man sympathies and strong Calvinism, un of the clergy,and himself in practical popularwith the mass disgracein the latter part of his episcopate. The loss of such felt by the strong hands as those of Whitgiftand Bancroft was Anglicans,and under these circumstances,not only Puritanism but Separatism made decided progress. A Separatist of far-reaching ultimate consequences movement had its beginningsprobably about 1602, in the work of John Smyth (?-1612), a former clergyman of the establishment, who had adopted Separatistprinciplesand now gathered a "
congregationin Gainsborough. Soon in the adjacent rural districts,and
adherents a
second
were
secured
congregation
gathered in the home of William Brewster (1560?-!644), at Scrooby. Of this Scrooby body William Bradford (1590-1657) From about 1604 it enjoyed the lead was a youthfulmember. ership of the learned and sweet-tempered John Robinson (1575?-1625), like Smyth a former clergyman of the Puritan of England, and like him led to believe party in the Church Separatism the only logical step. The hand of authoritybeing them, the Gainsborough congregation,led by heavy upon self-exiled to Amsterdam, Smyth, were probably in 1607. That centred in Scrooby, under Robinson and Brewster's lead followed the same road to Holland, in 1607 and 1608, ership, but established itselfin 1609 in Leyden. At Amsterdam into contact with the MenSmyth came convinced that their posi nonites,and by his own study was tion rejecting infant baptism was that of primitiveChristianity. In 1608 or 1609 he therefore baptizedhimself by pouring,and then the others of his church. Of unstable disposition, Smyth after soon quarrelledwith his flock,but two of its members, Thomas Helwys (1550?-1616?),and John Murton (?-1625?), led the return
of
a
considerable portionto England,and estab-
ENGLISH
466
lished in
BAPTISTS.
London, in
1611
or
THE
PILGRIM
FATHERS
1612, the first permanent
Baptist
congregation on English soil. In the contemporary Dutch controversies they had adopted the Arminian position,and "General therefore known were as Baptists." Apparently of the exiled remnants some CongregationalChurch of John and Greenwood son (ante,p. 463) kept up an organizationin London, but the effective permanent replantingof Congrega tionalism in England was when Henry Jacob (1563-1624), who had been of Robinson's congregationin Leyden, established a
in Southwark
church
in 1633,
seceded
this church
From
Baptistprinciples.They Baptists." By
on
named
in 1616.
and
hence
"Particular
was
practisedabout
1641, and
thence
portion
a
were
Calvinists,
them
immersion all
spread to
English
Baptists. in the
historyof the Leyden Congregational Church the decision to send its more active minority to was America. Robinson reluctantlystayed with the majority. In 1620, after infinite negotiation,the "Pilgrim Fathers" crossed the Atlantic in the Mayflower, under the spiritual leadershipof their "elder," William Brewster, and on Decem of the colony of Plymouth, of ber 21 laid the foundations chief event
The
which
William
Bradford
tanism
was
be the
wise
and
self-
planted in
thus
under
Abbot's
less
Puri
vigorousgovernment
of the the successors "lectureships," establishing "prophesyings." In parisheswhere the legalincum unable to preach sometimes hostile,or unwilling, or
was
old-time
with
to
England.
Meanwhile
bent
soon
Congregationalismwas
forgetful governor. New
was
was
the
"
of the
consent
financingafternoon
Puritanism
had
always
himself
incumbent
preachers,of laid stress
on
"
Puritan
money
stronglyPuritan a
strict observance
cast.
of
augmented by the Sunday. Its Sabbatarian tendencies were publication,in 1595, by Nicholas Bownde (?-1613) of his Doctrine of the Sabbath, urging the perpetuityof the fourth in Jewish rigor. Much Puritan commandment hostility was, when and that of Abbot also roused therefore, Archbishop James I issued his famous Declaration of Sports,in 1618, in for and dances the old popular games which he commended To the Puritan it seemed a royal com Sunday observance. mand Puritanism to disobey the will of God. was steadily force all through James's reign. The growing as a political "
"
LAUD
I AND
CHARLES
468
Charles I (1625-1649). A
of
personaldignitythan his father,of pure family life,and of sincere religion, he was quiteas exalted as James in his conceptionsof the divine right of Kings, arbitraryin his actions, and with no capacity to also marked He was understand the drift of publicsentiment. by a weakness that easilylaid him open to charges of doubledealingand dishonesty. From the first he enjoyed the friend support of
ship and
man
more
of the most
one
remarkable
of the
men
Laud
time, William
(1573-1645). the younger Laud been, under James, a leader among Anglicans. A vigorousopponent of Calvinism, he had argued had
early as bishops." as
1604
"that
1622, in
In
of the
with a
was
In many
the purest part.
was
be
true
no
the
that view
was
Puritans
respects he
and
the
was
of a
Eng
founder
to be wondered
authorities,to whom
Roman
then novel, believed him a Roman he was offered a cardinalate. So
Twice
heart.
without
the Jesuit,Fisher, he had true church, and a branch
"Anglo-Catholic"position ; but it is not
that both
church
universal,of which the Church
of the Catholic Church
land
contest
Church
held that the Roman
could
there
Catholic at to class him
mar a however, to do him a great injustice.Laud was dress and worship, tinet,intent on uniformity in ceremony,
was,
with
rough tongue
a
enemies.
many
At
bottom, with
real
piety of
pathy, he
had
someness,
of Lancelot
a
overbearingmanner
and
all his
that made
him
of sym
narrowness
the type, though not Andrewes. In 1628 Charles
of the winmade
Laud
bishop of the stronglyPuritan diocese of London, and in 1633 Charles's archbishop of Canterbury. To all intents he was chief adviser also in political affairs after the murder of the duke of Buckingham in 1628. The
country gentry, who
formed
the backbone
of the House
stronglyCalvinist in their sympathies,and the arbitraryimpositionof taxes to resent disposedpolitically Charles without scon parliamentary consent. put himself Laud's in disfavor in both respects. Under guidance he pro Arminians church preferments. To moted to prevent Calof Commons
were
discussion,in 1628, he caused a declaration to be pre shall "put his fixed to the Thirty-nineArticles,that no man own sense,"on any Article,"but shall take it in the literal and vinistic
grammatical 1
Gee
and
sense."
Hardy,
pp.
1
Parliament
518-520.
resented 2
these
actions.2
Ibid.,pp. 521-527.
AND
CHARLES
PARLIAMENT.
NEW
ENGLAND
469
proceeded to forced taxation, imprisoningsome refused to pay. who Roger Manwaring (1590-1653), a royal chaplain,preached in 1627, arguing that as the King ruled as those who refused taxes imposed by him God's representative, Manin peril of damnation. Parliament condemned were waring,in 1628, to fine and imprisonment,but Charles protected him him by pardon and rewarded by ecclesiastical advance ment, ultimatelyby a bishopric. Questions of royal right to of cause, and of taxation,as well imprison without statement the relations of King and Parliament, embittered of religion, as and after dismissingthat of, 1629, Charles determined to rule till without to meet parliamentary aid. No Parliament was of the Anglican party was The weakness that it had 1640. identified itself with the arbitrarypolicyof the King. Laud, with the support of the King, enforced conformity Puritan broken up. with a heavy hand. Lectureshipswere reissued. preachers silenced. The Declaration of Sports was Puritans began to despairof these circumstances many Under and political the religious outlook, and to plan to follow the the Atlantic. It was abstract religious no Separatistsacross libertythat they sought,but freedom to preach and organize as they desired. By 1628, emigrationto Massachusetts had be In 1629, a royal charter for Massachusetts was secured, gun. Charles
and
a
had
church
of many
formed
in Salem.
immigrants under
(1588-1649). Soon
there
the
were
The
year
1630
saw
leadershipof John strong churches
the arrival
Winthrop
about
Massa
John Bay, under able ministerial leaders,of whom Cotton (1596(1584-1652) of Boston, and Richard Mather the most 1669) of Dorchester, were conspicuous. Connecticut Hooker fully established in 1636, with Thomas colony was
chusetts
(1586-1647) as its chief minister at Hartford; and New Haven colony in 1638, under the spiritual guidance of John Davenport were (1597-1670). These men clergyof the English establish ment. They had no fondness for Separatism. But, like the
Separatists, they looked on the Bible as the sole law of church Their churches and they read it in the same organization, way. Till were organized,therefore,on the Congregationalmodel. 1640, the Puritan tide to New England ran full,at least twenty thousand crossingthe Atlantic. Charles's period of rule without time of Parliament a was considerable prosperityin England, but taxes widely believed
CIVIL
THE
REVOLTS.
SCOTLAND
470
WAR
such as the famous "ship-money," and enforced illegal, It was in Scotland, uniformity,kept up the unrest. religious
to
be
however,
that
the
broke.
storm
James
I had
succeeded
in
Presbyterianismlargelyby securingthe sup port of the nobles by grants of church lands. At the beginning of his reign Charles, by an act of revocation that was just, ordered the restoration of these lands, to the though impolitic, lastingadvantage of the Scottish church, though the command effect,however, was was imperfectlyexecuted. Its political lands and tithes largelyon of church the possessors to throw the side of the discontented Presbyterians. There now a was united Scotland, instead of the divisions which James relatively had fomented to his profit. the changes effected by James I, he had not Great as were dared alter the largerfeatures of publicworship (ante,p. 467). in 1637, in a fatuous desire for uniformity,Charles, But now, inspiredby Laud, ordered the impositionof a liturgywhich was of England. Its use, on that of the Church July essentially flared in opposition. 23, in Edinburgh, led to riot. Scotland to defend the true re In February, 1638, a National Covenant widely signed. In December, a General Assembly ligionwas deposed the bishops,and repudiated the whole ecclesiastical of
his overthrow
and
James
Charles
structure
which
This
rebellion,and
Charles
the
Scottish
So
was
formidable
was
had
erected
raised forces to attitude
that
an
since 1597. suppress
it.
agreement
patched up a truce in 1639; but in 1640 Charles determined of the war To pay the expenses bring the Scots to terms. prospect Charles Parliament
in
last
at
April,1640. religionwere
politicsand speedilydissolved
in
was
the
that followed the Scots
The
in
compelled to call an English old parliamentarygrievances
at
once
presented,and
Parliament."
"Short
to
Charles
In the brief
invaded England. successfully
war
Charles
of a Scottish forced to treat, and to guarantee the expenses of occupationtillthe treaty should be completed. There army no was help for it. The EnglishParliament must again be sum
was
moned, and in November, its work.
It
was
1640, the "Long Parliament"
evident at
once
began
that PresbyterianPuritanism
cast into prison. In July, majority. Laud was In January, 1642, abolished. was 1641, the High Commission of the Commons, the attempt of the King to seize five members
was
whom
in the
he
accused
of treason,
the precipitated
civil war.
In
for Parliament.1
East
and
stood for the King, the South
West
and
North
general,the
471
ASSEMBLY
WESTMINSTER
THE
Provision ab6lished episcopacyin January, 1643. for the creed and government of the church, and be made
Parliament must
of Elizabeth,as Parliament, quite in the spirit therefore,
sover
eign,called an assembly of one hundred and twenty-one clergy and thirtylaymen, named by it,to meet in Westminster men on July 1, 1643, to advise Parliament, which kept the power of The Westminster Assembly, thus hands. in its own enactment and Episcopa convened, contained a few Congregationalists lians,but its overwhelming majority was PresbyterianPuritan. had begun illfor Parliament, and to secure the war Meanwhile Scottish aid the Solemn League and Covenant, pledging the in England,Scotland, and uniformityin religion possible largest was acceptedby the Scottish Ireland,and opposing"prelacy/' and English Parliaments between August and October, 1643, and was soon requiredof all Englishmen over eighteenyears Scottish commissioners, without vote, but with much Assembly. The Assembly sat in the Westminster now influence, ofWorship and a thoroughly to Parliament a Directory presented of age.
Presbyteriansystem of church government in 1644. In Janu Parliament abolished the Prayer Book and sub ary following, stituted the Directory,which provided an order of worship that used in conservative Presbyterianand Con substantially liturgical Churches to the present day, without gregational though with suggestionsof appropriatesubjects of prayer, looked askance at the establishment of petition. Parliament Presbyteriangovernment, though finallyordering it in June, The
1646.
The
tion.
work
tainder
Assembly
The
laid before
Assembly
that witnessed the under the execution of Laud
saw
act
an
"
which next
be
must
judged one
preparedits
Parliament of
in opera abolition of the
set imperfectly
very
month
same
Prayer Book,
however,
was,
famous
Scotland
on
bill of at
of vindictiveness.
which confession,2
Adopted by
late in 1646.
a
August 27, 1647,
it
the General
it remains
the
standard of Scottish and American Presbyterianism.The Eng refused approvaltillJune, 1648, and then modi lish Parliament fied 1
some
For
sections.
important
In
documents
1647, the
Assembly completed
illustrative of
Hardy, pp. 537-585. 2 Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
598-673.
this
period, see
Gee
two and
CROMWELL.
472
CHARLES
I
DEFEATED
catechisms, a
Larger, for pulpit exposition,and a Shorter,1 for the trainingof children. Both were approved by the Eng lish Parliament and the Scottish General Assembly in 1648. The Westminster have always Confession and catechisms ranked the notable In most expositionsof Calvinism. among general,they repeat the familiar continental type. On the question of the divine decrees they are infralapsarian (ante, of their chief peculiarities is that in addition to p. 454). One the familiar derivation of original sin from the first parents as "the root of all mankind," they emphasize a "covenant of works" and a "covenant of grace." In the former, Ad#m is head of the human regardedas the representative race, to whom definite promises,which God made included his descendants, and which he, as their representative, forfeited by his disobedi ence
for them
as
well
having failed,God
for himself.
as
offered
"
The
covenant
of works"
of
"covenant
grace" through to Kaspar Olevianus its fullest (ante,p. 443), though expositionwas to be in the work of Johann Coccejus (1603-1669), professorin Franeker and Leyden. It was an attempt to give a definite explanationof sin as man's own act, and to show a real human for his ruin. Another of these sym responsibility peculiarity bols is an emphasis on the Sabbath with the Puritan consonant development of this doctrine (ante,p. 466). and ecclesiasticaldiscussions were in While these theological the civil war its early course. On had run July 2, progress Moor near 1644, the royalarmy had been defeated on Marston of Parliament of little York, largelyby the skill of a member military experience, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), whose abilities had created a picked troop of "religious men." Not quite a year later,on June 14, 1645, Cromwell cut to piecesthe last field army of the King near Naseby. The next year Christ.
Charles him
This
gave
new
doctrine
covenant
himself
a
to the
up
is to
traced
be
Scots,who, in turn, surrendered
to the
by Crom which littlequestion well,was raised of finer distinctions of creed. So long as they op was and and "prelacy,"Baptists,Congregationalists, posed Rome welcome Puritans were in it. The rigidPresbyterianismof the parliamentarymajority was distasteful to the army as the older rule of bishops,and Cromwell as fullyshared this The army, EnglishParliament. a body of religious enthusiasts,in
1
Ibid.,pp. 676-703.
as
created
PROTECTORATE
CROMWELL'S
feeling. The
was
army
demanding
soon
a
473
largedegree of
toler
ation. This
prevented the
attitude of the army
full establishment
It dis sanctioned. Parliament Presbyterianism which used this situation to intrigue pleasedtJieScots. Charles now with the Scots to invade England in his interest, inducingthem to believe that he would support Presbyterianism. On August 17-19, 1648, the invadingScottish army was scattered by Crom in Eng This victoryleft the army well near Preston. supreme December land. On 6 following,"Pride's Purge" expelled Charles I all opposed to the army's wishes. from Parliament
of
was
then
and beheaded fidies,
on
Scotland
then
the next
the later Charles II
treasons alleged
and
January 30, 1649, bearing himself
great dignity. Cromwell reduced
for his
condemned
tried and
subjugated Ireland
(1660-1685)
near
with
1649,
overthrew
Charles's son,
Worcester
in 1651.
and
year,
in
per
positionhad been everywhere put down. Cromwell, though not identified wholly with any
Op
denomina
or Independent, and a practically Congregationalist, allowed.1 under his Protectorate a largedegree of toleration was Since the beginning of the war, however, about two thousand Episcopalclergymen had been deprived,and had suffered great hardship. Then as in earlier and later changes it is evident, nevertheless,that the great majority of the clergyeither were state to the new undisturbed or managed to adjustthemselves
tion,was
of affairs.
statesmanlike
Able, conscientious,and
as
Crom
militaryauthority,and was, as such, disliked,while the bickeringsof rival religiousbodies equally distasteful to a great majorityof the people of were England who could, as yet, conceive of only one established form of faith. Till his death, on September 3, 1658, Cromwell suppressedall disaffection. succeeded Oliver Cromwell was by his son, Richard, as
well was,
his rule
was
Protector; but the
new
that
of
ruler
was
a
man
of
no
force,and
prac
Royalistsand Presbyteriansnow anarchy On April, combined to effect a restoration of the monarchy. 14, 1660, Charles II issued a declaration "of libertyto tender in London. consciences,"from Breda,2 and on May 29 was had justhopes of being included in the But if the Presbyterians
tical
was
the result.
1
Gee
2
and
Ibid.,pp.
Hardy, 585-588.
pp.
574-585.
RESTORATION
THE
474
settlement,they were religious
new
doomed
to bitter disappoint
ment.
intended
comprehension of Pres Reynolds (1599byteriansin the national church. Edward made heretofore decided Puritan, was bishop of Nor a 1676), Richard Baxter (1615-1691),one of the most The saintly wich. offered a bishopric, of the Presbyterianparty, was eminent A conference between but declined. bishopsand Presbyterians held by government authorityat the Savoy Palace in 166 1,1 was Charles II was but led to little result. thoroughly immoral, a nd little reliance could be indifferent in and religion, weak, placed on his promises. Had he been a better or a stronger have
Charles II may
he could have
whether
it is doubtful
man,
some
stemmed
the tide of
first Parliament The against Puritanism. chosen after his restoration was fiercely royalistand Anglican. in 1661, and of Canterbury and York met The Convocations made in the Prayer Book, alterations were six hundred some but none looking in the Puritan direction,and in May, 1662, Act of Uniformity received the royal assent. the new By it2 of any other service than those of the revised Prayer the use and each clergy forbidden under heavy penalties, Book was oath of "un before August 24, to make was man required, feigned assent and consent to all and everything contained and prescribed" therein;and also,"that it is not lawful,upon take arms againstthe King." any pretense whatsoever, to intended to bar the Puritans from the These provisions were fifteen hundred effectual. From church, and as such they were thousand ministers gave up their placesrather than take to two national
reaction
had
been
never
Non-conformity acts
before, one had
been
the
outside
forced
was
of
Church
become
to
what
now,
it
England. Severer
Dissent.
in part by fear of conspiracyagainst By the First Conventicle Act, of 1664,
monarchy. fine,imprisonment, and alties for
ultimate
at
presence
service
a
Prayer Book, attended by household.
who
party
followed,induced
soon
the restored
any
Puritan
The
prescribedoaths.
the
person
had and
"in
Mile
"Five
The
Holy
preached to
1
Gee
3
Ibid.,pp. 620-623.
Hardy,
pp.
five
Orders a
or
were transportation
not more
Act," or
in accordance persons
3
of the
not
of the next
year,
same
forbad
pretended Holy Orders,"
"conventicle," and
588-594.
the pen with the
2
did
not
Ibid.,pp. 600-619.
or
take the
THE
476
REVOLUTION.
TOLERATION
April 4, 1687, he issued a Declaration of Indulgence,1 granting toleration. In itself it was a well-sounding, complete religious and from the modern standpoint,a praiseworthyact. Yet its motives
were
England
once
tantism
too more
obvious. a
Its
Catholic
Roman
aim
to
was
country, and
make
all Protes
alarmed, while lovers of constitutional government
was
in it a nullification of the power royal will. The vast majority of saw
thereby from made
ultimate
by arbitrary Dissenters,though relieved
refused grievous disabilities,
common
with
cause
1688, James
of Parliament
II ordered
the
to
churchmen.
support it,and
When,
the Indulgence read
in all
in April,
churches,
trial and, to the
bishopsprotested. They were put on of the had taxed na Protestants, acquitted. James delight tional feelingtoo greatly. William of Orange (1650-1702), had married Mary, the Stadholder of the Netherlands, who James's against daughter,was invited to head the movement seven
James.
On
James
November
fled to France.
5, 1688, he The
landed
Revolution
with
an
army.
accomplished,and proclaimed Mary were
was
February 13, 1689, William (III)and jointsovereignsof England. The clergyof the Restoration had asserted too long the doc trines of the divine rightof Kings and of passiveobedience to royalauthorityto make this change palatable. Seven bishops, headed by William Sancroft (1616-1693), refused the oath of allegianceto the new sovereigns,and with them about four hundred still the Lord's James II was clergy. To them anointed. They were deprived,as Anglicans and Dissenters had been before,and they bore themselves with equal courage. of earnest men Many of them were piety. They formed the Nonjuror party, which graduallydied out. on
Under could
the circumstances
no
Toleration
longer be
to
of 1688, toleration Dissenters. By the
Protestant
May 24, 1689, all who swore, or affirmed, the oaths of allegiance the juris to William and Mary rejected diction of the Pope, transubstantiation, the mass, the invoca tion of the Virginand saints,and also subscribed the doctrinal portionsof the Thirty-nineArticles,were granted freedom of not a territorial adjust worship. It was a personaltoleration, in Germany at the close of the Thirty Years' War. ment as Diverse forms of Protestant exist side by worship could now 1
Gee
and
Act2
denied
of the Revolution
of
Hardy, pp.
641-644.
2
Ibid.,pp.
654-664.
The
side.
COVENANTERS
THE
SCOTLAND.
amounted
have
Dissenters may
477 to
tenth of the
a
populationof England, divided between Presbyterians,Constillbound Baptists,and Quakers. They were gregationalists, to
but abilities,
such
Catholics. till 1778
In
they had
and
won
had
other dis
many
No
freedom. essential religious
granted to
were privileges
Roman come
establishment,and
tithes to the
pay
deniers
of the
Trinity or
to
effective relief of the latter did not
The
1791, and
not
was
Scotland, the Restoration
was
completed till 1829. a
of great turmoil annulled all acts af
time
suffering.The Parliament of 1661 fectingreligion passed since 1633. Episcopacywas, therefore, restored as in the time of Charles I. In September, 1661, four bishopswere appointed,chief of them James Sharp (1618Consecration ob was 1679) as archbishop of St. Andrews. tained from England. Sharp had been a Presbyterianminis All office ter, but had betrayed his party and his church. holders were requiredby Parliament to disown the covenants In 1663 Parliament enacted heavy fines of 1638 and 1643. from the now for absence episcopallygoverned churches, Pres it did not dare introduce a liturgy. Many though even now deprived,especiallyin south byterian ministers were them their parishionersabsented When Scotland. western selves from the ministration of the new appointees,they were not forthcoming,soldiers were fined,and if payment was quar and
tered to
on
them.
High Commission repression.Two years
In 1664
the instruments
of
a
of the covenants
oppressedsupporters
enanters, engaged in the Pentland
Court
later
of 1638 and
Rising.
It
was some
added of the
1643, or Cov
ruthlessly crushed, and the Presbyterianelement treated with increasing Sharp was severity. On May 3, 1679, in belated retaliation, followed by an armed ris This crime was murdered. speedily crushed at June 22 the revolt was ing of Covenanters ; but on treated with great Bothwell Bridge and the capturedinsurgents the later cruelty. Six months later the King's brother,James James II of England was practically put in charge of Scottish affairs. The extremer and uncompromising Presbyterians were Cameronians as now a proscribedand hunted folk, known was
"
"
"
leaders,Richard Cameron. numbered The in accession of James II, or VII, as he was Scotland, but intensified at first the repressionof the Camer
from
one
onians.
of their
His firstyear
was
the
time" "killing
; and
the Parlia-
PRESBYTERIANISM
478
made
of 1685
ment
"conventicle." as
in
death
ESTABLISHED the
punishment for
James, however,
England.
pursued the
soon
filled his council with
He
attendance same
at
a
course
Catholics, and
in
Indulgencegrantingfreedom of worship. As in England, this release of Catholics from penalty aroused of all shades of Protestants. the hostility Episcopaliansand and when William alike opposed; and Presbyterians were friends the throne of England they had many Mary mounted divided than in the northern kingdom. Scotland was more The Stewarts Scotch, and though were England, however. Episcopaliansdisliked the Catholicism of James they distrusted of "Dutch the Presbyterians the Calvinism William," whom favored. The Revolution triumphed, however, and on May rulers of Scotland. In 11, 1689, William and Mary became Parliament restored all Presbyterianministers ejected 1690 issued Letters
1687
of
since 1661, ratified the Westminster and declared Presbyterianism the
Confession form
(ante,p. 472),
recognized by the of Presbyterianism
legal establishment was laity,who continued their opposed by the Cameronian control of the church to any by civil authorityand hostility the failure to renew condemned the covenants, and by the Epis The latter, copalians,who were strong in northern Scotland. however, though in the status of a "dissenting"body, were permittedby a toleration act of 1712, to use the Englishliturgy. Protes between In both England and Scotland the long quarrels tants were, therefore, adjustedin similar fashion by toleration. government.
This
SECTION
One
of the most
XVII.
remarkable
THE
QUAKERS
productsof
the
periodof
the
Society of Friends, or Quakers. of the few religious geniuses one George Fox (1624-1691) was of a the of English history. Born in Fenny Drayton, son he grew up earnest and serious-minded,having "never weaver, At nineteen woman." drinking bout, to a or wronged man which he was nominal Christians,so disgusted invited by some that he him by the contrast between practiceand profession search for spiritual reality. Shams set on a soul-distressing was of all sorts he detested. His earlyassociates had been to some to be of his later peculiarities are extent Baptist,and many civil
found
wars
in
among
England
the
was
the
Anabaptistsof
the
Continent
or
were
rep-
479
FOX
GEORGE
war sects of the Englishcivilperiod. resented by the irregular His but the outward transformingand These trappings. were
in 1646. He felt that to Fox always central' experiencecame but an inner lightby is not an outward profession, Christianity soul. Revela which Christ directlyilluminates the believing tion is not confined to the Scriptures, though they are a true who true disciples. of God it enlightensall men Word are The Spiritof God speaks directlythrough them, givesthem "
In
lightwhere
inner
that
woman
or
He He
to be
rejected.The
ties.
The
of
abhorrent.
deignsto
use.
sacraments
are
the
Artificialtitlesare or
true
againsttendencies tures
or
needed Nor
was
hatred
rejected "
respect of
of the
truth
to
man
is
a
man.
deny legaltitles Christian. Slavery
did not
Fox
life. Such
to confine
express
protest
a
as
itselfin
a
that of Fox
all divine revelation to the
Scrip
and the Fathers of earlycenturies was a wholesome of Christianity. corrective to a one-sided interpretation its insistence on spiritual honesty less beneficial. to
sincerityand
The
Christian
judge. War is unlawful for a All Christianity to be true must
transformed, consecrated
but
unnecessary
Servilityin speech or behavior
true
to be
merely
not
are
veri spiritual
and
inward
are
needless corroboration
a
Christian.
a
degradationof like King
will,the
elements
outward
misleading. Oaths ful word
ministry. Since God gives ministryis that of any man A professional ministry is
began his stormy
Fox
1647
for service.
quickensthem
and
their message,
of all that
earnestness spiritual
of Fox's
of formalism, and
savored
beliefs,his
his demand
for
immensely attractive forces. experiencewere spiritual gathered in Preston By 1652 the first Quaker community was later the Friends Patrick in northern England. Two years
inward
had
spread to London,
eminent
earlyconvert
married
after she became
was
Bristol,and
Norwich.
Fox's
most
Margaret Fell (1614-1702),whom a
widow, and her home, Swarthmore
headquartersfor his preachers. In the circumstances of English life such a movement
Hall, furnished
a
with fierce opposition.Before 1661 one
hundred
he
and
no
met
less than three thousand
includingFox himself,had seventy-nine,
suf
fered imprisonment. A missionary zeal was early manifested which sent Quakers to proclaim their faith to as far distant pointsas Jerusalem, the West India Islands,Germany, Austria, and
Holland.
In 1656,
they
entered
Massachusetts, and
by
four
1661
had
been
conduct
of
aroused
police interference
of
good
a
organization,
of the
Spirit.
main
features in
face
kept
Fox
in
died,
laws
peculiar severity and
byterians their
the
hostile
authority.
prison,
and
About
their
of
son
Admiral
Quakerism and
became
at
of
the
freedom
ing in sending
father.
colonial The
experiment
ers,
like
and
granted
other
Charles
of
a
debt was
To
trophy
and
(1644-1718), toward
in 1666
preachers
to
II
the from
due
founded,
and in
find
to
After
England.
Quakers
in
fines.
determined in
of
deaths
its beliefs
eminent
Quakers
face
inclinations
after
He
Philadelphia
aid
Jersey in
New
of
grant the
Penn to
crown
and
a
great
begun. Act
of
freedom
(ante,
p.
of
their
more
of
worship.
1689
Dissenters,
them
faith.
in release
1682
Toleration
Penn
most
from
obtained
In
William
eight hundred
sylvania, in 1681, his
the
denied
some
Penn
1677-1678,
the
eminent
fully embraced
of
one
most
Penn,
1661,
as
once
literary defenders America
William
early
as
their
experiment.
Sir
the
their
Pres
conceal
to
in
with
the
financially by heavy
belongs
colonial
great
bore
effort
met
sober
it.
they, unlike
hundred
ruined
were
many
period, however,
this
four
the
on
them
year
watch
membership.
Restoration
defiantly maintained
but
out,
strict
the
no
the
1666
that
In
taken
made
want
mapped
were
of
since
Quakers,
by
distinguished
the
at
early
which
had
since
Congregationalists,
meetings,
order, and
body
Dissenters
on
of
conduct
ever
have
inspiration
opposition.
life and
have
against
immediate
discipline
the
would
the
the
established, by
1691,
which
in
necessity
were
extravagant
which
possible by
considerable
the
the
age.
Quaker
of
over
characteristics The
the
Meetings"
be
Before
the
saw
of
the
Monthly
could
Fox
any
belief
as
in
severity
made
were
well
as
in
explanation,
some
was
early Quakers,
of the
many
extravagances
though
this
for justification,
no
These
There
hanged.
though
"
QUAKERS
THE
480
476)
relieved
the
Quak
pressing disabilities,
I
VII.
PERIOD
been
has
question
THE
I.
SECTION
THE
to
tion. ternal
authority, of the dominance cultural
and
educational
the
sin and
the Middle
urged religionas a a
or
to
modern
all forms
religionover
of
singletype of worship as given territory,of original of the
worthlessness
essential
Ages
the
in support of either posi to be maintained by ex
of
life,of
allowable, at least within
alone
natural
of evil
man,
witchcraft, of the immediacy and arbitrariness of relations with the world, ancfeofthe other-worldliness
spiritsand the
a
whether
controverted
be
little may Its conceptions of Not
history.
POINT
TURNING
much
is to be reckoned
Reformation
SITUATION
RELIGIOUS
MODERN
THE
TO
TRANSITION
THE
divine
to the Middle religiousoutlook, all link the Reformation Ages. So, too, the problems primarily discussed, however
of
their solution
different
from
characteristic
that
of the
Middle
Sin and grace had been, since essentiallymediaeval. of Tertullian, the very of Augustine, if not rather the time of the Ref heart problems of Latin theology. They were so Luther himself However ormation. might reject Aristotle, the older Protestant philosophy was thoroughly Aristotelian. the ascetic view was repudiated, was Nor, though monasticism of the world rejected,least of all by Calvinism.
Ages,
On
of the
were
other
the
hand, the Reformation
sacramental
which
had
broke
the
dominance
controlled
Christianity and West East certainly since the second century. Baptism and and the Lord's highly valued, but Supper were preserved now they were regarded as seals to the divine promises, not as of grace. The exclusive channels Holy Spirit,who works when them He will,uses for His gracious purposes and how and where doubtless, but is, therefore,
wrought needing man's
by no
not
system
to
the exclusion
of other
means.
Salvation
direct, individual, and personal relationship, with God, bringing the soul into union Him, Furthermore, saintly or priestly intervention. a
relation to God
is not
one
481
of debt
and
credit,of
evil acts
be
to
the Middle
from
remembers, ism
were
the
are
natural
a
world.
PERIOD
state
fruits.
of reconcilia Nor
the
was
relations and to
God
less
a
characteristics
These
Ages.
MODERN
acquired, but
of the normal
the modern
tion with
be
THE
fields for service
the best
as
to
works
good
estimate
Protestant life
merit
and
purged of which
tion
OF
BEGINNING
THE
482
if
Yet
occupations of radical departure
link the
strikes
one
a
Reforma
balance, and
largely the worldly tendencies of human in suppressed by the Reformation, the movement also, how
in great measure be reckoned its first century and a half must of the Middle continuance Ages. Though a great religious
still
bodies
Reformation
use
originating,they various
formulas, and
longer
no
in that
indeed
in
move
bear
then
names
its atmosphere,
but
in
of modern
Christianity. for this change is assign an exact alteration was due not to a single leader impossible. The It has modified Christian of leaders. thought very or group has not completed, unequally. The transformation yet been measure
line of demarcation
To
after
than
more
centuries, if the Christian
two
is taken
into
view.
causes.
One
of these
government
It has has
world
as
whole
a
aided
been
been
the
by a great variety of steady secularization of
since the close of the seventeenth
Even
century.
important has been the rise of the professional, other than clerical, mercantile, and laboring classes to constantly In the Reforma influence. and political increasing education few. tion age leaders of thought and sharers in government were and Their number independence have been steadilyexpanding. This growth has helped to bring about, and, in turn, has been aided by, an increasingtoleration on the part of the state, which more
"
"
has
made
the
rise of many
the
easy
subdivision
enormous
of thinkers
groups
not
of Protestantism
and
directlyassociated with,
opposed to, organized religion.
or
Yet
the
most
of
potent have
atmosphere losophy, with
the
look
universe
upon
the
instruments
been
rise of modern
the
immense
consequent
and
upon
subsequent development
of the
and
and
interpretingthought
in effecting this change
man's historic
science
transformations
and
phi
in out
positionin it; and the method of examining
institutions.
DESCARTES
484
1650), a native
of France
SPINOZA
Catholic, spent
a
There
Netherlands.
of his
most
he
wrote
of 1637, his First Philosophy of 1641, his Principiaof 1644. To his thinking,only that is really
his Discourse and
Method
on
knowledge which the mind The is not intelligence. themselves another
on
and
life in the
intellectual
active
AND
the mind
fullyunderstands. objects and ideas involved
That
existence
erudition
which
present
dependent one that they must be analyzed and separatedinto sim the beginning of all Hence be reallyunderstood. to
are
so
plicityto knowledge is doubt; and no real basis, or point of departure,can doubted.
and
Mere
as
a
Descartes
If
examine
we
found
be
be
can
made
which
till a
cannot
be
Augustine,in his own in doubting, "I think,
found, with Even
thinking being.
therefore I am."
progress
so
the contents
of this
thinkingI,
and find in it ideas greater than it could of itself originate, be be without an adequate cause, there must since nothing can
we
a
cause
we
are
produce them.
great enough and real enough
to
convinced
God, and
of the existence
of
His
Hence
relation to
thought and being are united. Our ideas are true and Godlike only as they are clear and distinct of geometry. with a logicalclaritylike the demonstrations in God, Matter, though equally with mind having its source In the last analysisit is in all things the opposite of mind. has only extension and the purely mechanical motion imparted animals Hence to it by God. are merely machines, and the all
thinking.
our
relations between
In God
human
bodies
and
minds
caused
Descartes
great perplexities.
philosophy was, it was not its details which profoundly affected popular thought, but its till proved, be doubted assertion that all conceptions must have the certaintyof mathe and that any adequate proof must These matical demonstration. two to have principleswere Yet, influential as
momentous
Much than
the Cartesian
consequences.
logical though far more carrying Descartes's principlesto their
less influential in his
their author
in
own
age
the Netherlandish Hebrew, Baruch logicaldevelopment, was Spinoza (1632-1677). A pantheist,all is an infinitesubstance, all is God are equivalent, or nature, for with him the terms and known in two modes extension,of attributes,thought or attributes are the expression. As to which all finite persons or Descartes,to Spinoza clearness is the test of truth.
485
LEIBNITZ how
But
do
influential
One
know?
men
from
came
answer
mathematician, historian, statesman, and phi losopher,Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716), for the last fortyyears of his lifelibrarian in Hanover, and an earnest seeker German
the
Spinoza,who
in the universe
saw
Each
force.
of
indivisible centre
an
in
though the degree of consciousness
practicalunconscious
from
substance, Leibnitz be is a "monad," Each mirrors the universe,
one
infinite in number.
lieved substances
monads varies differing highest activity. The
the
to
Unlike
Protestantism.
and
Catholicism
of
reunion
of the
the monad clearer the consciousness,the nearer approaches the divine. God is the originalmonad, to whose all thingsare clear. All ideas are wrapped up in the perception
greater and
monad,
are
innate, and
to
drawrn
be
the characteristic test of
again is
Here
need
and
Spinoza
had
but
all that
seems
presented. No
Nor
do
the
Each
another; working of pre-
pointingto
aggregationsof monads
bodies really occupy space. and and time point, space
Descartes
influences
is the
established harmony, like perfectclocks hour.
clearness.
to
truth,which
monad
influence
mutual
out
which
the
same
constitute
is like a mathematical
monad
simply the necessary aspects their groupings are under which perceived. God created the and therefore,of all possible world to exhibit His perfection, evil is imperfection, seems worlds, chose the best. What moral wrong, which is never or physicalpain,and limitation, theless
necessary
in the
sense
Leibnitz's
better world.
are
that God
answer
was,
could
not
therefore,that
by the elucidation of their innate ideas. given by the Very different was the answer English thinker of the close of the seventeenth
eighteenthcenturies,John
the
Essay Concerning Human
mous
denied
Locke
have
most
and
men
show
know
influential
opening of
The
mind
1690
Locke
is white
paper,
which the mind sensation writes its impressions, on of bines by reflection into ideas, and the combination ideas givesrise to more complex ideas. Locke's purpose
which
a
(1632-1704). In his fa
Understandingof
the existence of innate ideas.
made
com
simple was
to
knowledge is justlysubjectto based on reasonableness judged by reason
that all that claims to be
criticism
as
to
its
experience. Thus tested,he finds the existence of God dem and effect;morality onstrated by the argument from cause Relike the truths of mathematics. is equally demonstrable
LOCKE
486
AND
SHAFTESBURY
reasonable. It may be above rea ligionmust be essentially be contradictoryto son beyond experience but it cannot These views Locke reason. developed in his Reasonableness of of 1695; the Scripturescontain a message Christianity beyond of unaided reason the power to attain,attested by miracles; "
"
but
that
be
cannot
message
miracle
contrary to
reason,
nor
could
anything essentiallyunreasonable. Hence, though sincerelyChristian,Locke had little patience with mystery in religion.For him it was enough to acknowl edge Jesus as the Messiah, and practisethe moral virtues a
even
which
attest
proclaimed,and
He
of
with
the
from
enlightenedcommon
Locke
dictates
was
is hardly
accord
distinguishable
sense. an
advocate
of toleration and
compulsion in religion.Religion's only proper
is essential reasonableness.
weapon
in fundamental
are
which
reason
less influentialas
no
of all
opponent
a
which
Nor
was
Locke
less forma
He had in political theory in England and America. in various directions, been preceded in this field, by Gro-
tive of deed
(1583-1645), Hobbes 1694). In his Treatises on
(1588-1679), and
tius
have
men secure
of the
natural
rule, and
when
of 1690 Locke
rights to life,liberty,and
these,government
governed.
Government
Pufendorf
In such
that
has a
(1632-
urged that
property.
To
established by the consent the will of the majority must
been
state
will is not
carried
out,
or
fundamental
rightsare violated,the people have the right of revolution. and executive The functions should be carefully legislative discriminated. The legislativeis the superior. However inadequate and fanciful this may be as a historic explanationof the origin of the state, its influence in the development of political theory can hardly be over English and American estimated. in the theory of morals was the significance view developed by the earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713) in his of 1711. Hobbes had Characteristics of Men attempted to find the basis of morality in man's constitution,but had dis Locke the selfishness. To covered there nothing but pure basis which reason discovers is the law of God. Though en tirelyreasonable,morality is stillpositiveto Locke, a divine is a being command. Shaftesburynow taught that, since man virtue consists having personalrightsand social relationships, in the proper balancing of selfish and altruistic aims. This Of
considerable
RISE
THE
OF
DEISM
487
harmony is achieved, and the value of actions determined, by inward "moral sense." Shaftesbury thus based rightand an not
This
the will of God.
on
constitution of human
the fundamental
on
wrong
gave
a
why
reason
itself,
nature one
even
who
which the case the divine existence with not was rejected. moral con nevertheless bound to maintain Shaftesbury was It removed the hope of reward or fear of punishment duct. Atheist and rejectorof as prime motives for moral conduct. morality could no longerbe considered,as they had generally it difficultfor Bishop Joseph Nor was terms. been, equivalent Butler (1692-1752) to preserve sense," Shaftesbury's"moral of the theistic interpretation "conscience," while givingto it "
"
a
divinelyimplantedmonitor SECTION
III.
DEISM
Locke's test of truth
formity to
common
and
AND
ITS
judge of
conduct.
OPPONENTS.
SCEPTICISM
reasonableness,in the
was
He
sense.
sense
morality as the prime conceptionof the universe "first cause," and moving The new knowledge of
religion.The Newtonian of a realm of law, created by a was order. in unchangeable mechanical civilization and foreignnations of long-established ligionslike the Chinese, enlargedmen's horizons and miliar other
Christian culture.
than
con
viewed
of
content
of
other
re
made
fa
All these influences led to
radical departurein Englishreligious thought,that known as of Cherbury (1583Deism. Herbert As earlyas 1624 Edward
a
the articlesof belief allegedto constitute in primitiveunspoiled held by all mankind religion,
1648) had enumerated natural
as simplicity,
His are
true
:
God
service ;
rewards
and
man
exists ; He must
repent of
punishments
worshipped ; virtue is wrong-doing ; and there
is to be
after death.
To
the later Deists
natural,universal reasonable John Toland's (1670-1722) religion.In 1696 came not Mysterious;1713 saw Anthony Collins's (1676Christianity published Mat 1729) Discourse of Freethinking;in 1730 was Old as Creation. thew Tindal's (1653?-1733) Christianity as these
seemed
a
In these works set
forth.
is held
on
statement
the main
of the content
of
features of the Deistic
positionwere
is acknowledged beyond or above reason belief without proof. What is believed without proof All that
is to be free,hence is superstition.To be rid of superstition the only rational thinker is a freethinker. The worst enemies
THE
488 of mankind
those
ARGUMENT
DEISTIC who
have
held
in
bondage to super stition,and the chief examples of these are "priests" of all All that is valuable in revelation had alreadybeen given sorts. "in natural reasonable hence men religion, Christianity that is,all that is of worth in Christianity is "as old as crea are
men
"
"
tion."
All that is obscure
tion is
and superstitious
real witness
to
above
or
worthless
revelation; they
in so-called revela
reason or
Miracles
worse.
are
no
either superfluous, for all
are
in that to which
of value
alreadypossesses ; they witness reason the insult to or they are an perfectworkmanship of a Creator who has set this world running by most perfectmechanical laws and does not now thus interfere with its ongoing. Deism authoritative seemed to destroy all historic Christianityand revelation. It was atheism, yet destruc as widely denounced tive as it was, not justly. In the thought of its advocates it and of religion from bondage to the superstitious was a rescue and purity. to primitiverational simplicity a return From a modern standpointthe weakness of Deism is evident. is as much Its primitiveuniversal,rational religion a figment of the imaginationas the primitiveunspoiledsocial and political dear to the eighteenth state of the unspoiledchild of nature so "
Its assertion that
century.
natural, "is right,"is shallow the actual facts of the historic Its God
was
afar
optimism. It had no religious development of
off,a being who
rules principles, essentially religious mechanical world a wonderfullycontrived He has nothing now Its merit was to do. of
ness
to
measure
claims. religious it by a standard
called out
power
is
were,
most
mediocre that, relatively
argument,
though any
power
answer
in
not
his
of
of its opponents often admitting a its results. of the
reason
Some
in the
excellent
Non
attempted considerable few realm
met
of
to
The
con
it is
Neither
it from
the
of the Deists it
by rational
of its
share
method,
flat denial
it
by a religion.Such Case
set
chief proof of its
meet
juror William
reply to Tindal, entitled
its age.
most
as
cer
worthi
estimate
to
viewed
the
men
moral
and
have
and replies,
many
race.
with which
it forced
that
foreignto entirely
its supporters nor its critics could standpointhere indicated. Deism
in motion
criticise and
to
the
morality,and
of
reasonableness
So
of
sense
for all established
once
tain
sideration of the fundamental
is
is,"that is,whatever
whatever
Law
of
was
of the
(1686-1761)
Reason
(1732).
BERKELEY
argued,not merely does
Reason, Law "
it is the
BUTLER
AND
hearts." God is above our will is wisdom prehend, "His own
find truth in
not
of
of all the disorders
cause
489
passions,the
our
the power of and wisdom
tions of
religion ; corrup to
man
com
will.
is His
goodness is arbitrary."
His
directly designedas
Less
an
Deism
to
answer
believed
but
"
the phi by himself to be destructive of all atheism" was of most generous losophyof George Berkeley(1685-1753),a man impulses,who attempted to found a missionarycollegein Ber muda
American
of the evangelization
for the
Indians, lived for
bishop of Cloyne in Ireland. To Berkeley'sthinkingnothing reallyexists but is no is other knowledge of what and ideas. There minds a
Island,and in 1734 became
time in Rhode
called matter
but
impressionin
an
Since ideas
minds.
productin
the
working due.
are
In
Such
what
sense
divine mind,
a
we
is God, and
call nature
impressedin
a
to
all our
Him
in merely subjectively is
us
minds.
our
of ideas range order constant
a
definite and
minds, though their realityto in
be affected
must
mind
ideas exist not
But
some
our
mind.
are
minds
since like
only by other be universal and constant, they must of a universal,eternal,and constantly minds
only affect like,our
can
minds, and
our
only in our thus denying is
ideas minds. in the on
our
perceptionof
the realityof By matter Berkeley would destroy that whole conceptionof the made world as a huge mechanism once magnified watch a for all by an all-wise Maker, who has nothing now to do with had held. substitute For it he would its ongoing,which Deism divine spiritual a universal constant activity.Though this con re ception of Berkeley has always enjoyed high philosophic them
our
own
"
"
spect, it is
and too
subtle
too
contrary
to
the evidences
for the average man. More famous in its own time, yet of far less
of his
senses
or
permanent
value, was
a
work
of
ability philosophic
Joseph Butler (1692-1752), earlyentered the Church of
Presbyterianby descent who had England and become bishop of Bristol in 1738, and in 1750. of 1736 was His Analogy ofReligion a work
a
labor,candor, and the
In
care.
premises,held equallyby the Deists
that God
human of nature
exists,that
knowledge ; ifthe
same
nature
in
moves
is limited.
God
difficultiescan
of immense
the Deists he starts from
to
answer
of Durham
a
their opponents, uniform course, and that
admittedly the raised againstthe
is be
and
author course
AND
BUTLER
490 of nature
as
HUME
the probabilityis againstrevelation, author.
have
the
most
attractive
that both
Their
also lead positiveresemblances conclusion. the same to Immortality is at least strongly probable. As present happiness or misery depend on con is now duct, it is probable that future will also. Every man in a state of "probation" as regardshis use of this life;it is on "probation" as to his future probable that he is also now does not warrant destiny. Our limited knowledge of nature declaration that revelation is improbable, much less impos a sible,and whether there has actuallybeen a revelation is a historic questionto be tested by its attestation by miracles and fulfilment of prophecy. Believed widely in its time an unan swerable answer to Deism, and as such long requiredin English and American Butler's cautious balance of proba universities, modern bilities utterlyfails to meet questions,and has been doubts than it answers. Its well criticised as raisingmore same
feature
is its moral
the divine regnancy of conscience A noteworthy attack alike on
fervor
over
Deism
in its exaltation
human and
of
action. on
much
of the
made Christianityagainst it was by the British philosopherof the eighteenth century, David acutest Hume (1711-1776). Born in Edinburgh, he died in that city. for some He lived in France some public employ years, saw but a highly Tory History of England, popular ment, wrote economist. and won deserved fame as a political During his last years he was kindly head of the regarded as the friendly, literaryand intellectual circles of his native city. His philo ably set forth in his Treatise of Human sophicalsystem was Nature of 1739 ; but this rather youthfulpublicationattracted the same it when ideas were little notice. Very different was in his Philosophical recast Essays of 1748 and his Natural His Hume of was one Philosophically, tory of Religionof 1757. the keenest of reasoners, standing on the basis of Locke, but current
with with
defenses
radical most
and
of
destructive criticism of Locke's
theories and
thoroughgoing religiousscepticism. Experience our knowledge, but we receive it as isolated im
gives us all mental im our pressionsand ideas. All connection between united and borne and effect, or as pressionsas related by cause by an underlying substance, are simply the inveterate but mental habit. baseless view-pointsof our They are the ways What in which our minds are accustomed to act. we really
and
advocates
many
French
supporters
CONTINENT
THE
ON
DEISM
492
Fran"ois Marie
was
(1694-1778), who
himself,Voltaire
Chief
fashionable.
became
Arouet, or,
had
these
of
as
he called
familiar with
become
during a sojournin England from 1726 to 1729. In had its keenest wit. No France Voltaire eighteenth-century but with vain, self-seeking, genuine hatred of philosopher, of religious at no one ever persecution, tyranny, especially tacked unsparing ridicule. organized religionwith a more Such a contest was, of necessity, more sharplydrawn in France In the latter country a certain degree than in Great Britain. of religious toleration had been achieved, and great divergence allowed. In France of religious was practically interpretation dominant. The Catholicism contest was dogmatic Roman its tenets
Deism
therefore,between
was,
and
singleassertive type
a
taire
was
Deist
true
a
of
Atheism,
or
on Christianity,
the
on
hand,
one
the other.
in his belief in the existence
Vol
of God
and
of a simple morality; consisting primitivenatural religion of all that rested on the authorityof Bible also in his rejection in in of his work and significance church. Of the extent or to appear fluencingthe French mind in directions that were of
a
in the
can
be
eighteenthcentury widely.
affected the
of
creed
there
Revolution
French
the
Frederick
of
Great
question. Deism
no
It
substantially
was
Prussia
(1740-1786); of Joseph Emperor (Austria,1765-1790) ; Holy Roman and of the marquis of Pombal (1699-1782), the greatest of
the
II, the
Portuguese influential
of the
statesmen
on
this side of the
(1706-1790) and
Thomas
century. Atlantic.
Jefferson
Nor
was
Deism
Benjamin
(1743-1826)
less
Franklin its ad
were
herents. Deism savage
lish
had work
powerful popular presentationin
the American
Paine
of Thomas
Quaker, whose
(1737-1809), the Sense
Common
Revolution
;
nor
was
son
the
of
brutal, an
Eng
of 1776 did great service to of 1791 his Rightsof Man
underlyingthe French principles his Age of Reason, in which Deism Revolution. In 1795 came form. Though unsparingly was presentedin its most aggressive and series it left of followers, representeda type denounced, a of of the traditional of criticism of the morality representation uncritical the basis of an and dealings,on the divine nature found which of the Scriptures, and unhistoric treatment a belated echo in Robert G. Ingersoll (1833-1899). less effective in defense
of the
GIBBON
PALEY
AND
493
scepticalcriticism on the early history of Christianity Gibbon advanced (1737-1794) in by the historian Edward the fifteenth and sixteenth chaptersof his great Historyof the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) deserves notice, not for itsinherent importance,but for the controversy that it aroused, and the lightthat it throws on the thought of the Gibbon In accounting for the spread of Christianity, time. its zeal inherited from the Jews, its teaching reasons as gave its strictmorality, of immortality, its claim to miraculous gifts, A
historian would organization.No modern far as they go. as probablyobjectto any of these explanations, its efficient
and
would
What
is their absolute
him
impress
of compre
want
whether Christian or other, religion, makes and of the forces by which religion conquests. But that critics in the was an ignorance equallyshared by Gibbon's usual orthodox eighteenth century. The explanationhad had been so convinced of the truth been that the first disciples of the Gospel by miracles that they were willingto hazard their lives in its behalf. The excitement roused by Gibbon's rather hension
of the nature
of
that
superficial explanationwas for directlysupernatural, permanent
result
less
causes,
spread of Christianity.Its
the
aid, with other influences,toward
to
was
suppliedother
it
one
the
of the Scripturesand Christian origins, historical investigation of the nineteenth century. which was to be so largelythe work
generalattitude
The
of tionalizing
orthodox
even
is best illustrated in the
eighteenthcentury Paley (1743-1805).
close of the
at the
work
period,and also the generalra in England, Christian presentation
of the
of William
of of Christianity written
with
Natural
and
1794
remarkable
of
clearness
of the Evidences Theology of 1802 were of style and cogency
His
View
reasoning,and long enjoyed high popularity.From he argues, we of the human an
infer
a
maker,
so
God
action and "the That
revealed
proof of revelation
a
has
it to
future
the wonderful
adaptation
the
made
men.
state
His The
will the rule of human
was
suffered for the miracles."
of revelation is
purpose
of rewards
and
Christ, and
its
given by in the miracles by to the first disciples was panied. "They who acted and suffered and
watch,
hand, the muscles, we infer arguments, therefore,prove the
body, the eye, almighty Designer. These
existence of God.
from
a
punishments." convincing force
which in the
it was cause
accom
acted
Paley then proceeds to defini-
EARLY
494
ENGLISH
ARIANISM
"Virtue
tion.
is the doing good to mankind, in obedience to the will of God, and for the sake of everlasting happiness." This
estimate of virtue is char prudentialand self-regarding acteristic of Paley'sage, as were his emphases on the evidential character the
of miracles
divine existence
and
on
which
a
mechanical
IV.
of
the
theory of evolution has since it is pleasantto note that Paley's
largelyrobbed of force. Yet thought of "doing good to mankind" oppositionto human slavery. SECTION
demonstration
ENGLISH
led him
to
strenuous
UNITARIANISM
It has
alreadybeen pointedout that on the Continent antiTrinitarian views were representedby some Anabaptists(ante, and Socinians the by (ante,pp. 451-453). Both types p. 369) penetratedinto England. Under Elizabeth "Arian Baptists" from
the Netherlands
Bartholomew have
the
burned
burned
were
Legate
and
Edward
distinction in
for their faith.
1612
With
The
ment.
became
Under
of similar last
I
views,
Englishmen
of the civil-war
evident.
more
James
In John
graduate, Socinianism had a who suffered much representative, imprison
(1615-1662), learned
more
Wightman, of being the
the controversies
period anti-Trinitarian views Biddle
in 1575.
Oxford
an
great Puritan
poet, John
Milton
(1608-1674), in
clined to Arianism was
in his later years. Biddle's chief convert Firmin layman, who fur (1632-1697),a London
Thomas
thered the publication of anti-Trinitarian tracts. With the dawn of the eighteenthcentury, with its rational
izingimpulsesboth clination to
in orthodox
and
and Deistic circles,
its in
in
of religion, these antimorality the essence Trinitarian tendencies were greatlystrengthened. The Pres byterian minister Thomas Emlyn (1663-1741) published his widely read Inquiry into the ScriptureAccount of Jesus Christ in 1702.
In
see
1712
Samuel
Clarke
James, Westminster,and deemed
(1675-1729),
the most
rector
of
St..
of the philosophical
Anglican clergy,publishedhis ScriptureDoctrine of the Trinity, in which he sought to demonstrate Arian views by a painstaking examination
of the New
Testament.
It was,
however,
among
the
the Presbyteriansand General Bap Dissenters,especially the largestfollowing. tists,that anti-Trinitarian views won In
1717
Joseph Hallet
and
James
minisPeirce,Presbyterian
UNITARIANISM
ENGLISH
495
The in Exeter, adopted Arianism. movement spread Dissenters, widely. The most learned of eighteenth-century
ters
Lardner
Nathaniel
its representative.On
(1684-1768),was
the Particular
and whole, the Congregationalists
Baptistswere
in numbers affected,and in consequence grew who at century went on, surpassingthe Presbyterians, little
been the
had
Act
of the Toleration
most
formist body. Arianism changed to Socinianism.
A
the the
as
the time
Non-Con
numerous
further
impulse was
when a clergyman of the establishment, given to the movement Theophilus Lindsey (1723-1808), who was already a Socinian, and hundred circulated a petitionwhich received some two signatures fifty askingthat clergymen be relieved from subscrip tion to the Thirty-nineArticles,and pledge their fidelity to in 1772 refused to receive the Scripturesalone. Parliament
it. In the
1773
next
Lindsey withdrew organized
year
Closely associated with
a
the establishment, and in London. Unitarian Church from
1804), a Dissentingclergyman, an of oxygen,
coverer
French
(1733Joseph Priestley
Lindsey was sympathizer
a
Revolutions, who
chemist, the dis
eminent with
American
the
spent the last ten
years
and
of his life
the Toleration Pennsylvania. Parliament in 1779 amended Act by substituting professionof faith in the Scripturesfor the required acceptance of the doctrinal part of the Thirtyall penal acts againstdeniers of the and removed nine Articles, Trinity in 1813. This older English Unitarianism was formal and clear in its rejection of "creeds of human intellectual, composition,"and insistence on salvation by character. It often intellectually was able, but had little^influence on pop ular religious life. Its effect in producing a similar move in New ment considerable,though that grew England was also out of the generalrationalizing tendencies of the eighteenth in
century, and
was
on
the whole
less dryly intellectual than
its
counterpart in England. SECTION
The been the
V.
development of noted
a
PIETISM
IN
GERMANY
scholastic Lutheranism
has
already
Though nominallybased on fixed dogmatic interpreta a practically
(ante,pp. 441-444).
it was Scriptures, tion, rigid,exact,
and
demanding
intellectual
conformity.
SCHOLASTIC
496
Emphasis
was
laid
constitutingthe
on
LUTHERANISM doctrine and
pure
respects the field had grown
some
Catholicism,for if Catholicism belief and
sacraments,
which
dogmatic tionship between taught had been
of the
sufficient elements
it also
Lutheranism the
narrower
the
sacraments,
Christian than
as
life. In
that of Roman
equallydogmatic regarding laid an emphasis on good works, rejected. For that vital rela was
and
believer
God
which
Luther
had
largelya faith which con The sisted in the acceptance of a dogmatic whole. layman's the he was role was which largelypassive,to accept dogmas from the pulpit, assured were pure, to listen to their exposition and share in the ordinances of the to partake of the sacraments the practicalsum of the Christian life. church, these were Some evidences of a deeper piety,indeed, existed,of which in the hymns of the age are ample proof,and doubtless many dividual examples of real and inward life were to be religious external and dogmatic. found, but the generaltendency was the tendency often,though only partially It was justly,called "dead orthodoxy." Pietism the for tian
was
a
substituted
breach
with
very
these
tendencies,an
assertion of
a vindication primacy of the feelingin Christian experience, the laityof an active share in the upbuildingof the Chris
life,and
the
world.
him
from
the
assertion of
a
have
strict ascetic attitude
toward
been
assignedto it,Anabap Catholic tist influences,Roman mystical piety, the example of the Reformed ecclesiasticallife of Holland or England. The All these may have contributed subject is a difficult one. for Pietism be can something, but so far as a definite cause given it is to be found in the teachingand example of one of the notable most religiousfiguresof the seventeenth century, PhilippJakob Spener. in born on Spener was January 13, 1635, in Rappoltsweiler, ascetic mystic, The True Christianity of the German Alsace. Johann Arndt (1555-1621) roused him, and its impressions of the edificatory were deepened by translations of some His student years in Strasstreatises of the English Puritans. there and he saw burg familiarized him with Biblical exegesis, and a care in catechetical instruction far church a discipline beyond what was customary in most Lutheran circles. Further studies in Geneva deepened these impressionswithout weaning Many
sources
Lutheranism.
In 1666
he became
chief pastor in the
SPENER'S
AIMS
AND
WORK
497
He felt the need city of Frankfort. but found himself hindered,because all of church discipline, of the city government. Under authoritywas yi the hands such leadership was as permitted him, catechetical instruction speedilyimproved. His first considerable innovation occurred of house a littlegroup in 1670, "when he gathered in his own like-minded people for Bible reading,prayer, and the discus the whole aiming at the deepen sion of the Sunday sermons life. Of these circles, to which ing of the individual spiritual the name was given (hence Pietism),the first collegia pietatis that in Spener'shome. was Christian life Spener These plans for cultivating a warmer
commercial
prosperous
"
put forth in his Pia
desideria of 1675.
The
chief evils of the
the bad example picturedas governmental interference, of the clergy,the controversial of the unworthy lives of some and and the drunkenness,immorality, of theology, interpretation of reform he proposed of the laity. As measures self-seeking the gatheringwithin the various congregationsof circles ecclesiolcein ecclesia for Bible reading;and since all believers which had been practically contention are priests a Lutheran and watch helpfulness.Christianity forgotten for mutual is far more intellectual knowledge. Controversy an a life than is unprofitable.Better trainingfor the clergy is desirable. and An experimentalknowledge of religion, a befittinglife A new of them. should be demanded type of preachingshould be practised, designed to build up the Christian life of the hearers,not primarilycontroversial or exhibitoryof the argu mentative abilities of the preacher. That only is genuine Chris tianitywhich shows itself in the life. Its normal beginningis birth. a spiritual transformation,a conscious new Spener also certain ascetic tendencies,like the English Puritans, showed in food, drink, and dress,and rejecting moderation inculcating time
he
"
"
"
"
the
ism
theatre,dances, and cards,which
regarded
as
bitter
"indifferent
contemporary
Lutheran-
things." Spener's efforts
en
contro opposition,and aroused enormous of heresy. Falsely so, as indicating accused He was versy. standards ; but rightly any intentional departurefrom Lutheran in the sense that his spiritand ideals were so totallyunlike those of contemporary Lutheran orthodoxy. His work involved from the creeds and theological to the Scriptures a going back of dogmatism. Spener'sfeeling interpretations that, if "the
countered
AND
SPENER
498
heart"
differences of right,
was
FRANCKE intellectual interpretation were
not relatively merely opposed to the Lu unimportant, was theran emphasis on destructive of it. "pure doctrine,"it was The two pointsof view were mutually exclusive. Spener un with the Bible, and doubtedly greatlypopularizedfamiliarity the authorityof confessional standards, as giving undermined in final logical form what the Scriptures had to teach. A result the way for,rather than to of this Biblical study was to prepare of the nature and historyof the Scrip effect,an investigation themselves. tures Spener greatlyimproved the religiousin of introducinga struction of youth, and achieved his purpose fed,and warmer more strenuous, Biblically popularChristian life. in spiteof his pro of Spener'sdisciples, At Frankfort some from church worship and the sacraments. tests, withdrew Spener'smeetings consequentlymet with police opposition, and he was glad,in 1686, to accept a call to Dresden as court preacher.
Meanwhile, the Pietist movement
sityof Leipzig. In Francke
Hermann there
Its members
study
of the
experiencedwhat
in
2031.
A
But
in 1687
birth regarded as a divine new John on Liineburg and engaged in writinga sermon couple of months' stay with Spener,in Dresden, com
Francke while
Scriptures.
and scientific,
its method at first instructors,
were
the approval of the universityauthorities.
it had
he
In pleted his acceptance of Pietism. in Leipzig,lecturingto the students with great following. Leipzigwas soon moil.
instructors, August founded associates,
one
the
the Univer
spreadto
of the younger (1663-1727), and a few 1686
for collegiumphilobiblicum
a
had
An
electoral edict
soon
forbad
Francke
1689 and
to
in the
the
back
was
townspeople
good deal meeting of
of tur
a
citizens
Undoubtedly Francke's lectures led some criticalat students to neglectother studies and to assume a the leadershipof the Leipzigprofessorof the titude. Under Benedict ology,Johann Carpzov (1639-1699),the university of work. authorities limited Francke's one Carpzov became the most unwearied of Spener'sopponents. Francke's position in
"
conventicles."
became a
so
uncomfortable
call to Erfurt
Meanwhile
as
that he
was
glad,in 1690,
accept
"deacon."
Spener's path in Dresden
was
not
clergylooked upon him as a stranger; the universities, Leipzigand Wittenberg,jopposedhim.
Saxon
to
easy. two
His
The Saxon meet-
IN
FRANCKE
500 and
MISSIONS
HALLE.
his combination
experiential ; and
parish practicewas highly helpfulfor he began a school for poor children,and
his students. him
in such
that
he
established
To
these, in 1697, he added
in
1696
Pcedagogium. These
educational
managed in
were
sand
he established hundred
and
the
from
of spirit
children
Latin
a
school.
renowned, and all
At
his death
thou
two
instruction.
under
were
numbers
fittingschool, the
soon
Pietism.
that
In
1698
a Orphan House, which numbered All these he died. thirty-fourinmates when
of which
all parts of
in
continued
have
without
maintained
were
were
1695
his famous
foundations,most were begun almost lieved
his famous
foundations
hundred
two
offered to
was
outside
In
its fame
such
children from
were
classroom and
of the
and
means,
to
answer
the
present,
sincerelybe
Francke
in
Gifts flowed
prayer.
doubting Francke'
Without
Germany.
to
s
faith,
just to note that he understood the art of honorable of nobles who and of enlisting friends. The number publicity, One were was reallyremarkable. patrons of his foundations it is but
further
foundation
may
be
called almost
his
That
own.
was
Institute,established in 1710 by his friend,Karl Canstein (1667-1719), for the publi Hildebrand, Freiherr von Bible
the
cation
of the
form.
The
One
their circulation in
Scripturesand
institute has done
notable
feature
a
of these
noble
to the
work
activities in Halle
inexpensive present day. was
the zeal
for missions there
aroused.
erallystillfailed
Francke recognizethe missionaryobligation,
and
to
his associates
were
At
a
time
to it.
awake
when
When
Protestants
Frederick IV
gen
(1699-
1730),of Denmark, wished to send the first Protestant mission in 1706 in Tranquethem aries to India, in 1705, establishing them he found bar, then belonging to Denmark, among in Halle, Bartholomaus Francke's students Ziegenbalg and
eighteenthcentury not less sixtyforeignmissionaries went forth from the University
Heinrich than
Pliitchau.
During
the
the most its associated foundations, of whom Christian Friedrich Schwartz famous (1726-1798), who was labored,from 1750 to his death, in India. CertainlyFrancke's of Halle
name
and
deserves
high placeon
the roll of
missionaryleadership.
By the time of Francke's death, in 1727, Pietism had passed its high-watermark. further leaders equal in It produced no abilityto Spener many,
and
Francke.
notablyin Wiirttemberg.
It continued A
to
spread in
statisticalestimate
Ger
is diffi-
OF
RESULTS
PIETISM
501
cult,as Pietists did not separate from the Lutheran Churches ; but Pietism undoubtedly affected Germany very widely and vital type of piety. It greatlyim for good. It fostereda more and the qualityof the ministry,preaching, proved the spiritual It increased the share of the Christian trainingof the young. It greatlyaugmented familiarity laityin the lifeof the church. with the Bible, and the devotional study of the Scriptures. shadows
Its
its insistence
were
on
conscious
a
conversion
of entrance into through struggleas the only normal method the world, the kingdom of God, its ascetic attitude toward the illustrated in Francke's severe repressionof play among children in his foundations, its censorious judgments on those Pietists as irreligious, and its neglectof the in who not were tellectual elements in religion.It produced very few intellec tual leaders. But, on the whole, the judgment on Pietism must
predominantlyfavorable.
be
life of religious
for the One made
Protestant
fruit of Pietism deserves
radical of the
service of great value
a
Germany.
notice in
of interpretation
the
to
most
It did
church
a
contribution of value
historyby
of the
one
Pietists,Gottfried Arnold
(1666-1714), a professorin Giessen, and
Spener, for a short time a thenceforward livingin comparative retirement in Quedlinburg. church Since the Reformation historyhad been polemic and had regarded all thinkers as to be rejectedwhom the church Kirchen of their own und age rejected. In his Unparteiische friend of
Ketzer-Historie of 1699 and is to be deemed is to be
He
read much
had
ception. He
judged
on
a
fruitful
conclusion than
with
forward
As
a
new
his
place in
the
deemed
so
age
merits, and
own
their
own
No
the
even
con man
him.
views of
historyof Christian
is
who has conceived always a danger to a man rather to the idea, Arnold pushed his interpretation that the
there
had
orthodox.
been Yet
truth
more
he
gave
with
to
the heretics
church
historya
step of decided importance.
SECTION
One
his
introduced
of the ancient heretics.
heretic because
a
so-called heretics have
thought.
Arnold
1700
of the
though
VI.
most
far from
ZINZENDORF
notable
MORAVIANISM
results of the Pietistic awakening,
approved by
reconstitution of the Moravian
AND
the
Pietists in
general,was
Brethren, under
the
the
leadership
ZINZENDORF'S
502
Zinzendorf.
Nicolaus
EARLY
LIFE
Ludwig, Graf
Zinzendorf,was Dresden, on May was a high electoral court and a friend of Spener. officialof the Saxon Zinzendorf's father died shortly after his son's birth,the mother married again,and the boy was brought up, rather by his grandmother, the Pietistic solitaryand introspective, Gersdorff. Even Katherine von marked as a boy he was by the two traits which always characterized his religious life of
in
born
von
His
26, 1700.
father
"
passionatepersonal devotion
and
Christ
to
the
conviction
is only known Christ, at least in Christianity. as the time he was ten tillhis seventeenth year he studied
that God From
in Francke's
Poedagogium in Halle. Its rigorrepelledhim, Francke's zeal, and his but he gradually came to appreciate was religiousnature quickened in 1715 in connection with his firstcommunion. The insistence of his familythat he should 1716 to Wittenberg from enter public employment sent him to 1719 to study law. Though a decided Pietist,his experi than before in Wittenberg gave him a kindlier feeling ences toward
orthodox
In
Lutheranism.
and
1719
1720
he took
a
long journey to Holland and France, forming the acquaintance and making his religious of many distinguished principles men, clearly,though tactfully,evident. On his return journey through Castell he fellin love with his cousin,but he thought Graf
Heinrich
of Reuss,
XXIX,
some
for him
work
to
thereby had indi ultimatelymarried, in
Heinrich's
him
sympathetic wife.
The
most
in 1721.
his friends in
Berthelsdorf,about
Yet
he
to
Dresden, and
enter
the
more
even
made
the electoral
primarilyinterested
was
in "heart-religion,"
the cultivating
among
Dorothea, who
of his relatives led him
wishes
service in Dresden in
He
sister,Erdmute
1722, Graf a
do.
suitor,and
God
believingthat resignedhis pretensions, cated
favored
more
a
Pietistic sense, on
his estate
of
Dresden, where as friend,Johann Andreas
seventy miles east
of
patron he appointedhis like-minded Rothe, to the pastorate. Here in wholly unlooked-for fashion his life-work The
was
old Hussite
to meet
church
him. of Bohemia
had
evil days. long maintained
fallen
on
refugein Poland, where it had its episcopalconstitution,but findingthe difficultiesincreas ing, had preserved it by persuadingFrederick Ill's Calvinistic court preacher in Berlin,Daniel Ernst Jablonski,of the Part had found
Polish Hussite ordination
in bishopric
War
Years'
Thirty
The
1699.
had
and
Bohemia
persistedin
of the
consequences
Protestantism
Bohemian
to
it had
structive,and
to accept training,
by ancestry and
church the
to
503
MORAVIANS
THE
de
been
neigh
the
and under only in concealment boring province of Moravia persecution.As early as 1722 the German-speaking Mora of vians began to seek a refugein Saxony under the leadership
Zinzendorf allowed them to the carpenter, Christian David. found a villageon his Berthelsdorf estate, which they named
Herrnhut, and Zinzendorf sides tual
where
at first
they
Zinzendorf state
and Rothe
a
first. The
refugees
separate church, while that of
in incorporation
was
immigrantsbe began their spiri
he
allowingthem a refuge,but by 1727 hard at leadership.The task was was
numbers.
to these
paid little attention
divided,their aim
were
collected in considerable
the Saxon
Lutheran
specialadditional meetings On the other hand, collegia pietatis.
church, though with
as
in
localSpener's plan of customs permitted an organizedvillageto give itselfa secular these customs its own rules. Under organizationand make Herrnhut
"elders"
chose
for
its secular direction in
Zinzendorf,as lord of the estate, had of
of
a
certain indefinite right
and all this was sealed by leadership, in Berthelsdorf such spiritual power
Out
of these institutions for the
service
communion
a
August 13, 1727,
on
that of the rebirth
reckoned
has generallybeen of the Moravian Church. that that date
1727.
of leadership
the
of village
spiritualorganization soon the of four developed from An executive committee grew. and by 1730 was regarded as exercisingministerial eldership, functions. A generaleldershipwas formed, of which the first
Herrnhut, originallysecular, a
holder, in Herrnhut to
advance
monasticism
1733,
was
societysoon His
cause
without
Dober.
Leonhard
seemed at home vows
or
a
and
body
Zinzendorf
To
of soldiers of
abroad
"
celibacy,but
a
new
bound
the
Christ,
Protestant to
their
and the men by daily prayer and worship. The young women were separatedfrom ordinaryfamilylifeby 1728, young and each class placed under strict superintendence.Children after the manner from their parents were brought up away of the Halle Orphan House. The community even attempted ideal was that of a to regulatechoices in marriage. The community separate from the world, yet ready to send forces Lord
"
MORAVIAN
504
MISSIONS
anywhere for Christ's kingdom. Yet two tendencies this development. The Moravian confused would element gladlyhave seen the establishment of a separate denomination, work
to
full revival of the
a
ancient
Moravian
Church.
Zinzendorf
clung firmly to the Pietistic idea of an ecclesiola in ecclesia. He would state church, only keep them part of the Lutheran within it,where a warmer hearta special life, a spiritual group should be fostered. The movement much met religion," soon Lutherans, but from opposition,not merely from orthodox of Herrnhut's and as Pietists,both by reason peculiarities, tendencies slowlywon separatist.On the whole, the separatist "
the upper hand. The Moravian
anywhere in the service of Christ soon gave a noble missionarydevelopment to the move which lost. No Protestant it has never ment body had been awake and none is so consecrated to the duty of missions, so to this service in proportionto its numbers to the present day. A journey to Copenhagen to attend the coronation of Chris tian VI (1730-1746) of Denmark brought Zinzendorf into contact
go
natives of the Danish
West
Zinzendorf
Herrnhut
with
Greenland.
to willingness
sionary enthusiasm. Nitschmann began Christian David
and
returned
As a
a
to
India Islands and
result Leonhard
mission
to
aflame Dober
the West
Indies in 1733.
others to Greenland
later
a considerable party, led (1704-1792), began labors in
with and
of
mis
David
in 1732, and Two
years
Gottlieb
by August Spangenberg For this Georgia. outreaching work Nitschmann of the mod first ordained the a bishop was Moravian succession ern by Jablonski in 1735. "
"
Meanwhile
Zinzendorf
's relations with the Saxon
government
becoming strained. The Austrian authorities complained, without ground, that he was enticingtheir subjects. Ecclesi astical complaints were 20, 1736, he renewed, and on March found opportunity to banished from Saxony. Zinzendorf was his work in Ronneburg in western on Germany and in carry the Baltic provinces. In 1737 he was ordained bishop by he journeyed to the West Jablonski in Berlin. In 1738-1739 were
in London, where Moravian work India Islands ; in 1741 he was had been several years in progress. By December, 1741, Zin zendorf
was
in New
York, and
tlement
which
effect in
Pennsylvania,Bethlehem
Moravians
Christmas
on
from
Georgia "
a
town
he named were
the set
beginning
to
destined to become
MORAVIAN
THE
headquarters of the
American
the
sojournin toward
a
CHURCH
America
was
Zinzendorf
movement.
full of activities. He
"of all the scattered German
union
505
made
s
great efforts
Protestant
forces
in Pennsylvania,he began missions to the Indians, he organ and plantedschools. ized seven or eightMoravian congregations
superintendenceof Peter sailed for Europe, and In January, 1743, Zinzendorf Bohler. in December, 1744, Spangenberg was put in charge of all the Indian mission work American as bishop. Its most famous the David Zeisberger(1721-1808), who worked among ary was of Georgia from Creeks 1740, and from 1743 to his death in labor for the Iroquois. established under
Itineracywas
Herrnhut
thus became
the
hive of
a
missionaryactivity.Mis
begun in Surinam, Guiana, Egypt, and South Africa. mission In 1771, after repeated attempts, a permanent was The names of its earlymission fields established in Labrador. effort. They were characteristic of Moravian show one pre and hard places, devotion, patience requiringpeculiar vailingly and this trait characterizes Moravian missionarylabors to the sions
were
present. Meanwhile, Moravianism
in was
spiteof
dislike of separatism, In 1742 it fullya church.
Zinzendorf's
becoming
more
by the government. By 1745 the Church Moravian was thoroughly organized with bishops, elders,and deacons, though its government was, and stillis, Presbyterianthan Episcopal. The English Parliament more by a law of 1749 recognizedit as "an ancient Protestant Epis did not give up his theory of Yet Zinzendorf copal Church." was
an
so
recognizedin Prussia
ecclesiola in ecclesia.
ties resulted
with Negotiations
in his recall from
the Saxon
authori
in 1747, the accep the Moravian body the
banishment
Augsburg Confession by in 1749 as a portionof the Saxon next year, and its recognition state church, with its own specialservices. By this time Mora vianism was developing a liturgyof much beauty and a hymnody of largefulness. of the During the time of his banishment Zinzendorf and some and cultural peculiar Moravians developed certain theological criticism. itiesthat were the source His emphasis of deserved relation to Christ as the heart of religion took on sometimes on sentimental a expressionin word and hymn. Since Christ, to his thinking, the Creator, our relation to God the Father is was
tance
of the
MORAVIAN
506
of Christ.
the Father
to
as
CHARACTERISTICS Since the Holy Spiriteffects the
birth,the designation"Mother"
new
Zinzendorf
ate.
always
brought Christian in a way that wounds
made
much
of the
at
was
His
that of Adam. become
tians must God
led to much
were
at the
as
Zinzendorf
s
His
sentimental. Zinzen
side of Christ as insistence that Chris the
littlechildren to enter
the
kingdom
puerilityof expression. These
heightof their manifestation
with
side.
wounded
from
appropri Christ,
of sufferings
fanciful and
once
this the case with Peculiarlywas dorf picturedthe church as drawn from
to him
experience into connection
and
Eve
seemed
between
of
peculiarities
1747 and
1749,
This period they corrected themselves. large measure themselves "the sifting called by the Moravians time." was Zinzendorf himself ultimatelylargelyturned away from them. Yet, at the most, they must be regarded as but blemishes on who could say of his devotion to Christ, the character of one in
but
as
few
"I have
can:
one
Zinzendorf 's life from
1749
property had
His
England.
passion. It
Moravians, and he now debts were assumed, as
is He."
1755
to
been
spent unstintedlyfor the
himself
found
spent mostly in
was
almost
bankrupt. His was by the Moravian body, and fitting, graduallydischarged. This financial need led to a growth in constitutional development. A collegiate Moravian director became board of control, ate was established,which soon a affairs were superintended,and the taxes by which Moravian led to their representa soon paid by the several congregations tion in a generalsynod, meeting at regularintervals. Zinzendorf s last few years were spent chieflyin pastoral activities. His strengthhad been lavishlyspent, and he was On May 9, 1760, he died bereaved of his wife and only son. in Herrnhut.
to
Church, which
Moravian
The
and
renew
made
no
was inspire,
serious breach.
Zinzendorf
had
America
to
Herrnhut
It
was
much
fortunate,however, that its
in 1762, and
his
called back
was
continued
death, thirtyyears later. Not a man thusiasm like Zinzendorf, he wras marked to
so
firmlygrounded, so that his death
practicalleadershipfell to Spangenberg, who from
done
his
guidance of genius and en by equal devotion,
his great practical sense, and high organizingabilities. Under strengthened and grew; strong, wise guidance Moravianism its criticised peculiarities were
generallydiscarded.
His work
THE
508
William
Law
not
was
(ante,p. 488) but of 1728
RELIGIOUS
only
SOCIETIES a
vigorousopponent
his Serious Call to influenced
a
Devout
John
and
of Deism
Holy Life
and
remains one Wesley, of the monuments of English hortatoryliterature, though it is seldom read. The Isaac to be feared now Congregationalist, Watts (1674-1748), long since forgottenas a theologian,has well been called "the founder of modern English hymnody." His Hymns of 1707 and The Psalms of David, Imitated in the Testament of 1719 broke down the prej Language of the New udice both sides of the Atlantic then existingin nonon prelatical English-speakingcircles against the use of all but rhymed passages of Scripture. They express a deep and vital piety. Some
profoundly
combined
efforts of
were significance
being made
for
life. Such were the "societies," the earliest religious of which formed in London was men by a group of young about 1678, for prayer, reading the Scriptures, the cultivation of a religious life, frequentcommunion, aid to the poor, soldiers, and prisoners, and encouragement of preaching. They sailors, spread rapidly. By 1700 there were nearly a hundred in Lon don alone,and they were to be found in many parts of England in Ireland. and even One of these societies was formed by John Wesley's father, Samuel Wesley, in Ep worth in 1702. In many they resembled Spener'scollegia (ante, pietatis ways but had further them. no they Spener to They were p. 497), of the estab composed almost exclusivelyof communicants lishment. as Many of the clergylooked upon the movement a
warmer
said fanatical,and after 1710 it measurably declined,though the "societies" were to continue and be of importance in the beginningsof Method
"enthusiastic,"or
ism.
These
as
would
"societies"
gave
now
be
the pattern to
a
more
outreach-
ing work, initiated by Thomas Bray (1656-1730). Bray was of appointed commissary Henry Compton, bishop of London (1675-1713), in Maryland in 1696, and in 1699 and 1700 was in that colony strengtheningAnglican churches. Impressed with the need of Bibles,libraries, and religious he literature, founded the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, on March Convocation 8, 1699. supported it, and led to the foundation June 27, 1701, of the Societyfor the Propagation on of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which to develop into a was great missionarysociety. Both have carried on their work in
THE to the
and to the work in NeW
colonies
509
Anglican strictly of the latter-named the establishment of Epis England and its development in the American
measure increasing
copacy
WESLEYS
present. Both
were
due. primarily
were
Yet these efforts
at best local and
influ in their^ partial in spiritual England was
were
of the people of lethargy, yet blindly conscious of sin and convinced of the reward and retribution. Emotions of loyalty realityof 'future The
ence.
mass
Christ, of salvation through Him,
to
of
present transform
a
It needed the appealof vivid been aroused. directed to conviction of the heart rather earnestness spiritual
ing faith had
not
"
than
to
That
a
considerations of prudence or cold logical argument. in transformation effected was England, the profound
results of which
primarilythe
speaking lands, was "
and
brothers John labors
whose
to
were
debt
work
of three
put those lands permanentlyinto
Their father,Samuel
of Non-Conformist
were
been among
ejectedclergy
the
Wesley (1662-1735),had
ferred the ministryof the establishment,and was, his death, rector of the rough country parishof of earnest
he was disposition, religious
tical,a writer of the book woman
a
devoted
Their
of Job.
Anglican. of perhaps more
of nineteen and
a
brood
John
John
Wesley
took much
if were
was
on
unprac
commentary her husband
either parent, In a household
eight died in infancy,hard work perforcethe rule. Of this large
the fifteenth and born
from
the mother.
force from
children,even was
a
A
(Annesley),was
mother, Susanna
sons
pre
1695 to
Epworth.
strengthof character, like
The
stringenteconomy
from
somewhat
Lifeof Christ in Verse and of
of remarkable
a
but
the
"
have
had grandfathers
Both
of 1662.
on
men
make
parents of the Wesley brothers
ancestry.
man
English-
them.
to
The
all
to
Wesley and George WhitefieldEngland and America vastlydiffer
Charles
and spiritually,
ent
in beneficent streams
flowed
June
Charles the
eighteenth.
17, 1703, Charles
on
Decem
Both were from the burn saved with difficulty ber 18, 1707. ing rectory in 1709, an event that made an ineffaceable impres of John, who thenceforth regardedhimself sion on the mind ua brand snatched from the burning." In 1714 as literally John the
entered the Charterhouse Westminster
School
guished themselves
for
two
School, in London, and Charles years
later.
scholarship.In
Both 1720
boys John
distin
entered
METHODIST
THE
510
Christ Church
after,and that, in 1726, he was become
such
John's
was
chosen
a
Charles
followed him
intellectual attainment
Fellow
for that honor
candidate
a
whither
College,Oxford,
six years
WHITEFIELD
CLUBS.
of Lincoln
John
must
be
College. To in holy orders,
and therefore, on September 25, 1725, he was ordained a deacon. his ordination the spiritual With strugglesbegan which were to last tillhis
conversion,in 1738, and perhaps in a
beyond
sense
that time. From
1726
to
1729
father's assistant.
John
On
Wesley was for the September 22, 1728, he
part his
most
ordained
was
priest. During his absence from Oxford, in the springof 1729, Charles Wesley and two fellow students,Robert Kirkham and William Morgan, formed littleclub,primarilyfor a in their studies,but which soon engaged in reading progress On his return to helpfulbooks and frequent communion. Oxford in November, 1729, John Wesley became the leader of a
the group,
which
soon
attracted
other
to realize William
guidance it sought
students.
Law's
Under
ideals of
a
his
conse
Morgan's influence it began visitation of the prisonersin the Oxford jailin August, 1730. The members fasted. Their ideals were derided high-churchly. They were called the "Holy Club/' and by the university.They were that stuck, the nickname student hit upon a finallysome in the had been in currency "Methodists" though the name far as what previous century. They were yet from very stilla company Methodism to be. was They were painfully souls. As bent on working out the salvation of their own resembled the Anglo-Catholic then were, matters they more crated life. Under
"
of the nineteenth
movement
century than the Methodism
of
history. An
Whitefield. of
an
club,earlyin 1735, was George in Gloucester on December the 16, 1714, son
important accession Born
in poverty, enteringOxford illnessin the springof 1735 brought a crisis
he inn-keeper,
in 1733.
A
severe
to the
had
grown
up
in his religious from which he emerged in joyous experience, with God. In June, 1736, Whitefield consciousness of peace ordination,and at once, young sought and received episcopal as a preacher. No career began his marvellous such pulpit Anglo-Saxon of the eighteenth century showed in A man absolutelywithout denominational feeling, power. such feelings ready an were usuallyintense,he was age when as
he
was,
GEORGIA
IN
WESLEYS
THE
WHITEFIELD.
511
preachanywhere,and in any pulpitopen to him. Sometimes unlike of religious censorious as to the genuineness experiences
to
his nature
his own,
in the
was
His self-seeking.
was
message
highestdegree simple and God's
Gospel of
the
un-
forgiving
and grace, and of peace through acceptance of Christ by faith, a consequent life of joyfulservice. His few printedsermons little
give
ing,with part
a
continents
of two
of his active
in
were
as
the expressiveness,
1744
once
to 1748
1740
from
sixth visit was
large
accompanied by
was
the
there witnessed, the "Great less in the middle colonies,
great division of of his work.
and
again on this side 1752; again in 1754
1763
to 1765.
of the
him
saw
in 1751
more
A
In 1738 he ministrywas spent in America. back in America, and his In 1739 he was
his success Awakening"; nor was though there and in New England there was value feelingas to the permanent spiritual years
audiences
before him.
melted
wax
Georgia. preachingin New England in upheaval ever greatest spiritual was
Dramatic, pathetic, appeal
his power. voice of marvellous of
sense
he
In 1769
and came
The
Atlantic,
1755.
His
for his last
preachingtour, and died in Newburyport, Mass., on September He had given himself unstintedlyto the service of 30, 1770. Protestant churches of every the American family. He was no organizer. He left no party to bear his name, but he awak ened thousands. None
Club
of the leaders of the Methodist
was
destined long
influ have much in Oxford, nor did their movement which was then in scholastic and re the university, on ence The death of their father on April25, 1735, whom ebb. ligious to remain
in EpWesley would gladlyhave succeeded, if possible, worth, left the Wesleys less bound to home, and both now gainedemployment as missionaries to the new colonyof Georgia, the settlement of which had been begun by General Oglethorpe, in 1733. they They sailed in October, 1735. On the voyage exercises and efforts for their were unremitting in religious
John
of twentybut in the ship was fellow passengers; a company The six Moravians, headed by Bishop David Nitschmann. of this company cheerful courage had Wesley that the Moravians
yet his. Savannah him
the
From
he met
them
in a
a
trust
he learned much.
storm
convinced
in God
Soon
that after
was
you
know
not
reaching
Spangenberg (ante,pp. 504-506), who
embarrassingquestion: "Do
John
asked
Jesus Christ?"
THE
512
WESLEYS
IN
GEORGIA.
MORAVIANISM
He is the Saviour of the world." "I know Wesley answered: Spangenberg responded : "True, but do you know He has saved you?" The Wesleys' labors in Georgia were strenuous, yet most un successful. Charles Wesley returned home in disgustand ill health
in 1736.
John
continued.
He
showed
his marvellous
abilities by conducting services in German, French, linguistic and Italian. little societyin In May, 1737, he founded a Savannah the warmer for cultivating life. He worked religious
indefatigably, yet He
with littlepeace
of mind
or
punctilioushigh-churchman. He conspicuouscase was that of Sophy Hopkey, was
way
up
He
gave
her and
a
in every
woman
her friends every
believe his intentions earnest, but down clerical celibacy and between
and
A
A
tact.
he
to
encouragement sawed
lacked
a
suitable to be his wife.
to others.
comfort
vein of
see
possible Wesley,
superstition always present in which led him to decide important questionsby the first verse of Scriptureto which he should open, or by drawing lots,led him now of decision as to the marriage. to the latter method The lot fell adverse, and Wesley naturallyaroused the resent and of her relatives. In a pique she of the young ment woman married objectedto her hastilyanother suitor. The husband dis continuance in attendance on Wesley's intimate religious felt that she was cussions. Wesley now not making proper and refused her the sacrament. preparationfor communion, No wonder her friends charged that this was the act of a dis gruntledsuitor. Wesley's influence in Georgia was at an end. He had to leave the colony Suits were started againsthim. back in by stealth. On February 1, 1738, John Wesley was England. As on his outward voyage, he had feared death. In I have a his bitterness of disappointmenthe could only say : fair summer religion."Yet he was a preacherof marked power, mis he had labored unsparingly.He had made a good many lack of Christian not those which show takes, but they were matrimony.
"
consecration.
Fortunatelyfor their distressed state of John Wesley's return both brothers course
with
a
of
mind, within
were
a
in familiar
Moravian, Peter Bohler, delayed in London
week inter till
May on his way to Georgia. Bohler taught a complete selfconversion, and a joy in surrenderingfaith,an instantaneous believing.But though before sailingBohler organized a
CONVERSION
WESLEY'S
JOHN
"society,"later to be known which John Wesley was one
513 of Society,"
the "Fetter-Lane
as
originalmembers, neither his conversion," That experience, brother was as yet at peace. from a serious illness, to Charles Wesley, then suffering came on May. 21, 1738. On Wednesday, May 24, the transforming That evening, as he recorded, he to John. experiencecame to an Anglican "society"in AldersgateStreet, went unwillingly London, and heard Luther's prefaceto the Commentary on "About Romans read. a quarter before nine,while he [Luther] the change which God works in the heart through was describing I felt I did faith in Christ,I felt my heart strangelywarmed. assurance trust in Christ,Christ alone, for salvation; and an mine, and given me, that He had taken away my sins,even was Of the far-reaching from the law of sin and death." saved me be no question. It de of this experiencethere can significance mode of termined thenceforth Wesley's estimate of the normal the lightof all his theothe Christian life. It was entrance on after even measure gradually, logicinsight. Yet it was in some it,and by preachingand observinga similar work in others and with God, that he entered into fullfreedom from by communion fear and completejoy in believing. of the Moravians, who John Wesley determined to know more had helped him thus far. Less than three weeks after his con Zinzendorf He met his way version he was to Germany. on in Marienborn, spent two weeks in Herrnhut, and in Septem It was a happy visit for Wes ber, 1738, was back in London. Yet he was not pleasedwith ley. He saw much to admire. of the
"
all. ence,
felt that Zinzendorf
He
and
that
limitations.
Moravian
Much
as
treated
was
piety was
he owed
not
to the
with too great defer without its subjective
Moravians, Wesley
was
outreach-
active in religious attitude,too littlemystical,too in their wider needs, to be fullya Moravian. ing to men
too
John
and
Charles
offered,findingmany
Wesley
now
pulpitsclosed
preached as to
opportunities
their "enthusiasm," and
speaking chieflyin the "societies" in and about London. Early in 1739 Whitefield was developinga great work in Bris tol,and there on February 17 he began preachingin the open entered into friendly He now to the coal miners of Kingswood. Harris (1714-1773), who had been work ing with great success, since 1736, as a lay preacher in Wales. invited John Wesley to Bristol. Wesley hesiWhitefield now relations with
Howel
METHODISM
514
ORGANIZED
but the opportunity to proclaim field-preaching; and on April2 he began the Gospel to the needy was irresistible, thenceforth to be his practicefor more in Bristol what was than fiftyyears, as long as strengthpermitted. Charles Wes followed his example. While without Whitefield's ley soon John Wesley was dramatic power, a preacher with few equals in popular effectiveness earnest, practical, fearless. Thence forward he was to tour England, Scotland,and Ireland. At of i n the in his tacked, especially early part ministry, peril could mob daunt him, or interruption from no violence, danger his preaching, Under could check him. under that of Whiteas exhibitions of bodily excitement fre field,remarkable were cried out, fainted,were and women torn with quent. Men To the working convulsions. both preachers these seemed of the Spiritof God, or the visible resistance of the devil. ex They are the frequent accompaniments of great religious citement among the ignorant and uncontrolled,and the dis favor with which they were regarded accounts for much of the which these preachersencountered from the regular opposition clergy. John Wesley'sgifts an as organizerwere pre-eminent. Yet the creation of Methodism was a gradualwork an adaptation tated about
"
"
of
to
means
circumstances.
In Bristol he founded
in 1739
his
"society,"and began the erection of the Late that year he secured in firstchapelthere on May 12, 1739. old "foundery," which became the first chapelthere. London an had also joined in the Thus far,in London, the Methodists Fetter-Lane Society,which Peter Bohler had founded Moravian in 1738 (ante,p. 513). Wesley's ideals were leadinghim away increased when, in This separationwas from Moravianism. from ZinOctober, 1739, PhilippHeinrich Molther, justcome firstreallyMethodist
had doubts zendorf, asserted in Fetter-Lane, that if any man he had no true faith,and should absent himself from the sacra
awaiting in silence tillGod should renew his religious hope. Such teachingfound littlesympathy from Society was activity. The Fetter-Lane Wesley's strenuous and founded divided. a Wesley and his friends withdrew purely Methodist "United Society" in the Foundery, on July of 23, 1740. Wesley continued on friendlyterms with some the Moravians, but thenceforth the movements were indepen ments
and
prayer,
dent of each other.
WESLEY'S
516
THEOLOGY
vain to obtain episcopalordination for them; but would not allow the sacraments to be administered by unordained men. While
the common basis of Wesley stood theologically on Evangelicaldoctrinal tradition and regarded his societies" as of England, two disputesled to considerable part of the Church regardingperfection.Wesley believed controversy. One was it possiblefor a Christian to attain rightrulingmotives love and to his neighbor and that such attainment would to God free from sin. To Wesley's cautious and sober judgment this aim rather than a frequentlycompleted achievement was an have appeared to some of his followers. No however it may man was ever more positivethan he that salvation evidences "
"
"
"
itselfin
a
lifeof active,strenuous
obedience
to the will of God.
A second
disputewas regardingpredestination.Wesley, like the Church of England generally of his time, was Arminian, but he had derived a specialparentalhostility to Calvinism, which seemed to him paralyzing to moral effort. Whitefield was Calvinistic. A hot interchangeof letters took place between Their good personal the two Evangelistsin 1740 and 1741. in large measure. restored relations were Whitefield soon found of Huntingdon a supporter, in 1748, in Selina,countess but to Methodism, (1707-1791), a wealthy widow, a convert far too dominant character to yield to Wesley's insistent a leadership. She would be her own Wesley, and, like Wesley, founded and superintended societies" and chapels the firstin thus beginningthe Brightonin 1761 Lady Huntingdon'sCon She made Whitefield her chaplain. Her "Connec nection." "
"
"
"
tion"
was
Calvinist.
In
1769
the
predestinarian controversy
of intensity.At the "Conference" position.Whitefield 1770, Wesley took a stronglyArminian attacked died that year, but Wesley was by Augustus fiercely of "Rock of Ages." author the Toplady (1740-1778), hymn the Swiss John defended by his devoted disciple, Wesley was William de la Flechere (1729-1785),who had settled in England of in 1760 (Fletcher and accepted a livingin the establishment The effect of work. to do notable Madeley), where he was
broke
out
with renewed
these discussions
was
to
confirm
the
Arminian
character
of
"Lady Huntingdon's Connection" and these Calvinistic Dissenters be regarded as parallel must rather than as hostile movements. Their fundamental spirit of that the same was as Wesley. essentially
Wesleyan
Methodism.
Yet
Methodist
The his
movement
His responsibilities.
After and
brother
from
1771
London.
He
to
his death
shared con
not the iron constitution of John.
on
always
was
Wesley
in his
long had part
Charles
labored
He
itinerated seldom.
Charles
1756
John
enormously.
grew
but Charles had travels,
stant
517
but few intimates who assistants,
friends and
had many
AMERICA
IN
METHODISM
Bristol,
29, 1788, he preachedin
March
conservative
more
in
than
John, and
the hymn-writer, as Anglican. His great service was Chris not merely of Methodism, but of all English-speaking tianity. John's unwise marriage to a widow, Mrs. Mary Vazeille,in 1751, was unhappy. He devoted himself all the all the multitudinous Over more unreservedlyto his work. more
he exercised
of Methodism
concerns
absolute
wise but
a
au
thority. Naturally,as the "societies" grew and preachersmul for authorityto administer the sacraments, tiplied pressure rose ordained men this Wesley resisted long; but episcopally were few, and
the force of events
irresistiblein
the pressure
made
spiteof Wesley's insistence that his
movement
was
within the
establishment. Methodism
was
carried to America
by PhilipEmbury
(1728-
in 1766, and Robert York began work in New Strawbridge(?-1781),who was laboringin Maryland about the time. A vigorousearly preacher was same Captain Thomas
1773), who
(1724-1796) of the British that, in 1771, Wesley sent
Webb work
1816)
a
"
1773
Then grew
land even
most
wise choice.
the first American the storm
came
in
spiteof it.
was
no
United
With
These
States
there
were
promisingwas
Francis
Asbury (1745all lay preachers. By
were was
held in
Philadelphia.
RevolutionaryWar, peace, in 1783, dependence
in no
the
but Methodism
longerdesirable,and pressingthan
more
over
"Conference"
of the
So
army.
the sacramental
England, as in many Episcopal Churches
on
Eng
questionwas regionsof the to which
the
Wesley had tried in vain, in 1780, ordination for clergymen for America from the bishop to procure of London. that bishops and He had long been convinced presbytersin the ancient church were one order. He therefore, as a presbyter,felt empowered to ordain in case of necessity. At Bristol,on September 1, 1784, he and his intimate disci Coke ple, Thomas (1747-1814), like Wesley a presbyter of
Methodists
the
could
resort.
establishment, ordained
Vasey
as
for presbyters
Richard
America
; and
Whatcoat the next
and
day,
Thomas "
assisted
WESLEY'S
518
ministers"
other ordained
by
tendent"
for the of
such.
brother
was
great, and
to
the American
work.
same
the Church His
ORDINATIONS "set" This
Coke
disliked
as
indeed, a
was,
England, though Wesley Charles
"apart did not
the
superin
a
breach
then
see
with it
as
The
necessity blame Wesley.
act.
believer can non-prelatical Regret has often been expressedthat Wesley and the church thus compelled to separate. It would of his affections were solution other than have been of infinite advantage if some division could have been found; but in the existing state of ideals and organization it seems well-nighimpossibleto conceive what adjustment could then have been proposed with success. Under date of September 10, 1784, Wesley notified his action no
Methodists, and also informed
them
that
he
appointed Asbury as well as Coke "superintendents." In December, 1784, Wesley's newly consecrated ministers held a in Baltimore, at which ordained "conference" Asbury was "elder" and "superintendent,"and it was "agreed to form a Methodist By 1788 Coke and Asbury Episcopal Church." called "bishops," and that title thenceforth were supplanted Once "superintendent" in America. begun, Wesley in the had
course
of the next
few
years
ordained
for
ministers
Scotland,
and
finallyEngland. of great importance. Wesley of 1784 was Another event force in Methodism. had been thus far the controlling By a "Deed of Declaration," of February 28, he now provided that those who should preach in the chapels should be such as the and otherwise defined the pow should recognize, "Conference" the self-govern-, of that body. It was a great step toward ers Antigua, Newfoundland,
ment
of Methodism.
Wesley's strengthand activities continued to the end. a
work
On
which
March
had
English lower and largelyto affect America. SECTION
VIII.
almost
2, 1791, he died in London, having done
largelyrevolutionized
of the
unabated
middle
SOME
the
condition religious
clasess,and
EFFECTS
OF
was
even
more
METHODISM
felt beyond the range of its nominal Its influence on the older Non-Conformist adherents. bodies was stimulatingthough very unequal. Their condition The
great Wesleyan revival
was
in the first half of the eighteenthcentury
was
one
of
decay.
EVANGELICALS
THE
519
Wesley and Whitefield at first; but as the revival continued the younger men caught its zeal. This was the Congregationalists, especiallythe case among of all. Their preaching who profited most was quickened,their zeal revived, their numbers rapidly increased. Many acces from those awakened sions came to them to by Methodism irksome. the Methodist whom to was Many came discipline from them parishesof the establishment. By 1800 the Con gregationalists occupied a very different positionin England The Particular Baptists also shared in from that of 1700. Their leaders looked askance
this
at
less extent, since their Calvinism was The Gen to Wesleyan Arminianism. antagonistic
growth,though
intense and
to
eral Baptists,in spiteof a considerable leaven of Socinianism, divided the General also gained by the revival. They were "
BaptistNew on byterians, and
the other
Socinianism
dwindled.
Nor
humanitarian val methods
of 1770,
Connection
the
were
were
was
too
almost
were
dominant
were
zeal
hand,
being Evangelical. The among
unaffected. Their
them.
Pres
Arianism numbers
Their noble moved. Quakers much more manifest, but the revi never
foreignto their spiritto
make
much
im
pression. sympathizers in the establishment. These em men were generallyin agreement with his religious l ife mani phases, on conversion,a confident faith,a religious the other hand, they fested in active work for others. On adopted few of his peculiarmethods, and in generalwere marked Calvinism rather than theologically by an extremely moderate the spiritual Whitefield was by his aggressiveArminianism. father of many. rather never a They were body. They were and to it the name a Evangelicalor lowofuthinking, way church was these Evangelicals were given. Conspicuous among John Newton slave-dealingshipmaster. a (1725-1807), once first Converted, he became one of the most helpfulof preachers, in London. in Olney and then as rector of St. Mary Woolnoth His hymns express his cheerful,confident faith. Thomas Scott in Olney, successor (1747-1821), Newton's best known for his Family Bible with Notes was a commentary of immense Atlantic. both Richard of the sides popularityon Wesley
won
many
"
Cecil (1748-1810) in later life
was
one
of the most
influential
preachersin London. Joseph Milner (1744-1797) made Hull influence through his much an Evangelicalstrongholdand won
EVANGELICALS
EMINENT
520
after his death by History of the Church of Christ,continued he emphasized the development his brother, Isaac, in which of Christian
biography
than
rather
disputes of Christi (1750-1820), was long a professorin in making the tone of that university
anity. Isaac Milner Cambridge and aided which a work largelyEvangelical, by Charles Simeon (1759-1836). in clerical ranks
Several not
Such
century, and
Newton's
continued
was
there in power
instrumental
were
Evangelicalopinions. 1800), the greatest English poet
of
eenth
the
William
was
in the
Cowper
(1731-
of the latter half of the
warm
friend.
spread
In Hannah
eight More
(1745-1833) Evangelicalism had a supporter personally ac and theatrical circles of quainted with the literary, artistic, London, a writer of tracts and stories of unbounded popularity and herself of generous
and
self-denying philanthropy. Zachary
Macaulay (1768-1838),
father
mined
slave trade.
opponent
John
of the
of the
historian,was
a
That
received
evil had
deter
It had been vigorously Wesley's severest condemnation. effective enemy opposed by the Quakers. Its most was one of the most eminent of Evangelicallaymen, William Wilberforce (1759-1833). Wealthy, popular,and a member of Parlia verted" in 1784 through the instrumentality con ment, he was of Isaac Milner. In 1797 he publishedhis Practical View of the Prevailing ReligiousSystem ofProfessedChristians in the Higher and Middle Classes in this Country Contrasted with real Christian ity. It proved one of the most popular of Evangelicaltreatises. In 1787 he began his lifelong battle with slavery,resulting in the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, and of slaveryitself in 1833. throughout the British dominions The Methodist in its philan movement was forward-looking thropic sympathies, and the Evangelicalsshared this trait. Methodism, under Wesley'sleadership, sought to aid its poorer members to provide work, to care for the sick,to financially, furnish schools and cheap reading,and to overcome the coarse and brutalityof the lower classes. ness The awakening of the new of humanitarianism had one spirit of its noblest illustrationsin John Howard (1726-1790),a quiet, religious, country landlord, interested in schools and model cottages, a worshipper in Congregationaland Baptist congre chosen high sheriff of Bedford gations;Howard was in 1773. He was shocked at the moral and physicalfilth inexpressibly "
AGENCIES
RELIGIOUS
NEW
521
their officers supportedby what of the jails,
they could wring separationof proper
no prisoners,not by salaries; dis release for those acquittedtilltheir fees were no prisoners, visited prac charged. Thorough in all that he did, Howard ticallyall the jailsof England, and laid the horrible results
the
from
in 1774.
Parliament
before
did
then
He
similar work
a
for
Much remained to be Scotland, Ireland, and the Continent. done, but he deserves the titleof the "father of prisonreform." devoted
His
last years were to ascertain methods
devotion
Russia.
his life in southern
him
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge had been
The founded a
cost
to
efforts equally self-sacrificing prevent the spread of the plague. His to
great
movement
gave
impulseto the diffusion of Christian literature.
made
that
1799
the
formed
(ante,p. 508), but the revival
in 1699
in London. had
Concern
Wesley
of his chief agencies, one publishingconstantly. In interdenominational Religious Tract Society was Even
been
in 1789, the Methodist earlier,
founded
Book
this side of the Atlantic.
on
The
ReligiousTract Society,which was to be merged with into the American Tract Society,was other local organizations begun in 1812. Pietism had set the example of extensive and cheap publicationof the Bible through Baron Canstein's great New
York
foundation
in Halle, in 1710
(ante,p. 500). In 1804 the Brit
Foreign Bible Societywas founded in London through fol the efforts of Evangelicals. Ireland and Scotland soon lowed; in 1808 the first of a series of local societies was or and out of consolidation the American ganized in Philadelphia, into existence in 1816. Bible Society came By their work the
ish and
present
diffusion of the
enormous
Scriptureshas
been
made
possible. Some as
form of
religious teachingof
and organizedreligion,
catechetical instruction.
children is probably as
old
much
of
the Reformation
Though attempts
age
and
with
unschooled
in the
Sunday (1735-1811),an
Gloucester.
made
were
the first systematicand successful efforts lier,
made
to
even
ear
reach the poor
Christian trainingon a largescale were schools,founded in 1780 by Robert Raikes Evangelicallayman of the establishment,of a
In the absence
of
public education, he sought
to
"R's," and in Christian of paid teachers, on the only day,
give the ignoranttrainingin the three fundamentals
Sunday,
when
by the
means
children
were
free.
Attendance
at church
THE
522
required. Raikes
also
was
SCHOOL
SUNDAY
proprietorof
was
the
Gloucester
of these activities. The published accounts work spread with great rapidity. Wesley and the NonA Societyfor Promoting Sunday favored them. Conformists organized in Schools throughout the British Dominions, was in Philadelphia formed A similar societywas in 1785. London in 1791. was as rapid as Though the growth of the movement it was partly permanent, it was not without clerical opposition, of its noveltyand partlyas a desecration of Sunday. account on The secular instruction rapidlydecreased,and the paid teacher place to the voluntary leader. No Christian agency has gave church life. become more fullypart of normal modern
Journal, which
IX.
SECTION
AWAKENING
MISSIONARY
THE
Catholic missions in the Reforma The development of Roman tion age was rapid and fruitful (pp. 429, 430, 565). Lack of
geographicalcontact with heathen lands and internal problems Dutch efforts. With prevented any equivalent Protestant in begun in Ceylon, Java, and Formosa conquests work was the seventeenth century. The first Englishforeignmissionary the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel organization, in New into existence by act of Parliament England, came the Massachusetts in 1649, in response to the efforts among his Indian Indians of John Eliot (1604-1690). At its expense Bible
and
other
Propagation in 1701 Danish notable
of
printed. Gospel in Foreign
works, the
were
Pietism
(ante,p. 508). German missions
from
1705
missionary career had
504). Quakers in
made
The Parts
Society for
produced
(ante,p. 500).
of the
Moravians
some
organized
was
onward
the
the
Halle-
In 1732
the
began (ante,p.
missionaryefforts.
in Great aroused peoples was Britain by the voyages of discovery in the Pacific,under conducted by Captain James Cook (1728government auspices, Interest
1779), from
non-Christian
1768
to his death.
These
discoveries awakened
the
missionary zeal of William Carey (1761-1834), a shoemaker, then a Baptistpreacher,and who was of to show himself a man remarkable talents as a linguist and a botanist,as well as of The result of his thought unquenchable missionarydevotion. his Enquiry into the Obligation was of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens of 1792. In October of that
THE
524
SECTION
England
X.
had
THE
"ENLIGHTENMENT"
GERMAN
well advanced
ENLIGHTENMENT
in its
(AUFKLARUNG) and Deistic,rationalistic,
There development before the rise of Methodism. the two streams long ran parallel.If Methodism, theologically, it was to older doctrinal conceptions, return even more a was feelingsof the nation. appeal to the strong, deep religious an In Germany Pietism, with its emphasis on feeling, preceded the Enlightenment (Aufklarung),though continuing to run when that developed. The to the latter movement parallel Pietism had to come. sure Enlightenment in Germany was the grasp of confessional orthodoxy, but it had raised broken leaders to take the intellectual place of the theological up no older dogmatic theologians. The eighteenth century, with of the English Deists its criticalrationalistic spirit ; the works of and their opponents; and the radical popular modification invaded in France, necessarily Deism Germany and found the of confessional intellectual field vacant, through the discrediting The of Pietism. orthodoxy and the constructive inefficiency result was the rapid growth of the Enlightenment, as it styled itself. To call it rationalism is not quite just,though that it shades. Its chief im It representedmany largelybecame. than in England or in France, by its portance is that, more it prepared the way for a great critical and constructive work reconstruction in theology,which, in the nineteenth century, lands. to spread widely throughout Protestant was Leibnitz's speculations too deep to pro (ante,p. 485) were duce a profound impressionon his own age, though later they of powerful effect. Thomasius were (ante,p. 499) spread a without rationalistic spirit, working out a system. His influ in developingan attitude of mind, so that he marked ence was has not untruly been described the "road-breaker of the as Chris however, was Enlightenment." Its great protagonist, tian Wolff (1679-1754). Not a creative genius,it was Wolff's and fortune so to embody and giveexpressionto the unformed the philosophical inarticulate thought of his age, as to become and theological leader of two generationsof his countrymen. Skilled in mathematics, like most of his and of the philosophers in the preceding century, he began lecturingon mathematics Halle in 1707. Here his philosophyrapidlydeveloped,in close connection with that of Leibnitz,whose deeperthoughts,howUnitarian
WOLFF
CHRISTIAN
525
alone is true, Wolff held, which be demonstrated by logicalcertaintyakin to mathematics. can be deduced from the innate contents Truth must thus rationally he
ever,
grasped.
never
That
by experience "pure reason." All that comes world is composed is merely contingentand confirmatory. The of the mind
the
"
simple substances, each endowed of Leibnitz's with force, though not with all the qualities of these sub monads (ante,p. 485). Bodies are aggregations of
of
infinite multitude
an
laws.
world
The
stances.
is
a
soul is that in
The
huge machine, ruled by mechanical us
is conscious of itself and
which
of
of knowledge and with capacities objects. It is endowed desire. Their completeness of fulfilment is pleasure,their in completeness,pain. Hence have a cause. Since the world is contingent,it must other
exists and
God
has made
The
the world.
laws
of all rational
thinking and actinggive us the divine attributes. Since com pletenessis the highest aim of all being, all that aims at the be virtue. must completeness of ourselves and other men of rightaction are embodied, as with the the principles Hence Deists, in the fundamental divinelyappointed constitution of Wolff did not man. deny that there might be revelation, though, if so, it could contain nothing not in agreement with miracles impossible,though improbable, and reason are ; nor of each would imply two acts of equal power, the interruption the order
of nature
and
after the event.
its restoration
Wolff's
and optimistic. He is going on individually, breach with the to largercompleteness. Here a was socially, that older theology,both of orthodoxy and of Pietism, and one of a logical demonstra to its age with the conclusiveness came tion. God, natural religion,originallyimplanted morality,
of
view
and
man
was
progress
individual
toward
and
racial
not perfection,
super
sin and
from ruin, supernaturalrescue if Wolff allows the proper regard,even are objectsof religious Nor is man little standing room to revelation and miracle. a the hopelessor incapablebeing of the older theology. of his Pietistic colleagues Wolff's views aroused the hostility William I in Halle. They procured from King Frederick The to was even royal sentence (1713-1740) his removal.
revelation
natural
or
them
strenuous. surprisingly
leave
the
He
found
ordered, in 1723, to forty-eighthours, or be hanged. Wolff
universitywithin a refugein Marburg, and
was
was
honorablyrestored
to
by Frederick
in 1740
Halle
become
ever,
during the
thought
The
had
of was
years
he
work
little to
added
in Halle
his
tillhis death.
large section
a
had, how
of
Germany.
over.
influential in
radical,but
Less
that
in Halle
of Pietism
sway
fourteen
become
His
the Great.
property, and
common
achievements His
REIMARUS
MOSHEIM.
526
aiding the
new
attitude of
Lorentz Johann Mosheim von (1694?thought, was and finally in Gottingen. The 1755), professorin Helmstadt admired most preacherof his time, master of a styleof brilliancy latitudiin Latin or in German, his influence was essentially narian. He had no sympathy with the dogmatism of the or The thodox. no emphases of the Pietists awakened response German
in him
;
He
touched
on
the
rationalism he support the extreme fields of religious thought, and his
could
nor
most
whole, favored
chief service issued
and
in 1726
ante
fashion.
father of modern
In his Commentarii
church
partisan bias, and of
expense
which a
aimed to
cause
and
to
More
tell events As
work
extreme
the whole
de rebus Christianorum
He
desired to be free of all
in remarkable
succeeded
defend.
style,his
history."
colorlessness.
some
in 1755, embraced
of 1753, he treated the earlier centuries in Mosheim well deserves of "the the name
Constantinum
ampler
spread of the Enlightenment. His field of history. His Institutiones, first
in final form
story of the church.
influence,
the
in the
was
of Wolff.
His
at
measure
is the first church
the
history without
exactlyas they happened, of its learning such, and by reason
long survived
rationalism
soon
his death. found
its
in representatives
Samuel lleimarus Germany. Hermann (1694-1768), long a highlyreputedprofessorof Oriental languagesin Hamburg, and the leader in scholarlycircles there, had travelled in England in earlylife, and had there adopted Deist views, in defense of which he wrote issued till not much, though his works were after his death, when they were put forth by Lessingbetween and 1778 as fragments found 1774 in the libraryof Wolfenbiittel hence Wolfenbuttel Fragments,the publicationof which "
aroused
immense
is that
discussion.
As
with
the
Deists, all that is
natural
religionwhich teaches the existence of a wise Creator, a primitivemorality,and immortality all ascertainable by reason. The world itself is the only miracle and the only revelation all others are impossible. The writers of the Bible were honest men, but were moved not even by fraud true
"
"
LESSING selfishness. It is
and of
curious commentary the condition on that Reimarus's writings, though widely
a
thought in Germany
criticised, were
less valued
no
527
others
by
as
a
defense
of
religion
atheism.
againstmaterialism and the publi Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781), to whom cation of Reimarus's due, eminent as a writingswas religious himself ranking as and artistic critic, dramatist and a literary German classic writer with Goethe and Schiller, though not a agreeingwholly with Reimarus, presentedin his Education of As the Race of 1780 a theory of much the Human plausibility. individual passes through the successive stages of childhood, The Scriptureshave youth, and manhood, so does the race. is moved Childhood been given by God to meet these needs. in that and rewards punishments. For men by immediate with training, for obedience. temporalblessings is
condition the Old Testament
promisesof long life and
its
is
Youth future
ready
and
success
is
without
hope
a
guide is
reason, as
or
feelingin educated ligionbelonged to a past human development. The views truths or
the
effect of the
is ruled
by duty,
fear of
or
to
inferior present stage of
an
Enlightenmentwas
a
wide diffusion of the
the valuable in the Scriptureswere and its morality,divested of miracle of natural religion
alone
that what
were
supernatural. Jesus
personalcentre
of faith.
acteristic of much many
manhood
But
punishment as its motives. though perhaps God may yet send some its aid. Lessing' s work spread wide the Germany that the historic Christian re
of reward
further revelation
lesser goods for in that state, for men
with its present self-surrender and eternal
fittingguide.
rewards
of
and
sacrifice present ease happiness. For it,or
Testament
the New
Its
to
divine book
a
by 1800,
and
of the was
was
This
a
moral
was
teacher
rather
rationalism,and
was
than
a
char
thinkingof Ger strongesttheological to continue
powerfulin
the nineteenth
by side with it,confessional orthodoxy and Pietism continued, though with decreasingintellectual appeal,
century.
Side
Yet be called semi-rationalism. much, also, which may the age was characterized,also, by vigorouspolemic against and
and superstitions,
large development of voluntary and popular beneficence,and provisionfor popular education. The eighteenthcentury was also marked, and nowhere more than in Germany, by the development of textual and historical a
BIBLICAL
528
SCHOLARSHIP
studies of the Bible which cism.
The
Greek
a
initiated the modern
English scholar,John
Testament, based
on
Mill
in the year of his death. Jean scripts, brought up in Geneva, later an Arminian 1684 to his
death, won
fame
as
explainthe teachingof
collation le Clerc
of
manu
(1657-1736),
in Amsterdam
from
exegete, through his attempts
an
the
criti
(1645-1707), published
careful
a
periodof
Scriptureswithout
dogmatic prepossessions approaching them not to discover proof texts, but their actual meaning. Johann Albrecht Bengel (16871752), long head of the theologicalseminary in Denkendorf, in Wiirttemberg, a man of Pietistic leanings,was the first to Testament recognizethat New manuscriptsmay be grouped in families,and to establish the generallyaccepted critical that a more difficult reading is to be preferred. His canon to
"
Gnomon,
Index, of the New
or
remarkable
Testament, of 1742, was
thus
the most
far
produced. Nothing, he de clared, should be read into the Scripture,and nothing there contained omitted, which could be drawn out by the most it rigidapplicationof grammatical principles. Wesley made the
commentary
basis of his Notes
temporaneously Johann and New
Amsterdam, Testament
Textual
the New
upon
Jakob
Testament
Wettstein
of 1755.
(1693-1754), of Basel
spent nearly a lifetime of labor with
on
his Greek
Reading, published in 1751-1752. thus given a great exegesiswere
Various
criticism and
Con
sound
advance. To
Astruc
(1684-1766),royal professorof medicine in in his Conjectures of 1753, due the announcement, Paris, was of the composite character of Genesis. The theory won essen Jean
tial support in 1781 from Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (1752later the called in often rationalisticprofessor Gottingen, 1827),
"the founder
of Old Testament
latter part of the nineteenth extensive recognition. won
criticism,"but it is only in the century that Astruc' s discovery
In Johann
August Ernest! (1707-1781), professorin Leipzig from 1742, Germany had a teacher who not only aided greatly that awakening of classical thought and ideals which affected German intellectual life in the closingyears of the eighteenth century, but the The
same
one
who
carried to New
which principles
meaning is to
historical methods
be
he
Testament
applied to ascertained by the same
in the
one
interpretation
classical literature.
grammatical and
field as in the other.
Reimarus
AND
REIMARUS
SEMLER
529
(ante,p. 526), in his seventh Fragment, publishedby Lessing life of Christ to
rigid historic methods, like those appliedto secular history. His the mythical,or the legen total rejectionof the supernatural, dary left his results barren enough, but he raised questionsof method and conclusion which have constituted the problems since. Johann of this investigation, in large measure, ever Salomo Semler (1725-1791),professorin Halle from 1752, was of Pietistic training, ration a conservative though in manhood alist. His importance was in the paths he indicated rather than in the results he achieved. He distinguishedbetween the permanent truths in Scriptureand the elements due to the in 1778, for the first time
times in which
subjectedthe
the several books
were
He
written.
denied
the
equal value of all parts of Scripture. Revelation, he taught,is in Scripture,but all Scriptureis not revelation. The creeds of the church are a growth. Church historyis a development. In particular he made a distinction between Petrine,Judaizing i n the and that was Pauline, anti-Judaic, parties, earlychurch,
play a great role in
to
later discussions.
SECTION
Nothing the
characteristic of the earlier half of
more
eighteenthcentury
common
did
The
sense. a
remarkable
than age
work
in
dominance
the
was
of
"reason,"
or
unemotional, intellectual. It
that questioning
which
had
been
ac
ancient superstitions tradition,in sweeping away of that which abuses, and demanding the rightfulness
cepted and
on
claimed
met,
authority. the
as
tion.
The
"return
by
seemed
EOMANTICISM
XI.
to
But
it
cold and
was
one-sided.
It
was
eighteenth century opposi on, by an claims of feeling asserted themselves, voiced in a immense
went
nature," that
was
too
often
the
a
nature
conjured up appreciation
imagination,but accompanied by a renewed of the classical and the mediaeval,and the revival of a sense of the supernaturalin religion, often vague and obscure, but creatinga totallydifferent atmosphere in which man's claims as a feeling,rather than as a purely thinking,being were asserted. Its most
effective apostlewas
Jacques Rousseau (1712manifested was throughout Europe. evident than in Germany. Lessingshared
1778) ; but the movement Nowhere
was
it more
Jean
IMMANUEL
530 it.
toph alism ent
there conspicuousliteraryrepresentatives
Its most
Johann
Wolfgang Friedrich
Goethe
;von
(1749-1832)
Schiller (1759-1805).
von
the
not, indeed, swept from
was
habit
KANT
of
the mastery
thought
contended
Johann
The
than
were
Chris-
older ration
but field,
more
on
and
a
totallydiffer
equal terms
for
that of Romanticism.
"
Philosophy, in the eighteenthcentury, had seemed to lead to no thoroughfare. Leibnitz had taught that all knowledge elucidation of that which was an was wrapped up innate in the monad. Wolff had affirmed the power of "pure reason" the other hand, Locke had to give the only certainties. On had by experience,and though Hume taught that all comes and sub pushed to scepticismall conclusion based on cause on stance, he had viewed, like Locke, all knowledge as founded British and the The German tendencies were experience. ap It be the work of Kant to was parentlymutually destructive. basis which should be and supersedeboth, on a new to combine of modern the starting-point philosophy,and to give a value which neither earlier partieshad recognized. to feeling native of Konigsberg, Immanuel Kant a (1724-1804) was where"all his life was spent. His paternalancestry, he believed, was
Kant
Scotch.
earliest influences
His
became
development
in the
a
teacher
was
slow.
Study of though he did quacy, profoundly influenced nitz-Wolff.
He Hume
were
Pietist.
In
1755
Universityof Konigsberg.
His
held at first to the school of Leib awakened
become
doubts
as
to
its ade
Hume's
disciple.Rousseau him with the "discovery of the deep of man." In 1781 came Kant's hidden nature epoch-making blow the Pure Reason struck work, primarily a Critiqueof dominant at the then philosophy of Wolff. His formative treatises rapidly followed, and his thought was soon powerful in Germany. had By 1797 his mental and physicalpowers ruin. A littleman begun a decline which was to end in pitiful in physicalstature, never married, of strict moral uprightness, he devoted himself to his task with singularsimplicityand fidelity. Kant's respects a theory of knowledge. system is in many not
"
With
the school of Locke
edge something, or mind
from
without.
that the mind
some
and
stimulus With
he held that in
Hume "
Leibnitz
has certain innate
the content and
"
our
comes
knowl to
the
Wolff he maintained
transcendent qualities,
in the
HERDER.
532
SCHLEIERMACHER
Only of 1793. Emphasizing morality as of the practicalreason, the he reduces religion Evil and the categorical to theistic ethics. practically impera for the obedience tive contest of man. One ruled by this prin ciple of moral good the categoricalimperative is pleasing of God. Of this sonship Christ is the highest to God, is a son Bounds
of Reason prime content
"
illustration. The
invisible church
to moral
obedient
this obedience. of God.
"
law. Its
visible church
The
develop kingdom not theology was to
will be the
Christian
to
of all those
is a union
complete achievement
contribution
Kant's
is the ideal union
of doctrines,but his vindica rationalizing interpretation tion of man's profoundestfeelings bases of practical as religious his
conviction and
moral
conduct.
of the Bible impulse to the historical interpretation Gottfried Herder was von given by Johann (1744-1803), in earlylife an intimate with Goethe, influenced by personalcon A decided
tact
with Kant, and From
an
eager
supporter of the romantic
to his death
he
move
preacher in Wei His Spirit of Hebrew mar. Poetry appeared in 1782-1783. in 1784-1791. His Philosophyof the Historyof Mankind Re is the embodiment of that which ligion, especially Christianity, of mankind. is deepestin the feelings The Scripturesare to be of the times understood in the lightof the views and feelings in which the several books were written. They are, therefore, literature. is true and permanent What a religious essentially in them be distinguished from the temporary and local. must ment.
Out
of this romantic
theologianof
German whose
1776
work
movement
land
"
the
came
influential
most
opening nineteenth century, religious thought far outside
the
has moulded
ders of his native
court
was
Friedrich
Daniel
Ernst
and
one
the bor
Schleiermacher
(1768-1834). The son of a Prussian army chaplain,he was educated by the Moravians, fellunder the influence of the views of Wolff and Semler, and was then greatlyimpressedby Plato, In 1796 he became Spinoza,Kant, and Romanticism. hospital chaplain in Berlin, then a centre of the Enlightenment, and there
published in
directed
to
thoughts were
a
1799
his remarkable
rationalistic circle. set
forth.
From
In
1804
Addresses these to
1807
on
Religion,
his fundamental he
was
professor
in Halle.
in Ber In the year last named he settled once more In lin,becoming a little later pastor of the Trinity Church.
1810,
on
the
foundingof
the
Universityof Berlin,he
was
ap-
SCHLEIERMACHER
533
of theology,a post pointedprofessor in 1834.
death
his Christian
which
he
occupiedtillhis
he set forth his mature
In 1821-1822
Belief Accordingto
the
views in
Principles of the Evangelical
Church. is that he took prime significance results of previoustendencies,and
Schleiermacher 's his
system the
own
into
up
to
gave
basis,and to the person of Christ a meaning theology a new largelyignored in his age. Orthodoxy and rationalism had both made intellectual religionessentially acceptance of an To system and an externallyauthoritative rule of conduct. the orthodox religion based on assent to the truths of revela was tion and obedience to the will of God.
the rationalistsit was
To
acceptance of natural
theology and of universal morality as Both partiesin the eighteenthcen certained by the reason. and moralityas primarilymeans for religion tury looked upon securing a happy immortality. To Schleiermacher the sole is inward, in the feeling. In itself religion basis of religion is neither a body of doctrines,revealed or rationallycertified, nor a system of conduct, though both belief and conduct flow from
religion.
Schleiermacher
much
took
from
and Spinoza,Leibnitz,
experiencewe perceivethe antithesis of the against a principleof unity and changing over These antitheses giveus the Absolute and eternal In
manifold
our
out
all would
whom
would
with
that which
and
permanency. "
God
"
with
be chaos ; and the world, without which all The Absolute is throughoutall. God is there
be empty. in His world. fore immanent
nitz,a microcosm,
Kant.
a
Man
is,in himself,as with Leib
reflection of the universe.
As
contrasted
is universal,absolute,and
eternal,he feels him word, dependent. This
in a self finite,limited, temporary of dependence is the basis of all religion.To feeling "
bridgeover the gulfbetween the universal and the finite, into to bringman harmony with God, is the aim of all religions.Hence the worth of each religionis to be measured by the degree in which this result,which is the aim of all,is accomplished. Hence religions are
not
grees
tory human thus
of are
to
be divided
a
true
sense
consciousness far known
to
and
All advances
adequacy. in
into true
religionthroughout
his
fuller manifestation revelations, a
to
of the
men,
false,but into relative de in
immanent
is Christianity
God. the
Of
all
religions
best, since it most
what it is the aim of all religions to achieve. fullyaccomplishes
SCHLEIERMACHER.
534
HEGEL
to all religion, sin problems are those most fundamental and pardon, separationand reconciliation. And in the Chris tian religion the person of Christ is the central element. He is
Its
Himself
the reconciliation of the finite with
temporal with
the
eternal,the union
therefore,the Mediator Schleiermacher
of God
the universal,the and
of this reconciliation to others.
strongly Christocentric.
was
He
man.
The
is,
Hence
life thus
and God is now unitingthe temporal and the eternal man immortal. An immortality in duration is a great hope, but of liferather than a mere true immortalityis a quality question "
"
of duration.
Doctrines
these fundamental
religious experiencesdefin but these ex themselves intellectually; ing and interpreting planationshave only a relative and secondaryvalue. They have changed and may change. They are simply the forms in which abiding truth from time to time expresses itself. In Schleiermacher's view, moralityis the result of the proper is a part, the family,the understanding of that of which man community, the state, the world. Such an enlargingview of his real place in these relations will drive out selfishness and nor self-centring. religionmorality; Morality is not religion, but religion is the main aid to morality. It asks the question what insistently, ought to be, in the light of the Christian are
consciousness. Schleiermacher too
as
radical,by the rationalists
by as
the
too
influenced modern
has more,
the power
thingsas they
mental
processes
Philosophy
was
under difficulties,
by helm
contained
system
It denied
Johann
orthodox
visionary;
religious thinkingin variously.
more
or
Kant's
of
condemned
was
are
two
evident
of his but
Protestant
no
day one
circles
points of difficulty.
of intellectual processes to give knowledge in themselves, and it did not explainhow
in all individuals. necessarilythe same developed in the clarification of both these are
the
Gottlieb
influence of Romanticism, into idealism, Fichte (1762-1814) and Friedrich Wil-
consistent Schelling(1775-1854) ; but in more form and with a stricter realism,though predominantlyideal istically, by Hegel. Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) was a native of Georg He at Tubingen. Stuttgart,educated taught in Jena, with From from 1801 to 1807. 1808 to 1816 he scanty following,
Joseph von
535
HEGEL
1818
year
gymnasium school in Nuremberg. The in Berlin, his appointment to a professorship rapidlyrose to that of the first philosopherof
of the
the head
was
saw
his fame
where
died of cholera,at the height of his in spite This distinction was in 1831. activity, He
his day in Germany,
reputation and of his
and obscure uninteresting
of
manner
in presentation
the
classroom.
Hegel
To
is
universe
the
constant
a
development The
Absolute, that is,God, through struggleand effort. lute is
and spirit, mind
by which
laws
involve three
itself out
thinks
in
movement
stages, a
antithesis.
"the
the two
But
are
a
thesis.
its limitation
its oppositionor
proceedstillit encounters
This
direction
"
the
always
logically.These one
Abso
with
is in accordance
development
its
of the
but aspects of the
one
Abso
lute,and both thesis and antithesis unite in a higher union, the synthesis.Over againstthe idea,"the thesis,as its antithesis, "
is nature the union
is who unite in highersynthesisin man, Since all is the Absolute mind and matter.
but the two
"
of both
developingin accordance with the laws of all thought, the laws of thought are the laws of things; and since our thinking is a fragment of that of the Absolute, in so far as it is true, it gives minds, and is the true knowledge of the things outside our us in all minds
same
portionsof
are
of the finite
since
part of the
a
the Absolute
is spirit
to
to
come
one
Absolute.
Since
we
consciousness,a prime duty
realize its relation to
the Absolute-
realization is religion.Religion may, indeed, begin, as become with Schleiermacher,in feeling ; but to be true it must is an real knowledge. Every religion attempt thus to know complete realization. God, of which Christianityis the most
such
always strivingto reveal Himself ; yet this outworking must always be through the three necessary stages of develop Thus the Father is the divine unity the thesis. He ment. the antithesis. The Himself in the Son uniting objectifies love is the Holy Spirit the synthesis.The whole process gives God is the thesis. the Trinity. So regardingthe incarnation. from finite humanity, the antithesis. Both He is distinguished the God-man. unite in the higher synthesis, Hegel's system did much to substitute for the older sharp distinction between
God
is
"
"
"
the
divine
and
the
unity so prevalentin The
human, modern
profundity,power,
the
sense
fundamental
theology. ingenuityof Hegel's views
Protestant and
of their
THE
536
be
SCHOOL
TUBINGEN
procrusteanlyphil osophicalnot to lead to reaction. Though their reign in Ger was comparatively short, they had much followingin many Great Britain throughout the latter half of the nineteenth cen tury, and have long been influential in America. cannot
questioned. Yet they
SECTION
XII.
FURTHER
too
were
GERMAN
DEVELOPMENTS
Hegel'stheory of development had to New
Baur
Testament
a
criticism in the work
significant application of Ferdinand
(1792-1860),professorin Tubingen from
1826
to
Christian
his death,
Tubingen school in theology. The essential features of his interpretation sketched by Baur were in his account of the partiesin the Corinthian Church, published thenceforward in 1831, and were developed in a series of bril liant studies,which won disciples.All historical progress, many with Hegel,must be through the three stages of thesis, Baur felt, antithesis,and synthesis. Semler (ante,p. 529) had already taught the existence of Petrine (Judaizing)and Pauline parties These gave the elements of the Hegelian in the early church. Baur triad. a so taught, began as essentially Christianity, This the thesis the positionof all Messianic Judaism. was the original Apostles. The necessary antithesis inevitablyarose and Pauline was Christianity.Petrine and Pauline views struggledfar into the second century ; but the inevitable syn thesis came eventually,in the Old Catholic Church, which hon unconscious that they had ored both Peter and Paul, and was stood in serious opposition. ever The most debated use made by Baur of this reconstruction of the earlyhistoryof the church was a redatingof the books of the New Testament. They must displaythe biases of the show various aspects of this development that is,they must "tendencies." Applying this test, Baur found only Romans, Galatians,and the Corinthian epistles genuinely Pauline, since they alone showed traces of the conflict. The others did not it reveal the struggle, be dated and hence must later,when had become Revelation was earlyand Juda a forgottenstory. of the Gospels izing. In 1847 Baur turned to the investigation Matthew reveals Judaizing tendencies, methods. by the same and is the oldest. Luke is probably a reworking of Marcion's (ante, p. 57) gospel. Mark sought to hide the conflict,and and
founder
of the
new
"
"
"
GERMAN
is not of the
is later,while John controversies
with
only irenic
but
later half
of the
greater part of the New in the second century.
Testament
The
Baur's discussion aroused Its ultimate
numbers.
effect
earlychurch
on
sults have
been, however, the best
and
century.
therefore,written
and
opponents
in great
Testament
debates
of the
second
investigation immensely enlarged the
New
knowledge
537
betrays familiarity
was,
advocates
beneficial. These
most
was
GROUPS
THEOLOGICAL
of its literature. Baur's
to
answer
Their own
re
the
of adequate conception of the significance There were Christ in the development of the early church. importantdifferences between Judaic and Pauline Christianity ; but to reduce the intellectual reactions of nascent Christianity other shades to these only is far too simple. There were many of unlikeness. Above all,an increasingknowledge of the sec ond century, and an appreciationof its atmosphere impossible
ories.
had
He
no
it inconceivable that the books which time, makes he assignsto it could,for the most part, have been then written. in Baur's
They are not of that age and outlook. By the time that Baur began his work, and for the next gen divided into three main eration, German theologianswere On
groups.
tion of the them
none
extreme
one
stood the rationalists, the continua
type of the closingeighteenth century. Among Eberhard of greater influence than Heinrich was
(1761-1851), professorfrom 1789 in Jena, who spent the latter part of his long life (1811-1844) as professor Gottlob
Paulus
in Heidelberg. An opponent of all supernaturalism,his Life of the rationalism of Jesus of 1828 is typicalof the woodenness of his period. Christ's walking on the water, he explainsas
viewing Christ through disciples, The the mist as He walked on the shore. feedingof the five with thousand freedom was accomplished by the generous which Christ bestowed the little food He had, thus awakening the generosityof those in the throng who had a largersupply. a
misunderstanding of
Christ's
death
aroused
by
was
no
the
real event.
earthquake,and Confessional orthodoxy of the had a notable representative in (1802-1869), professorin Berlin Between
the
the
largelyinfluenced
revived
He
returned most
Ernst from
stood
in the
tomb,
His
disciples. uncompromising pattern Wilhelm Hengstenberg
1826
to
to
his death.
"mediating" school, of by Schleiermacher, sharing his warmth
two
extremes
a
"MEDIATING"
THE
538
THEOLOGIANS
Christian
feeling,perhaps generallyintensified, strongly de voted, like him, to the personalChrist, but disposed to accept of the results of criticism, especially regardingthe Biblical many and narratives. inspiration Most influential of these "mediating" theologians was Neander Johann August Wilhelm (1789-1850). Of Hebrew Mendel, he took the name by parentage, originallyDavid which he is known his new at baptism in 1806, to signify birth. student
A
under
influence that secured he filled with
which
der turned
in
Schleiermacher for him
a
Halle, it
his teacher's
was
in Berlin professorship
distinction till his death
in 1850.
in 1813, Nean
his attention to church
historywith a series of re markable monographs, and in 1826 published the first volume of his History of the Christian Religionand Church, at which he labored for the rest of his life. Distinguishedby thorough of the sources, Neander's use conceptionof the historyof the church was that of a divine life gainingincreasingcontrol over the
lives
of
Hence, Neander's
portraits. Its
life is manifested
That
men.
work
individuals.
series of strikingbiographical its over-emphases on the influence
was
weakness
in
a
was
individuals,and
its scanty appreciationof the institutional Yet it put church historyon a corporate lifeof the church.
of or
plane of
new
influence
the
were
students, and heart
the
makes
helpfulor
death.
Few
have
been
the critical views which
A was
from
was
third Isaac 1827
vice in
a
his lips,and
personally
more
Tholuck
was
exercised
(1799-1877), who a
by Friedrich became a professor
chair in Halle
sympathies,yet
from with
1826
to his
acceptance of
in many features, he turned Halle from the had dominated since the time of Wolff to the
Evangelicalismwhich still characterizes it. As was distinguished.His kindness to English students
"The
trust.
frequentlyon
men
personal influence
in 1823, but held of Pietistic A man
rationalism
Christian
childlike,unaffected
theologian,"was
Gottreu
in Berlin
as
beloved.
more
similar
August
of Neander's
his character.
expresses
A
his
his writings significant as personal intercourse with his
Quite
achievement.
a
preacher he
and
American
unwearied.
of the "mediating" school important representative (1809-1884), a student in Tubingen August Dorner to
1832, and
number
an
of German
instructor
there in 1834.
universities he closed his
After career
ser as
STRAUSS
540
had
John preferred
Matthew, but
to
Miracles
are
The
them.
to the others.
Strauss
gave
the firstplace
of the
Gospels were by eye-witnesses. inherentlyimpossible; but the Gospels are full of like those ordinary rationalistic interpretations, none
of Paulus
(ante,p. 537), are ridiculous;the assertions of the like Reimarus ultra-rationalists, re (ante,p. 526),that they were counted with intent to deceive,are impossible. The only ade quate explanationis that the simple,natural life
are
covered
with
over
expectinga Messiah who lookingfor the fulfilment
myth. would
be
The
men
facts of Christ's of that
wonder-worker
time
were
they were of Old Testament prophecy ; they had great true ideas,such as that the race is partlydivine and partly These human, that it rises above death by union with God. attributed were to, or regarded as impersonated in, Christ. a
Testament Jesus lived ; but the Christ of the New in all His superhuman characteristics essentially,
;
is
therefore,
creation of
a
myth. Strauss' attacked the
s
book
aroused
the views
an
of every
controversy. He had party in contemporary Germany, enormous
orthodox, the rationalists of all shades, the
theologians.He barred
unsparing denunciation.
met
"
mediating'*
He
was
de
theologicalemployment, and lived an em bittered existence. Yet, lookingback from the lapseof nearly of a century, it is evident that his work placed three-quarters the investigation of the life of Christ on a new plane,that he and that the dis answered conclusivelythe older rationalists, all further
cussions which
he
inauguratedhave
been
of immense
service.
Though the legend,that is,the transformation of the actual facts by retelling and accretion,is generallypreferredto the otherwise perplexingin the myth, such explanationof much Gospels is widely accepted. Strauss' s estimate of the relative low historic value of the Johannine Gospel,though not undis puted, is very generallyentertained. His preferencefor Mat thew has almost universallygiven place,especially since the labors of Heinrich sees
in Mark
other main Christ's
Julius Holtzmann
(1832-1910),to
a
view
that
the oldest narrative,and positsby its side,as the and Luke, an of Matthew earlycollection of source
sayings.
Granting the velopment
youthful work in the de scholarship,two fundamental
services of Strauss's
of New
Testament
criticisms of his method
as
a
whole
remain.
Either
the church
STRAUSS, created that which those
importantin
Christ is the
unconsciously ; or and
is
share
who
source
conclusion is true; but it acceptance than the latter. Nor torical
the
his essential
former
of interpretation
the
541
RITSCHL
RENAN,
figureof Christ, albeit
of the church.
If Strauss
positionwere
right,the
much
seems
difficultof
more
his purely human life of Christ, though largelyde the construction of a reallyplausi the
has
veloped to the present, led to of the As one ble picture that could long be maintained. of the ablest livingstudents of the historyof the investigation fail life of Christ has asserted,its results have been essentially ure.1 The sayingsof Jesus Himself, and the beliefs of the early church
witnessed
as
by
the
rich Loofs
demand, as Friedletters, of contends,2 a Being impossible
Pauline
(1858-) of Halle of humanity. classification merely in the categories of the in large measure, Strauss's work was the inspiration, French scholar,Ernst Renan (1823-1892). His Life of Jesus, also to the work of 1863, was indebted,though in less measure, the charm with of other German The literary students. skill, life which Renan's marvellous pen depictedthe purely human work of a Galilean peasant prophet, gave Renan's enormous and permanent popularity. Yet it was sentimental,theatrical, and, in its use of the sources, fundamentally insincere. Infi nitelysuperior to Strauss in literaryart, in other respects work
Renan's The
most
stood
on
a
far lower level.
of the potent influence alike in the interpretation
historyof the earlychurch and
of
theology in Germany
during
the last
Ritschl (1822has been that of Albrecht half-century at first of the school of Baur, he broke with 1889). A disciple
its main his
contentions
Originof the
when
he
published the second
Old Catholic Church
Petrine thesis and
Pauline antithesis
in 1857. are
not
edition
of
Baur's
Hegelian adequate explana
differ There were growth of the early church. but all partieshad a greater fundamental unity in own ences, ing the mastery of Jesus. Nor are the unlikenesses of early resolvable into two Christianity sharplyantagonisticparties. There into shades of opinion. Christianitycame were many and no philosophical, empty world, but one filledwith religious, Gentile soil,the institutional ideas. By them, especially on tions of the
1
Albert
2
What
1916.
Schweitzer is the Truth
(1875-), The Quest of the about
Jesus
Christ,1913
Historical
; also Wer
war
Jesus, 1910. Jesus
Christus,
RITSCHL
542
truths of Christianity were profoundlymodi simple,primitive fied, resultingin the theology and institutions of the Old .This fertile and illuminating Catholic Church. interpretation Protestant scholars. is that most widely acceptedby modern Ritschl began teaching in the University of Bonn in 1846. In 1864 he became professorin Gottingen,where he remained Here he published,in 1870-1874, his chief the tillhis death. and Recon work, The Christian Doctrine ofJustification ological ciliation. Ritschl had few personal disciples, but the propa of his
gatinginfluence Ritschl
was
great.
influenced by Kant's
much
the basis of
feelingas
writingswas
assertion of moral
certaintyand practical
denial of absolute
intellectual knowledge, and by Schleiermacher's affirmation of consciousness as the foundation of conviction. Yet religious Schleiermacher's
assertion of the normative
consciousness
was,
consciousness
is not
to
his that
thinking,too of the
value
of religious real individual. The
individual,but
of the
that
community, the church. Nor is that consciousness of abstract speculative knowledge. It has to do with a source personalrelationshipsthose of God and eminently practical, sin and salvation. Hence "natural" the religious community philosophictheology is valueless. Philosophy or speculative give,as with Aristotle, a "first cause" ; but that is far from may Such a practical revelation is made to us a loving Father. only through Christ. That revelation is mediated to us through Christian
"
"
the consciousness ment,
as
the New and
His
Hence of the first disciples.
the Old
Testa
background, and especially revealingtheir religious Testament, as recordingtheir consciousness of Christ value. To ascertain the re Gospel, are of supreme
ligiousconsciousness recorded in the Old and New Testaments, no only normal historical theory of inspirationis necessary, investigation. Though Ritschl thus rejectedmetaphysics as an aid to of a theory of knowledge much Christian truth, he made use Lotze advocated (1817by the philosopherRudolf Hermann 1881). While it is true, Lotze held with Kant, that things be known, he affirmed that as they are in themselves cannot in their attributes or activities. A brick they are trulyknown sidewalk. is known, and truly known, to me as a pavement To may
the ants be
a
whose
home.
mounds
What
of sand
it is
rise between
or abstractly
the
bricks
in itselfI have
it no
of
means
543
If that knowledge in its attributes is one cpnduct it is a "value judgment." So Ritschl
knowing.
affectingmy
held that to those who Christian
TENDENCIES
GERMAN
RECENT
in contact
came
community, Christ
was
with
in the first
Him
truly a revelation of what
is in love,the pattern of what man be, the bearer of may of the king and the Founder God's moral authorityover men, As such He was dom of God. trulyknown ; but to ask whether God
of of two natures, or was one person Trinity,is to ask what the experienceof the early church a and what could not answer, only metaphysics could assert or arouses deny. This recognitionof what Christ is and signifies, He
was pre-existent,
was
that is trust and love toward God through Christ. faith in men, attitude is accompanied by the forgivenessand re This new
moval God
constituted the barrier between
of sin,which
and justification
the
"
"
new
and
man
itself
relationship expresses
in desire to do the will of God and to live the life of the king Christian life is essentially reconciliation. The dom social, hence Redeemer, redeemed, and the redeemed community are "
inseparableconceptions.These believed
have
been
never
more
ideas
salvation
of
Ritschl
clearlyformulated, in later
history,than by Luther. blind have been by no Ritschl's spiritual means disciples be found followers,and much variety of interpretation may
church
them.
among
Their
influence among
those
in
leadershipin
thinkingis great. Among them religious tioned the prince of church historians,Adolf von German
may
be
men
Harnack, of
Berlin (1851-), his eminent younger contemporary, Friedrich KatLoofs of Halle (1858-) ; and of theologians,Ferdinand tenbusch
of Halle
(1851-) and
Wilhelm
Herrmann
of
Mar
general,the Ritschlians have been marked by of piety. and a contagiouswarmth life, an earnest, vital religious In spiteof the spread of Ritschlianism the school of Baur was continued in modified form, with Hegelian outlook in meta by Otto Pfleiderer of Berlin (1839-1908). physics,
burg (1846-).
In
conservative than
More
the Ritschlian school,yet with much problems, is Reinhold Seeberg (1859-)
influence from
modern
of
presents "a modern
Berlin,who
positivetheology." emphasis of Ritschl was almost in evitable. His rejectionof metaphysics, his assertion of the fundamental and in uniformity of religiousexperience now Yet
the
a
reaction
from
the
were days of primitive Christianity,
sure
to
arouse
question.
RECENT
544
GERMAN
TENDENCIES
rise of the study of comparative religions was certain to awake whether that of inquiry principle growth un der the influence of external religious and philosophical ideas
Especiallythe
Ritschl himself had
which
to the develop appliedso brilliantly of Christian doctrine,when that was ment once planted in the not to be applied,as he had not, to the beginnings world, was of Christianity itself. The result is the rising, though as yet far from dominant, Religions school which counts geschichtliche such representatives William Wrede as (1859-1906)of Breslau, Bousset Wilhelm (1865-) of Gottingen,and especiallyErnst
Troeltsch
(1865-) of Heidelberg.
It is evident that German
theological development is stillin
progress.
SECTION
ENGLAND
XIII.
IN
lifein Englishreligious
century
dominated
was
by
the
THE
NINETEENTH
CENTURY
opening years of the nineteenth spiritual awakening of the great
the
revival,which was leadingto largeseparationfrom the establishment (ante,pp. 518, 519). In the establishment Methodist that
revived zeal
representedby the Evangelical,or lowchurch of party, like the Methodists, keenly alive to works and missionary activity(ante,pp. 519-523) ; yet it practical far from dominating the Church of England as a whole. was and its good works were Its enterprise in contrast to the apathy in general. Intellectually, of the establishment all partiesin of England stood on the basis of the rather pro the Church vincial discussions of the eighteenthcentury. Theology was looked
upon
tellectual both
was
in the
rationalistic fashion
same
demonstration,
combined.
The
authoritative
of
or
of stirrings
new
system of in
a
"
revelation,or
intellectual forces
were
felt however.
English poetry flowered into splendid the opening years of the nineteenth century. Romanticism, as powerfullyas in Germany (ante,p. 529), was beginningto produce an intellectual atmosphere wholly unlike that of the precedingage. The novels of Sir Walter Scott are being blossoming with
familiar illustrations of this
anism, largelydue and
was
movements.
to
be
to
the
new
outlook.
Methodist
manifested
new
revival,was
multitudinously in
All the tendencies
ideals. thinkingand religious
A
were
sure
humanitari-
developing, reformatory
to affect
theological
COLERIDGE
Probably the of the
thinking stimulatingforce in the religious
most
of the
first quarter
nineteenth
century
Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), eminent
Samuel erary
545
as
of
poet, lit
a
in his early 1799, led to ulti
Neo-Platonist
philosopher.A
critic,and
that
was
Germany, in 1798 and litera of German mate acquaintancenot only with the masters and but with the thought of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling, ture outlook then fully unfamiliar in England. a philosophical rounded worked out a Coleridge never system. His most of 1825. Over his Aids to Reflection volume was significant of Paley he held to a distinction be againstthe rationalizing and tween understanding." To Coleridge reason reason "inward of intuitive perception, beholding," an was a power truths are directlyperceived.This "moral by which religious
sympathies,study
"
"
in
"
"
"
has, as its associate "conscience," which is an the moral and has as its postulates ditional command, reason"
divine lawgiver,and a external based not on
uncon
law,
a
future life. Religiouscertaintyis thus
consciousness. proofs but on religious In Hence, he has been called the "English Schleiermacher." of the broadthe forerunner most respects Coleridge was of thinking; but in his emphasison the church as church way higher and nobler than anything "by law a divine institution, established,"he prepared the way for the high-churchparty. continued The work of Coleridgein its religious aspects was master Arnold (1795-1842), who began his famous by Thomas of profoundand simple Chris ship of Rugby in 1828. A man tian faith,his helpfulness to his pupilswas great. His views much
resembled
those
of Herder
(ante,p. 532). The
Bible
is
in the lightof the times in which to be understood literature, it was written,but its divine truth finds us. Biblical criticism was fashion, furthered,in a very moderate (1791-1868), dean of St. Paul's,Lon by Henry Hart Milman don, from 1849, by his Historyof the Jews of 1829, in which he a
His most Testament. to the Old applied critical methods of 1855. his Historyof Latin Christianity valuable work was Not willingto be reckoned to the broad-church school,yet Denison John Frederick contributingmuch to its spread,was of a Unitarian minister,he Maurice (1805-1872). The son became conformed the establishment, and to chaplain of In 1840 he was appointed to a Guy's Hospital in London.
chair in
of King'sCollege,
which
he
was
deprivedfor
his
opin-
BROAD-CHURCH
THE
546
TENDENCY
Working Men's in inaugurating a Christian instrumental College,and was In 1866 he was socialist movement. appointed to a pro fessorshipin Cambridge. To Maurice's thinking,Christ is under the curse of all humanity. None of God. the Head are All are need no other reconciliation than a recogni sons, who of their sonship,with the filiallove and service tion by them such recognitionwill naturallylead. All will ulti to which forever lost. mately be brought home to God and none in his theology,but primarilya Not unlike Maurice very Frederick William Robertson (1816-1853), great preacher,was under educated Evangelicalinfluences,then passingthrough ions in 1853.
a
period of
From
1847
The
year
intense
to his
after he founded
questioningto
earlydeath
he
was
a
the
broad-church
minister in
position.
Brighton.
No
of the last century have been so influential on sides of the Atlantic as those of Robertson. Spiritual
English sermons both
discerned rather than intellectually spiritually proved. The nobilityof Christ's humanity attests and leads to faith in His divinity. Much influence in the spread of broad-church opinionswas wielded by Charles Kingsley (1819-1875), rector of Eversley, the novelist,and by Alfred,Lord Tennyson (1809-1892), whose Sim of 1850 was In Memoriam fullya broad-church poem. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1815-1881), to be reckoned were ilarly dean of Westminster,and Frederic William Farrar (1831-1903), caused in 1860 dean of Canterbury. Great commotion was by the Essays and Reviews, in which a group of Oxford scholars sci in the lightof contemporary tried to present Christianity and by the trial of Bishop John and historical criticism, ence truth
must
William
be
Colenso
(1814-1883) of Natal
for his Pentateuchal
publishedin 1862. The broad church was, however, were relatively strictly speaking,a party. Its numbers never, few, but its influence on English religious thought, in varying degrees,wide-spread.In the last half-centuryEngland, like of other Protestant lands, has witnessed the steady advance Biblical criticism, championed conspicuouslyby Samuel Rolles Driver Kelly Cheyne (1841-1915), (1846-1914) and Thomas
criticism
both
of Oxford.
Evangelicalor low-church party has remained largely the representedin the Church of England, especially among laity. The
AND
NEWMAN,
KEBLE,
548
ableness of the church.
all these
To
PUSEY
men
the
of recent
course
seemed
menacing. The formal beginningof is usually associated the with Anglo-Catholic movement of July 14, 1833, in Oxford, on the National Keble's sermon the Apostasy. In September of that year Keble formulated events political
for principles
which
he and
his associates stood.
salvation is through receptionof the body and in the
Eucharist, which
is
validlyadministered
The
blood
way
to
of Christ
only through
of the in apostolicalsuccession. This is the treasure which church church in all ways be restored to the must a those
"
purity of
its undivided
earlycenturies. month The Newman of the fa same began the publication Tracts for the Times, which gave to the movement mous they fostered the name "Tractarianism." By 1835 these associates and fully the support of one had won who, next to Newman, after Newman's
defection,was verie Pusey (1800-1882). A
its leader,Edward
to be
of great earnestness fullyultimatelyto become the head man
Bou-
and
of the piety,Pusey was so that it was Anglo-Catholicmovement, largelycalled "Puseythe revival of primitiveChristianity. ism" to Pusey it was Of these Tracts,of which ninety were wrote issued,Newman twenty-three. Keble, Pusey, and Froude, with others, also the of England was Newman the Church To contributed. Protestantism and between Rome; but as the golden mean the writers emphasized increasingly those doc series went on trines and practiceswhich, though undoubtedly ancient, are Thus, Pusey taught the re popularly identified with Rome. generativenature of baptism and the sacrificialaspect of the Reserve commended. Lord's was was Supper. Confession of of the Bible and the proclamation to be practisedin the use in Tract by Newman, the ninetieth religioustruth. It was "
1841, that aroused
most
Thirty-nineArticles
controversy.
were
not
to
be
Newman
held that the
interpretedin
accordance
with the intention of their authors, but in the "sense of the forbad the con Catholic Church." The bishop of Oxford now tinuation of the
Tracts.
heightof his influence when Tract Ninety numbered was published. The Anglo-Catholic movement doubt the clergy. Newman hundreds of followers among was of England, and on of the Church ing,however, the catholicity Newman
October
was
at the
9, 1845, he made
his submission
to
Rome.
Several
PARTY
ANGLO-CATHOLIC
THE
549
com clergyand laymen followed him into the Roman the most distinguishedwas Henry Edward munion, of whom in 1851, and Manning (1808-1892),who conformed to Rome
hundred
created
was
excitement
Great
caused
was
Pius IX
England by Pope
the re-establishment in
by
1850
cardinal in 1875.
a
in
of the
which had been in abey episcopate, since the Reformation. extreme an Manning became ance who ultramontane supporter of papal claims, unlike Newman, was always moderate, and who, though the most eminent of not given a cardinalate till Catholics, was English Roman diocesan
Catholic
Roman
1879.
conversions to Rome
These
in
few
a
years
with increasingly troduction
of
the
which
changes encountered
These
under
As
ever.
established,it concerned
"enrichment"
usages
AngloPusey's able
stronger than
was
became
doctrinal modifications
blow to the
severe
the storm
Catholic party, but it weathered and leadership,
a
were
itself
liturgy,by the in
of the
had
Protestantism
much
its
discarded.
popularand legalopposition;
by the ritualistshave been largely 1860 the English Church Union, now widely ex organizedto support high-churchfaith and prac
but the modifications desired In
secured.
tended, was
is stilla
movement high-church
The
tice.
growingforce
in the
England. To a degree unparalleledin other coun are tries,the laityof England, with conspicuous exceptions, in disposedto regard disputesbetween the various parties the of England as clerical problems, so that lay religious Church of
Church
life in the establishment
is
uniform
more
than
might
be sup
posed. would be Anglo-Catholicmovement zeal. its profound religious that failed to recognize the worshipand the theologyof the church Romanized
estimate
Any erroneous
If it has
of the
preferto say Catholicized it it has shown marvel and unchurched. lous devotion,especially to the poor, neglected, the lower It has done much to regainthe hold of the church on "it would
"
classes which
to
have
almost
ceased
when
began. Its sympathy with the destitute
ment
has
seemed
been
and intelligent
awakening The
aly in
of
sister Protestant that
minorityof
it
was
the
the
and
It has self-sacrificing.
alike religion,
in faith and
state church
of
good
the
delinquent been
a
real
works.
an Ireland/always
governmentally supported church
was population,
move
disestablished in 1869.
anom
of
a
It has
NON-CONFORMISTS
THE
550
this change in its fortunes with
endured
diminution
no
of effect
iveness. nineteenth
The
century
of the disabilitiesresting on
in
The
Trinity.
Test
Marriages were
1828.
worship in
by
a
steady diminution
Non-Conformists.
In 1813 the Uni
repealof penal acts againstdeniers and CorporationActs were abolished permitted in dissentingplacesof
Non-Conformists
1836.
the benefit of the establishment for
marked
relief by the
tarians obtained of the
was
freed from
were
in 1868.
In 1871
degrees in
abolished
taxes
all
for
religious
at the Uni
theology,were tests, save versities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham. In 1880 Nonservices were Conformist permitted at burials in churchyards. steadilygrown, and is supposed to em brace at least half the populationof England. Its strengthis in the middle classes. It has produced preachers of great has
Non-Conformity
and
power,
has
had
and in scholarship
inent than
its scholars and
work
the Church
its social workers, but in for the unchurched it has been less em
of
The
England.
tendency
among
the
bodies has been strongly largerEvangelicalNon-Conformist federation. toward Since 1893 England and Wales have been organizedinto a complete system of local "councils,"embrac Methodists, Presbyterians, ing Baptists,Congregationalists, and Quakers, each local church being primarilyresponsible for its own territory thus preventingcompetition. These "coun "
cils"
are
united
National
Council
Three
movements
in "federations,"and of
EvangelicalFree of interest have Edward
all
culminatingin
the
Churches.
taken
placeamong
English
Irving (1792-1834) was a Scottish Presbyterianminister in London, of eloquence and mystic ten dencies. By 1828 he had become persuaded that the "gifts" of the apostolicage would be restored if faith was sufficient. Though no claimant to them himself, he believed by 1830 In 1832 he was that his hopes had been fulfilled in others. deposed from his Presbyterianministry. Soon after,six Apos tles were believed to be designatedby prophecy, which num ber was The body similarlycompleted to twelve in 1835. thus led took the name Catholic ApostolicChurch. In 1842 elaborate ritual was an adopted. The Apostleswere regarded The of of Christ the as speedy coming Holy Spirit. organs The was long expected,but the last Apostle died in 1901. church is represented also in Germany and the United States. Non-Conformists.
A second movement
551
againstthe unspiri-
in the earlyyears of the nineteenth Groups of "brethren," who claimed faith and Chris
century.
their
as
England. John
of reaction
out
grew
ARMY
the establishment
tualityof tian love
SALVATION
BRETHREN.
PLYMOUTH
only bonds, gathered in
Ireland
and
western
through the labors of great increase was Darby (1800-1882), formerly a clergyman, in the
Their
Nelson
vicinityof Plymouth about 1830. They are therefore generally To their thinkingall be nicknamed "Plymouth Brethren." and hence formal ministries are lievers are priests, to be re jected. Creeds are to be refused. The Holy Spiritguides all true
believers,and
apostolicmodel. tionalism, the
in faith and
worship after the all denominaThough professedlyrejecting unites them
"brethren"
pelledto corporate
of
acts
themselves
found
and discipline,
least six groups. an Darby was Through his efforts the "brethren"
land, France, Germany, their eminent
Among
divided
into at
indefatigable propagandist. were planted in Switzer and
Canada,
adherents
are
speedily com
the been
have
United
States.
George
Miiller
(1805-1898), whose remarkable orphan houses in Bristol were and to prayer; supported,he believed,largelyin direct answer Prideaux Samuel Tregelles(1813-1875), the eminent student of the Greek The
text
of the New
important of these
most
vation Army.
organizationsis the Sal
new
Its creator, William
Connection
New
Testament.
Methodist
Booth
a (1829-1912), was minister, who, after successful
in in Cardiff, began similar labors in London 1864, out of which an organizationin militaryform, with mili the name Salva tary obedience, developedin 1878, to which
revival work
Army was given in 1880. Always stronglyengaged in practical philanthropyas well as street evangelism,the philan thropicwork was developed on a great scale from 1890 onward, when Booth published his In Darkest England and the Way Out. In spiteof its autocratic militaryform, the Salvation Though open to the charge Army is in many respects a church. tion
of occasional cent
lands, as English-speaking
well
Switzerland, Italy,the Scandinavian The
most
ing,the
powerful impulse toward
world
nineteenth
over,
century
that came
was
from
immense
an
delinquent,and
for the defective and
work
to all
it has done arbitrariness,
has
benefi
extended
France, Germany, lands, and the Orient. as
to
modern
contributed the
and
work
think religious by England in the
of
a
naturalist who,
DARWIN
552
though A
EVOLUTION
Christian believer in early life,was all his maturer tolerant agnostic, Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882).
a
a
years
AND
of great keenness of investigation, remarkable powers of and transparent honesty in his use of facts and generalization, man
in
his readiness
observations done
under
did
all inferences which
abandon
to
not
his
warrant,
the constant
long
handicap of
and
continued
patientwork
ill health.
A
was
of
voyage
nearly five years, 1831 to 1836, as naturalist of the surveying ship Beagle,laid the foundations of his knowledge. In 1859 his OriginofSpeciesby Means in which came ofNatural Selection, elaborated
he
his theories
of evolution
and
of the survival of
reached practically the fittest, contemporaneouslyby his friend, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913). No scientifictheory since
Newton's
doctrine
of gravitation(ante,p. 483) has been so modified in de transformingin all realms of thought. Much tails since promulgated, the theory of evolutionary develop
though accepted with varying degrees of fulness,has profoundly modified much theological thinking,and has to be taken into most serious consideration even by those who deny its applicability to the realm of religion. ment,
SECTION
XIV.
Presbyterianismwas Scotland and
under
Scotland
William
were
DIVISIONS
SCOTTISH
established and
united
Mary
into
one
AND
as
the
in 1690.
kingdom
REUNIONS
church
state
In 1707
of Great
of
England Britain;
of Scotland the independent rightsof the Church were safeguarded. Under Queen Anne, in 1712, two important acts but
passed by Parliament. By one the status of a tolerated communion was given to episcopacy,then stronglyintrenched were
in northern
Scotland.
The
other, destined
of infinite trouble,permitted the
great landlords, to
ministers
on
hostile
be
to
the
"patrons,"usuallythe
force
appointments parishioners.Controversies
of
source
crown
or
Presbyterian were
soon
tur-
In 1718 an moiling the Scottish church. seven anonymous teenth-centurywork, The Marrow of Modern Divinity,was reof Thomas Boston (1676-1732), published at the instigation of Ettrick,a zealous popular preacher. The Marrow seemed antinomian to a largeportionof the ministry,as so putting an the necessityof emphasis on faith in Christ as to exclude even
repentance. Boston
won
sympathy.
In 1722
the "Marrow-
SCOTTISH
CHURCHES
FREE
553
by the General Assembly. They rep resented unquestionably,however, a warm Evangelicalspirit.
men"
censured
were
of these
One
a preacherof Stirling,
of
Erskine
Ebenezer
"Marrowmen,"
denounced
power,
(1680-1754),
all limitation
of the
choose its minister,in 1733. He disciplined by his synod, and he and several associates deposed by the General Assembly in 1740. Before these of the
power was were
to congregation
founded
completed they had church, ultimatelyknown as were
censures
free
but rapidly,
grew
was
first Scottish
Secession
the
turmoiled
soon
the
the
over
Church.
It
questionwhether
burgesses of the Scottish cities could properly swear authorized by the laws" support "the true religion
the
.
In
Scotland.
Burgher,
or
.
divisions occurred,but most united, in 1820, as the United ers of
Gillespie(1708-1774), the installation of and
over
the General
deposed by
was
he and
like-minded
became
the Relief Church.
1765
and
they
ministers founded
counted
hundred
one
cession Church
thousand and
the
various the
hundred
one
to
Assembly in
These
Thomas
in participate unwillingcongregation,
an
popular support, especiallyamong By
divisive.
continued
Carnock, refused
minister
a
into Anti-
Secession Church.
question of patronage
The
divided
Church
Burgher sections. Further sub of the Anti-Burghersand Burgh
and
Nonjuror,
of
.
the Secession
1747
to
and
1752.
In
1761
which organization secessions won large
more
earnest-minded.
twenty congregations,
adherents.
In 1847
the Relief Church
combined
the United as
Se
the United
PresbyterianChurch. Under
these
circumstances
the state
church
was
robbed
of
good deal of its spiritualstrength. Rationalistic thought penetratedScotland as the eighteenthcentury advanced, as con temporaneously in England and Germany. Hume's specula a
tions (ante,p. 490) were without influence. The result not the growth of what was called Moderatism, which was was con in trolling
the latter half of the
ential well into the
Christianitywas ential
or
favored would
the reaction from
cism, and
It
chosen
and
influ
the Moderates than
generally stronglyexperi
believed that the patronage system
was
appointment
often have
To
largelyethical rather
doctrinal. the
nineteenth.
eighteenthcentury,
of
men
the French
Moderates, where of
more
congregations Evangelicaltype. With
Revolution, the rise of Romanti
the generalrevolt from
the rationalism of the
eight-
eenth
century,
also with contest
to
CHALMERS
THOMAS
554 a
the liberal
the field with
1815, when
From
Evangelicalism,in sympathy of the people,began political aspirations
warm-hearted
Glasgow, the
he
Moderatism. entered
eminent
on
'
a
memorable
pastorate in
of the
Evangelicalparty was Thomas Chalmers as a preacher,a social re (1780-1847), distinguished former,a mathematician, a theological teacher,and an ecclesias tical statesman. Under his leadership, and in the changed spirit in strength. of the times, the Evangelicalparty rapidlygrew Under Chalmers's guidance a great campaign to meet the needs of the growing populationof Scotland was which inaugurated, resulted by 1841 in the erection of two and twenty hundred churches new by popular gifts. The old question of pat stillcontinued burning. In 1834 the growingEvangeli ronage cal party secured the passage by the General Assembly of a "veto" forbidden to proceed rule,by which presbyteries were to installation where a majority of the congregationwere op involved legalcontro posed to the candidate. This rule soon held that the General Assembly had ex The courts versy. most
its powers. asked for relief, which was Parliament was refused. Under four Chalmers's leadership,therefore,some
ceeded
hundred
the
state
and
seventy-fourministers formally withdrew
church
in 1843
and
founded
the
Free
from
Church
of
They gave up parishesand salaries. All had to be provided anew and sacrificeof the new ; but the enthusiasm body was equal to the task. In general,it was a withdrawal of the Evangelical element from the alreadyconsiderably modified A third,and that but less zealous and spiritual "Moderates."
Scotland.
the
most
active part, of the state church
had
gone
out.
Yet
of the seceders worked
ultimatelyfor a quickening of zeal in the state church itself. In 1874 the rightsof patron abolished by law. ground of division,were age, the original older separatistbodies, combined since 1847 as the The United Presbyterian Church, had long rejectedconnection the
with
example
the
state.
The
new
Free
Church
of
Scotland
had
and its to take the same position, though Chalmers practically earlyleaders clung to the conceptionof a national state church, free from hampering state dictation. This contention was rendered academic by the logic of facts. All circumstances counselled
union, and therefore,on
majority of
the
Free
Church
of
October
Scotland
31, 1900, the and
the
vast
United
556
JESUITS
of the Roman
Church
face of the
AND
was
where
sible,save
of
one
feebleness increasing
of the Catholic
growing claims
reallyeffective attack
A
JANSENISTS
upon
civil governments.
Protestantism
it existed,as
in the
was
no
longerpos
in France, in predominantly
lands.
Roman
(1643-1715) the French monarchy pur As against sued a policy dictated by the King's absolutism. of all income papal claim he asserted possessionby the crown and favored the proclamationby the of vacant bishoprics, that civil French clergy in 1682 of the "Gallican liberties," that generalcoun rulers have full authorityin temporal affairs, cils are superiorto the Pope, that the usages of the French and that the Pope is not in church limit papal interference, fallible. The compromised in 1693 in resultingquarrelwas withdrew their assertions, such wise that the clergypractically but the King kept the disputed income. As againsthis own subjects,Louis XIV's policywas deter mined by his conceptionof national unity and Jesuit influence, de Maintenon in after his marriage to Madame especially Louis
Under
In 1685
1684.
XIV
he revoked
Protestantism
and
made
The
ultimate
result
was
the Edict under illegal
of Nantes the
(ante,p. 441),
severest
disastrous for France.
penalties.
Thousands
of
industrious citizens emigrated to England, Holland, The former alliances with Protestant Germany, and America. its most Powers
were
ruptured,contributingmuch
to
the
militaryfail
of the latter years of Louis XIV's reign. Jesuit influence led to equally disastrous opposition by the
ures
Cornelius Jansen (1585-1638), King and Pope to Jansenism. a thoroughgoing bishop of Ypres, an earnest Catholic, was Augustinian, convinced that the semi-PelagianJesuit inter His chief work, pretationsof sin and grace must be combated. Jansen's published in 1640, after his death. Augustinus,was condemned book was by Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) in 1642, the more but Jansen's views found much deeply support among of Port Catholics of France, notably in the nunnery religious of the influential opponent The Paris. most Royal, near in his Lettres Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), especially Jesuits was XIV Louis Provinciates of 1656. supported the Jesuit hos In 1710 the its followers. to Jansenism, and persecuted tility had found Jansenism torn down. buildingsof Port Royal were in PasquierQuesnel (1634-1719),who leader of power a new
THE
CATASTROPHE
OF
557
JESUITS
THE
His devotional com safetyin the Netherlands. the New Testament,of 1687-1692, on mentary, Moral Reflections and through their efforts Pope bitter Jesuit hostility, aroused Clement XI (1700-1721), by the bull Unigenitus of 1713, of Quesnel'sstatements, some hundred and one condemned one from taken literally Augustine. Louis Antoine de Noailles (1651-1729), cardinal archbishop of Paris, protestedand ap pealed to a generalcouncil. Oppositionwas, however, vain. The Jesuits,supportedby the French monarchy, ultimately
had
seek
to
triumphed. Partly through this Jansenist controversy, and partly by of quarrelsbetween the Jesuits and the older Roman reason clergy,a division occurred in Utrecht, in the Netherlands, from which in 1723 a small, independent,so-called Jansenist Cath with an archbishopin which stillexists, olic Church originated, and Deventer. Utrecht, and bishops in Haarlem of the Huguenots and the triumph For France the expulsion While much of the Jesuits were varietyof great misfortunes. in England, Germany, and was interpretation possible religious in eighteenth-cen Holland, within the bounds of Christianity, Romanism of the the choice was only between tury France of its own Jesuit type, which many tide of the demned, and the rapidlyrising
noblest
narrow
new
sons
con
rationalism
of
a
his associates (ante, p. 492). Thousands pre to be obvious ferred the latter,and the destructive results were of the church. in the French Revolutionarytreatment Voltaire
and
eighteenthcentury brought to the Jesuits their greatest catastrophe. They had largelyengaged in their own consti in colonial trade, in spiteof its prohibition influence was notorious, and they had tutions; their political In this the hostility of the radical rationalism of the age. latter force they found their most determined foes. The power ful minister of King Joseph of Portugal (1750-1777), the mar of rationalistic sym a man (1699-1782), was quis of Pombal pathies. He was angered by Jesuit resistance to his policyin Paraguay. He opposed the free-trade attitude of the Jesuits. In 1759 he enforced the deportationof all Jesuits from Por France with ruthless high hand. contempo tuguese territory aroused by the scandalous bankruptcy of the raneouslywas force in the Jesuit Lavelette in Martinique. The controlling The
French
latter half of the
Government
was
that of the duke
of Choiseul
(1719-
THE
558
FRENCH
REVOLUTION
also sympathizer with the Enlightenment. He was de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV aided by Madame also hos (1715-1774). A largepart of the French clergywere In 1764 the Jesuits were tile to the Jesuits. suppressed in France. Spain and Naples expelledthem in 1767. The rulers forced from Pope Clement XIV of these lands now (1769-1774) the abolition of the order in July,1773. These events attested
1785), a
of the papacy. The Jesuits continued Russia and in Protestant Prussia.
the weakness in non-Roman
existence
growth of tolerance in France is shown by the tion from persecutionaccorded to Protestants by the The
of Louis
ment
and
to break
the
churches
Revolution
about
was
the the church, with the nobility, ancient institutions. The Revolutionary away
the rationalistic spirit.They viewed clubs. In 1789 church lands were religious
as
national
property.
The
year
abolished. overthrew
sweep
of the French
filled with
were
declared
storm
kindred
throne, and leaders
to
govern
in 1787.
XVI
tremendous
The
exemp
same
In
the
1790
the
monasteries
were
civil constitution of the
made the old ecclesiasticaldivisions,
each
clergy
"depart all priests
and provided for the election of bishopric, The constitution of by the legalvoters of their communities. In 1793 the Jacobin freedom. 1791 pledged complete religious of leaders procured the abolition of Christianity.Hundreds ment"
a
After the "terror"
beheaded.
ecclesiastics were
was
over,
in
freedom was more once proclaimed,though the 1795, religious to be without religion.It was, in real state, as such, was
ity, strongly antichristian. zerland.
Pope
where The
situation
was
extended
Italy,and republicby French
conquests to the Netherlands, northern
French
and
This
In 1798 Pius
Rome
VI
was
made
a
(1775-1799) carried
a
prisonerto
by Swit
arms,
France,
he died. led to the election of Pius VII the restoration of the States of the Church.
militaryevents
(1800-1823) and
of 1800
Napoleon, on attainingpower, though himself without religious recognizedthat a majority of the French people were feeling, Roman Catholics,and that the church might be used by him. The
result
was
the
Concordat
with
the
papacy
in 1801
and
the Organic Articles of 1802. By the former, the church sur rendered all confiscated lands not stillheld by the government. restored to it. AppointThose in government possession were
AND
NAPOLEON
THE
CHURCH
559
to be by the Pope on of bishops and archbishopswere nomination appointedby by the state. Lower clergy were to be Clergy were bishops,but the state had a veto power. ment
paid from decrees
the state
were
to be
By the Organic Articles no papal published or French synods held without
treasury.
To
governmental allowance. accorded, at the
were
ters and
same
full
Protestants
time, and
control of their affairs assumed
religious rights
the pay of their minis by the state. Napoleon
Pius VII, annexed the States of the Church in 1809, and held the Pope a prisonerfrom that time till1814. Napoleon'sConcordat was to rule the relations of France and with quarrelled
soon
than a century. Intended to place the for more the papacy French Catholic Church under the control of the government, that result under Napoleon, its real effect and accomplishing
clergylook to the Pope as their sole it aid againstthe state. By ignoringall ancient local rights, freedom, and opened reallyruined all Gallican claims to partial the door to that Ultramontane spiritcharacteristic of French to make
was
Catholicism
the French
throughoutthe
nineteenth
century.
wars republicanand Napoleonic periodsresulted in far-reaching changes in Germany. The old ecclesiastical
The
of the
ceased to exist in 1803, and were divided territoriespractically In 1806 Francis II (1792-1835) the secular states. between Emperor. He had alreadyas resignedthe title Holy Roman It that of Emperor of Austria. the Holy Roman venerable institution, sumed
indeed, been long but medieval
memories
a
the
was
shadow, but which
Empire, which was
of the relations of church
Napoleon's downfall
was
followed
passingof
bound and
a
had,
up with
state.
by universal reaction.
by its antiquity.It was to be years before the real progress effected by the Revolutionaryage was This reaction was aided by the rise of Roman to be manifest. of the mediaeval and rejection ticism with its new appreciation of that spirit of the eighteenthcentury which had been dominant The papacy in the Revolution. profitedby all these impulses and soon developed a strengthgreater than it had shown for a A characteristic evidence of this new hundred years. position the restoration, of the papacy was by Pius VII, in August, 1814, of the Jesuits,who speedilyregained their old ascendancy in papal counsels,and their wide extended activities, though not in their former political They have, turn, been forepower.
The
old seemed
of value
UTRAMONTANISM.
560 in the
most
the
time
same
Church
development
and
and
of piety that has continued
IX
support of papal authority. At
restoration of the
the
accompanied
was
PIUS
made to
of the
power
possibleby
Roman
real revival
a
characterize it to the present
day.
development during
Roman
the
nineteenth
in the direction of the assertion of
been
called Utramontanism
point of
i. e.,
"
of northern
view
this Ultramontane
and
papal supremacy,
the
beyond
mountains
Europe
western
"
has
century
that
from
the
that is Italian.
above all exalt the papacy national or local ecclesiasticism the Jesuits have powerfully Pius VIFs successor, Leo XII contributed. (1823-1829),was To
tendency
to
reactionary,condemning, like his predecessor,the work of Bible societies. Gregory XVI a (1831-1846) was patron of but reactionarytoward modern social and political learning, ideals. This essentially mediaeval outlook and refusal to make with the modern
terms
world led to the formation, in the first nineteenth anticlerical century, of clerical and
of the
half
partiesin termined The
Catholic
the
countries,whose
of politics
Ultramontane
tration in the papacy at a time pontificate
those
lands
contests to
have
largelyde
the present.
tendencies found
their conspicuous illus (1846-1878). Beginninghis
of Pius IX when
the States
of the Church
were
on
offices were held edge of revolt because the leadingpolitical reformer ; but the task by the clergy,he was at first a political proved too much for him and he adopted a reactionarypolitical the
policywhich made it necessary to seek the support of foreign soldieryand rendered the people dissatisfied with his political convinced that in the papacy rule. In religion he was sincerely world is a divinelyappointedinstitution to which the modern problems. can appeal for the decision of its vexed religious He
desired to
make
this evident.
In
December,
1854, after
the bishops of the Roman Church, he pro claimed the immaculate conceptionof the Virgin that is,that sin. The questionhad been Mary shared in no taint of original consultation with
"
in
discussion since the Middle
Ages, though
Catholic opinionin the nineteenth century in favor
by
his
condemned
a
balance
of
overwhelmingly
approved by the Pope. He elevated it, dogma of faith. act, into a necessary Syllabusof Errors,prepared under papal auspices, but things which most Christians oppose; many
of the view
own
In 1864
was
the
THE also
COUNCIL
VATICAN
repudiatedmuch
561
is the foundation
which
of modern
states,
state, non-sectarian schools, and concluded by condemn toleration of varieties in religion,
like the
ing the
separationof
claim
that "the
oncile himself civilization as
church
and
Pontiff
Roman
and
can
ought to rec and liberalism,
with, progress, to, and agree latelyintroduced."
The
the Vatican was crowning event of Pius IX's pontificate Council. 8, 1869, with a remarkably Opened on December world, its most im largeattendance from all over the Roman the affirmation, on July 18, 1870, of the doc portant result was trine of papal infallibility by a vote of five hundred and thirtythree to two. It was far from asserting that all papal utterances infallible. To be so the Pope must are expound, in his official capacity,"the revelation or depositof faith delivered through the Apostles." "The Roman he speaks ex pontiff,when cathedra,that is,when in dischargeof the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians,by virtue of his supreme apostolic he defines doctrine faith morals authority, to a or regarding be held by the universal church, by the divine assistance prom ised to him in blessed Peter, is possessedof that infallibility with which
the divine Redeemer
be endowed."
Thus
of Ultramontanism.
willed that His
the Vatican It
the
was
papal monarchy, of a generalcouncil supremacy and
Council
sealed the
completion
the overthrow
church
of the
should
triumph absolute
of that doctrine
which
of the
had
loomed so largein the fifteenth century (ante,pp. 306-312), and had not been without its representatives since.
Though undoubtedly papal development,this
the
logicaloutcome
of centuries
doctrinal definition encountered siderable opposition, in Germany. The most especially nent
refuser of
torian,Johann
conformity was Joseph Ignaz
though excommunicated,
of
con
emi
the von
he
Munich his distinguished Dollinger(1799-1890), but
declined
to
initiate
a
schism.
What
he refused,others achieved,and the result was the organ ization of the Old Catholics,who received episcopal ordina tion from the Jansenist Church of Utrecht (ante,p. 557). Their
chief
spread has been in Germany, Switzerland,and still more than a hundred Austria,where they number thou sand adherents. have They though very feebly,reached even, the United seem
to have
States.
Yet
littlefuture.
the Old Its
Catholic
movement
would
departuresfrom Rome, though
LOSS
562
OF
vital enough to serve of the Christian Church.
important,were basis of
not
branch
a
SOVEREIGNTY
TEMPORAL
as
longcontinuing
a
the tide of Italian national
Meanwhile
unity had been rising. carried on jointlyby the kingdom of Sardinia,under The war Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878), and France, under Napoleon III (1852-1870), againstAustria,supplemented by Italian en thusiasm led by Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), resulted in the establishment of the kingdom of Italy under Victor Em manuel the
in 1861, and
old
States
preservedto III. many
ber
the inclusion in it of the greater part of and its vicinitywere of the Church. Rome
On
the
the
Pope by
the Ultramontane
of the
outbreak
policyof Napoleon France
between
war
in 1870, the French troops were withdrawn. 20, 1870, Victor Emmanuel captured Rome, of the
habitants thousand
to
district voted
thousand
one
hundred
one
and
and On
and
Ger
Septem the
in
thirty-three to Italy.
for annexation
five hundred
the Pope the Italian Government guaranteed the privileges of a sovereign,and absolute possessionof the Vatican, the
To
Thus Lateran, and Castel Gandolfo. of the Church, the oldest continuous
existingin Europe. Pius and excommunicated prisoner, has
continued
sions; but an
to
non-Roman
a
advantage.
which
desire the
to
It removed
came
to
end the States
an
secular sovereigntythen protested,declared himself a
IX
Victor
The
Emmanuel.
papacy
restoration of its temporal posses this sacrifice seems to have been from
the
a
papacy
secular task
ill adapted to meet, and the attempted accom plishmentof which laid it open to well-groundedcharges of unhindered It gave maladministration. to the papacy scope it
was
functions. It is no acci development of its spiritual dent that in the forty-sevenyears that have elapsed since the has been more in the papacy loss of its territorialpossessions in fluential and has enjoyed the general respect of mankind than at any periodsince before the Reformation. highermeasure Pius IX was succeeded by a statesman Pope, Leo XIII (1878for the
1903). He concluded
imperialgovernment to
He Germany. support the republic. With Italy he
owing to He
and the the papacy urged French Catholics
the conflicts between
insistence on
of
less successful,
was
the restoration of the States of the Church.
declared Aquinas (ante,p. 270) the standard
struction,thus
returningto
ligious thought.
He
the
best
urged the study
of Roman
period of mediaeval of the
in re
Scriptures.He
MODERNISM
564 to perplexities
have
served
to
interest of religious
the
arouse
the nation. The
problem was occasioned by the rise of the Mod histor spiteof growing Ultramontanism, modern
second
ernists.
In
and scientificconceptions Biblical investigation, ical criticism, of growth through development,have found a foothold,though
scanty, in the
Roman
thoughtfulmen
some
communion.
To
earnest
some
of Catholicism reinterpretation
intellectual world
and
in terms
seemed
imperative. Such Hermann Schell (1850-1906) in Germany, Alfred Loisy were (1857-) in France, George Tyrrell (1861-1909) in England, confined to no in Italy. Modernism and quite a group was Pius X set his face. By a country. Against this movement in 1907, Modernism was con "syllabus,"and an "encyclica," taken for its repression. demned, and stringent measures of the
These
modern
have
dencies
apparentlybeen successful,but be
can
Pius
termine.
whether
such ten permanently crushed only the future can de administrative X interested himself in many
with effect.
reforms
(1914-),is of scholarlyspirit and and peace-loving nature, but the brevityof his pontificate the overshadowing interests of the great world war have, as present Pope, Benedict
The
yet, rendered
an
estimate of his
SECTION
American Old World.
XV
XVI.
difficult. pontificate
CHRISTIANITY
AMERICAN
importationfrom
is primarilyan Christianity
the
As the colonization of America
representedmany European Christianity
Europe, so the various types of continent. Where, as in South were reproduced on the new and Central America, the immigrationwas of a singlerace, imposing its civilization on the natives,a singletype of Chris Catholic is dominant to-day, however tianity the Roman extensivelyits control may have been contested by secularist
races
of
"
influences.
"
Where,
as
in North
America,
stocks
many
have
Christianity the result in colonial beginnings, here and there dominant was has been great varietyand religious freedom, as a consequence has produced cer of necessary toleration. America mutual tain indigenousreligious types, but they have been relatively
contributed
to the
but insignificant;
population,though
in North
one
form
America, where
of
contact
between
MISSIONS
ROMAN
AMERICA
IN
565
of inde acute, and where the principle than pendence from state control has been dominant for more modification from European a century, there had been much
various types has been
in church forms, especially
government
what
"
be called
may
Americanization.
an
Central
America
largely the work of the monastic orders, stronglysupported by the laboring By 1508 the Franciscans were Spanish Government. in Venezuela. numerous enough to hold a By 1529 they were constituted In 1535 they had synod in Mexico. provincial later they had begun work in Peru a province. Four years the first to enter Brazil. By 1597 they Argentina. They were The
had
conversion
founded
United The
and
Christian communities
States
Their mission
of South
"
periodin
California
By 1526 they laboringin Colombia. cans.
is
they
1700
from
was
part of the
now
in Texas.
were
1769
to 1843.
worthy competitorsin
found
Franciscans
In
Mexico.
New
in what
was
in Mexico.
were
In
1541
were
Domini
after
they were Christian pioneers
Soon
they
the
in Chile. Even
extensive
more
the activityof the Jesuits. From in Brazil. Colombia extensive work
was
they developed an in soon proved one of their most successful fields. They were In the country last Peru by 1567, and in Paraguay by 1586. named, in 1610, they established their much discussed pater nally controlled Indian villages(ante,p. 430). The seven 1549
teenth century witnessed their extensive activitiesin Ecuador, Bolivia,and Chile. By 1572 they began a great work in Mexico.
brighterpage of missionarysacrifice is to be found than that written by the Jesuits in Canada, beginningin 1611. provinceof Though aided by other orders,the stronglyRoman to this day. In 1673 a Jesuit mis Quebec is their monument sionary,JacquesMarquette (1637-1675),discovered the Missis No
sippi. A
stations
series of mission
through
the
Mississippi
Louisiana,followed. Florida was missionary land for Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits from 1568, but proved difficult. The flourishing missions there was from 1625 to 1700. period of Roman in Mexico founded Universities were City in 1551, and in
valley,as
far south
as
in 1557, which are higherlearningin the New
Lima
The
Church
of
the
most
venerable
institutions of
World.
England was
introduced
into the oldest Eng-
566
VIRGINIA,
lish colony in what at
its
1776.
MARYLAND, is now
the United
States
planting in 1607, and remained Though it retained the affections
of the colonists, even
CAROLINAS
THE
that of
Virginia established by law till
the establishment
"
"
of many of the noblest of William and Mary
College,in 1693, failed to provide an adequate supply of native clergy. Throughout the colonial periodVirginiawas dependent clerical appointments by the distant bishop of London. on The result was too often the selection of the incompetent and sometimes of the unworthy, while the parishes which were bound by law to furnish the minister's support revenged them selves by a grudging acquiescence. The attempts of the clergy to collect their dues by law, supportedby the home government, of the causes of disaffection leadingto the Revolution. was one On the whole, Virginiaepiscopacy,in colonial days, led a troubled and scantilyfruitful existence. Virginia'snorthern neighbor,Maryland, the first English the United proprietarycolony in what is now States, was chartered
Catholic,to for
Lord
to
toleration.
Under
freedom
in
1632.
Himself
a
Roman
the sovereigntyof England believers,Baltimore established full religious
secure
his fellow
Baltimore
under
these conditions the Protestant
Dissenters
in Maryland, by the close of the seventeenth century, outnum Catholics and Anglicans. In 1691 Maryland bered the Roman created
royal colony,and the next year the Church of England was by law established. During the remainder of the colonial periodits livings the most valuable of any in were the colonies ; but it suffered from the inefficiency of the clergy, like Virginia. Quakers, Presbyterians,and Methodists grew in The establishment ended the tur numerous. practically moil of the Revolution. A brightspot in the religious history of these two the efficientlabor of Thomas colonies was Bray of of who secured the (1656-1730),commissary bishop London, the foundation of the Societyfor the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in 1701 (ante,p. 508). North and South Carolina both saw the Church of England The legallyestablished till the contests of the Revolution. mixed religious character of their population,includingHugue nots, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, Baptists,and Quakers, ren dered this establishment ineffective, though these colonies were well served, in the eighteenthcentury, by missionaries of the societyfounded by Bray, and Charleston had a distinguished was
a
CONGREGATIONALISM
ENGLAND
NEW
567
founded on succession of rectors. Georgia was Catholics ; but not Roman toleration for all save
the basis of a
littlework
by the missionaries of the Societyfor the Propaga tion of the Gospel,and something has been said of the experi of the Wesleys and of Whitefield (ante,pp. 511, 512). ences was
done
said that in the southern colonies in the was Revolution the condition of religion low, and the existence of an establishment did littleto improve it. and Puritans in New The settlement of English Separatists
be it may general, periodprecedingthe In
the steps which led to the colonies erection,between then and 1638, of the Congregational Haven of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New
England, beginning in 1620,
and
alreadybeen noted (ante,pp. 466, 469). Founded in re ligiousenthusiasm, possessingan educated ministry, these have
provisionfor
colonies made
from
its maintenance
their
own
by the founding of Harvard Collegein 1636 and of Yale Collegein 1701. Nor was effort neglectedfor the conversion The work of John Eliot (1604-1690),begun of the Indians. in 1646, led to the formation, in 1649, of the first missionary societyin England (ante,p. 522). The earlyCongregationalfrom their ists of New England did not differ theologically sons
Puritan
brethren Presbyterian
and
in Great
Britain.
For their
first century their controversies were regardingthe develop of polityrather than concerning questionsof doctrine. ments By 1631, in Massachusetts, and speedilyin the other adjacent A religious established by law. colonies Congregationalismwas establishment there continued longer than elsewhere in the United States,in Connecticut till1818, and in Massachusetts Dissent
till 1834.
from
the
established
occasional Baptists in almost from the beginning,and in they organizeda church in pression
There
there ers
were
was
a
BaptistChurch
arrived in Massachusetts
years
four
were
hanged
in
order
appeared. the Massachusetts colony spiteof governmental re in 1665. Boston By 1705
Groton, in Connecticut.
in 1656, and
in Boston.
within
Quak
the next
five
They continued, however,
established in England worship was Boston, in 1687, and gained a footingat Stratford,in Connecti of Protestant Freedom worship was granted by cut, in 1707. law in charter of 1691, and by Connecticut the Massachusetts 1708, and exemption from taxation for the support of Con Church
of
Churches gregational
was
to
increase.
granted to Baptists, Episcopalians,
BAPTISTS
568
AND
DUTCH
and
Quakers, under somewhat colonies,between 1727 and 1729.
REFORMED
conditions,in both
onerous
At the Yale
Commencement
of 1722
the rector, or president, of the college, Timothy Cutler Johnson (1683-1765), and Samuel (1696-1772), later (1754) to
be the firstpresidentof what
is now
Columbia
Universityin New York City, with one of the tutors at Yale, declared for epis The event was which important, not in the college, copacy. native episcopalministry a deposed them, but as establishing in New England, especiallyin Connecticut, where its labors were supported by the English Societyfor the Propagationof the Gospel in Foreign Parts. In generalit may be said,however, that,though New England remained a religious land, the zeal of its founders had burned low by the opening of the eighteenthcentury, and isolation, with the Indians, and frontier conditions brought their wars inevitable provincialism. A highly individual development in New the England was settlement of Rhode Island. Providence was begun, in 1636, from by Roger Williams (1604?-!684?),then under banishment Massachusetts
and
an
opponent
of coercion
in matters
of
re
Island became a ligion. Rhode refuge for those seekingfree dom of religious expression. In 1639 the first Baptist Church in America
time
a
established,of which
was
Williams
member, spending his later life as
a
was
for
"seeker."
a
In
short
spite
of many internal troubles from an intense individualism,the broad principles of religious Island toleration on which Rhode founded
was
were
well
and
found Quakers, in particular, New
York
honorably maintained.
in it
a
The
home.
Dutch as a trading permanently founded Reformed Church, colony in 1624. By 1628 its first Dutch the earliest representative of the Presbyterian polityin America, formed. New York soon was asserted,however, its cosmopoli tan character. By 1644 the future cityincluded in its inhabi Dutch tants Reformed, Lutherans, Mennonites, EnglishCatholics. From 1652 onward speaking Puritans, and Roman made an by the colonial authorities to prevent attempt was Church of Hol any other worship than that of the Reformed land. The Quakers were specially objectsof repression.Dutch control ceased in 1664, when York New passed to the English, whose possessionwas finallyconfirmed ten years later. The Englishgovernors attempted to construe the Church of Engwas
land
569
majorityof inhabitants,especially
The
established.
as
PRESBYTERIANS
AND
QUAKERS
assembly, offered successful representedin the legislative opposition.In the foundation of TrinityChurch, in 1697, the Church of England was effectively planted in New York City, and French then Huguenots were though the Dutch Reformed Re more stronglyrepresented. In 1709 a largeGerman even into the colony. formed immigration from the Palatinate came as
Reformed
the Dutch
In 1720
sion in the arrival from
Church
Holland
received
ing influence Of what
to
to
was
York
New
notable
Jacobus
of Theodorus
huysen (1691-1747),whose remarkable in New Jersey,but was to extend its
a
acces
Frelingexercised
ministrywas
quickeningand organiz
also.
become
New
the
Jersey,East Jersey saw
Congregationalsettlersfrom
es
Haven
colony, in the region of Reformed at Newark, in 1666, of the Dutch New Brunswick, and of Scotch Presbyterians. West Jersey received a largeQuaker immigration in 1677-1678. of the grant of Pennsylvania Mention has alreadybeen made to William Penn, in 1681, and its settlement by Quakers in the Quaker policyof toleration following year (ante,p. 480). The of other forms of faith. Hence attracted representatives no bodies as other colony presented such a variety of religious soon Pennsylvania. Baptists from Wales and Ireland were more strongly represented than elsewhere in the colonies. from Germany and Holland settled German town, Mennonites tablishment
in 1683.
saw
of
England
long feeble.
was a
and
Dunkards
Church
The but
of
other German
first half of the
great influx of German
(Calvinists).The been noted
bodies
followed.
soon
plantedin Philadelphiain 1695,
was
The
New
Lutherans
and
eighteenthcentury German
beginningsof the Moravians
Reformed
have
already
(ante,p. 504).
After the Stewart restoration of 1660 a new element, des tined to be of great economic and political importance, the
Scotch-Irish,came
from
the
Scottish
settlements
in
Ulster.
devotedly Presbyterian. They found a missionary and an organizerin Francis Makemie (?-1708), who labored, from 1691 onward, from New York to South Carolina. certainly To his initiative the organizationof the first American pres due. From 1713 bytery, that of Philadelphia,in 1705, was nearlyto the American Revolution the Scotch-Irish were pour They
were
ing in
like
a
flood.
They
settled much
of Maine
and
New
AWAKENING
GREAT
THE
570
mostly Hampshire in New England, where, however, they were In New York they absorbed by the CongregationalChurches. constituted a largefraction of the population. Nowhere were than in Pennsylvania,and by stronglyrepresented they more the political control of the able practically to wrest 1764 were the fron colony from the Quakers. They sought prevailingly tier,and to this energeticrace the settlement of what is now North West Carolina, and ultimatelyKen Virginia,western tucky, Tennessee, as well as large sections of South Carolina, Georgia,and Alabama, was due. By 1717 a synod was formed, York and New of New Jersey,Penn includingthe presbyteries sylvania,Delaware, and Maryland. In general the ScotchIrish were destitution, through lack long in a periodof religious of ministers and organizedchurches. Religionin America during the period tillthe second quarter the propagationof of the eighteenthcentury was essentially England, it was relatively European bodies. Save in New feeble,and there had suffered a serious decline of its original in the col dominant No enthusiasm. religious body was one onies
as
trenched
in
colonies,no particular
of all the colonies.
religiousfreedom States
the United
denominations particular
While
whole.
a
The
which as
a
way was
thus
was
to
could
church
become
made
were
become
ready
in that
for that
the characteristic of
nation.
of the eight event far-reachingand transforming the revival known life of America was eenth-centuryreligious It was the Great Awakening. not only a tremendous quick as ening of the Christian life,it changed the conceptionsof en that profoundlyaffects the majority trance on that lifein a way the of American churches to this day. In this respect it was in Great Britain. analogue of Pietism in Germany or Methodism It emphasized the conception of a transformingregenerative change, a conversion," as the normal method of entrance into It gave generaldiffusion to the Baptist the kingdom of God. of experi view of the church as a company or Congregational Christian nurture. It laid little weight on ential Christians. It promoted an ascetic theory of the Christian life. under the Some premonitionsof the revival were to be seen preaching,in the vicinityof Raritan, New Jersey,of Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysenafter 1720 (ante,p. 569). He had come The
most
"
under
Pietisticinfluences in Holland.
Near
him, and impressed
JONATHAN
572
aroused mother in 1775 tive
war
friction with the by the Stamp Act, and by increasing of the Revolution country, resultingin the outbreak ; the Declaration of Independence in 1776 ; the destruc till 1783 ; and the protracteddiscussions of the frame
of the nation
work
of
ment
which
did not
under
government
than
more
EDWARDS
the
men's generation
a
terminate
Constitution
thoughtswere
and religion in America questions, the trusted political leaders were
till the establish
absorbed
at low
was
in 1789. ebb.
For
in these of
Many
influenced by the Deism
of
The
France
most England or (ante,p. 492). significant re the plantingof ligiousforce arisingduring this period was American Methodism, beginningin 1766 (ante,pp. 517-518) a sowing destined to a mighty harvest. Out of the discussions of the Great Awakening there emerged in New considerable contribution that England the most had make to to eighteenth-centuryAmerica theology in "
"
the
work
Edwards
Jonathan
of
in what
pastor'shome
is
now
and South
his school.
Windsor,
Born
in
a
Connecticut, in
in 1720.
From 1727 to his graduated at Yale dismissal,after a painfulcontroversy, in 1750, he was pastor in Northampton, Massachusetts ; then missionaryto the Indians tillhis removal at Stockbridge,in the same Commonwealth,
1703, Edwards
to
undertake
fore his death also the
presidencyof Princeton, a
the
few
weeks
be
A leader in the great revival,his was intellect that colonial America philosophical
in 1758.
keenest
produced. A Calvinist,emphasizing the absolute divine sov in ereigntyin conversion againstall Arminian modifications, Freedom his Enquiry into of Will of 1754 he held that while all men have natural abilityto turn to God, they lack This deter moral ability that is,the inclination so to do. mining inclination is the transforminggiftof God ; though its for sin. To Edwards's absence is no excuse thinkingvirtue is of being love to intelligent being in proportionto the amount each possesses. Hence God, the greatest of all beings,justly seeks His own test must place glory,while man by the same the service of God and his fellows before his own advantage. Sin is,therefore, and virtue disinterested benevo selfishness, .
.
.
"
"
lence. Edwards's
views
were
developed by
his
Joseph disciples,
Bellamy (1719-1790), Samuel Hopkins (1721-1803), Timothy D wight (1752-1817),Edwards's and namesake, Jonathan son
DEVELOPMENT
THEOLOGICAL
573
(1745-1840). All of these insisted on a conscious conversion, involving a trans formation from selfishness to "disinterested benevolence," as Nathanael
(1745-1801),and
method
the
To Hop into the kingdom of God. not complete in self-sacrifice was un
of entrance
kins this "benevolence" less it involved best
divine
to
a
Emmons
to willingness
wisdom.
The
be
should that
damned,
younger
that Christ died for all and believing
Jonathan
seem
Edwards,
for the
elect only, not driven by the rise of Universalism to substitute the Growas tian conception of Christ's death as a sacrifice to "general
justice"(ante,p. 456), rather
penal satisfaction for in dividual sins. This "governmental" theory of the atonement largelydominated New England thinkingtillafter the middle of
the
nineteenth
century.
stronglymissionary in
than
This
and spirit,
a
Edwardean from
school
it most
of the
was
early
New
England foreignmissionaries came. Meanwhile there developed in eastern
Massachusetts, under of such men the leadership Charles Chauncy (1705-1787) as and Jonathan (1720-1766), both of Boston, partly Mayhew in oppositionto revival methods, and also through the in fluence of contemporaneous EnglishDissent,a liberal move "
of
"
decidedlyArian tendency,though its separationand full development as Unitarianism was tillthe be not to come ment
a
the nineteenth century. The attainment of American independencethrust upon those that had heretofore been branches of Euro religious fellowships
ginningof
pean
communions
tion.
the
In the condition
of separate American organiza of the new national life this must be
problem
As alreadyindependent organizationindependentof the state. of their European progenitors, such a task was the not laid upon the Presbyterians. or Congregationalists The Roman Catholics were stillscantilyrepresentedwithin the bounds of the United States. They were under the su of the vicar apostolicof London. In 1784 the perintendence much-respectedJohn Carroll (1735-1817)of Maryland was ap pointed prefect apostolicfor the United States by Pius VI consecrated (1775-1799). Six years later Carroll was bishop of Baltimore. In 1791 the first Roman Catholic synod of the
United
States
made
held in Baltimore.
In 1808
Baltimore,under
the seat of an archbishopric, while bishoprics established in New and BardsYork, Boston, Philadelphia,
Carroll,was were
was
PROTESTANT
THE
574
EPISCOPAL
(Kentucky). By Carroll's death
town
in the United
Catholicism
man
the
lished,and the
though
lution
than
more
enormously
so
hundred,
a
to
augment
yet in the future.
was
in America
communion
was
of Ro
been stronglyestab
had
priesthood numbered
this communion No
the foundations
States
immigrationwhich
CHURCH
the Church
suffered
severelyfrom the Revo ministry and congrega
so
England. Its tions were largelysympathetic with the mother country, and it seemed emerged from the strugglein ruins. Its very name un and that of "Protestant patriotic, Episcopal'7was adopted by conference of clergy and laity of Maryland in November, a as
Two
1780.
years
Christ's Church
of
later William
White
(1748-1836), rector
of
in
Philadelphia,and a hearty supporter of American independence, sketched out the plan under which the American Protestant to Episcopal Church was essentially be organized,in independence of the state and of English ecclesiastical control,with representative bodies composed not only of clergy but of laymen. He believed the prospect of In accordance with securingan American episcopateremote. White's suggestions,a voluntary convention, representative of eightstates, met in New. York City in October, 1784, and called the First General Convention to gather in Philadelphia in September, 1785. Meanwhile, the Episcopalclergyof Connecticut had held aloof and had chosen Samuel Seabury (1729-1796) as bishop,and he had gone to England for ordination in June, 1783. Finding it impossibleto receive consecration from the English episcopate in the absence of action by Parliament, Seabury procured it at the hands of the Nonjuror Scottish bishops in Aberdeen in November, The
1784.
General
the Protestant the work
Convention
Episcopal Church
of William
bishops for
of 1785
White.
ths ordination
adopted
in the United
It also of
a
constitution for
States,largely
appealed to
bishops for
the
English Seabury 's
America.
Scottish ordination from
might be valid,but the derivation of orders desired. The the parent English body was local Epis
copal conventions
bishops. The to act
of the
General
several
Convention
states
reconvened
report that the English bishops had from
bishop
Parliament, and of
that William
Pennsylvania and
were
Samuel
asked in 1786
procured White
Provoost
to
had
an
been
was
name
able
enabling chosen
(1742-1815) of
LUTHERANS
EPISCOPACY.
PROTESTANT
575
consecrated by February 4, 1787, they were the archbishopof Canterbury. Bishop Seabury and Bishops White and Provoost, represent ing different lines of consecration,looked upon each other at had not yet been rep first with antagonism. Connecticut On
York.
New
resented in the General
adjusted,and
Convention
these difficultieswere
Convention
General
in the
; but
all
of 1789
parties
revised and adapted to American united,the Prayer Book was Protestant Epis needs, and the foundation of the American
copalChurch fullylaid. Separationfrom the mother country made a Methodism pendent organizationfor American The
result
similar inde
imperative. the ordination by John Wesley in September, Vasey, Coke, Richard Whatcoat, and Thomas
was
1784, of Thomas
Baltimore, the forma tion of a Methodist EpiscopalChurch in the United States,and the ordination of Francis Asbury the same year (ante,pp. 517, 518). for work
in America
;
the Conference
in
by the (Dutch) Re formed Church, Church, and 1793 by the (German) Reformed of a dependence on Holland which had long been weakening, ended in complete self-government. but which now The
One
1792
year
now
very
saw
the abandonment
extensive American
communion, the Lutheran,
though not directlyaffected by the Revolutionarystruggleto de the degree characteristic of the bodies justmentioned, now on velopedits organization
American
lines. The
earlier Ger
prevailingly immigration of the eighteenthcentury was other than Lutheran. By the middle of that century Lutherinto Pennsylvania, anism was pouring in a flood, especially in numbers far smaller than the great immigra though of course the transition was tion of the nineteenth century. Religiously, man
difficult. The
institutions of
a
state church
could not
be trans
Germany, save from the Piet and scarcityof ministers Great disorganization ists of Halle. the results. Some improvement was effected by Zinzenwere Lutherdorf (ante,p. 505) ; but the great organizerof American Melchior Heinrich anism was Miihlenberg (1711-1787), who Under his leadershipthe first reached Philadelphiain 1742. formed in Philadelphia Lutheran synod, or ministerium, was in 1748. Quite as important for the future development of the constitution prepared by Lutheran American politywas
and planted,
littlehelpcame
from
LUTHERANS.
576
Miihlenberg for all officers were
UNIVERSALISTS
his
Philadelphiacongregationin 1762, by which chosen by the congregationitself. The two es
sential features of American
Lutheranism
were
thus sketched
"
Congregational in respect to the local congregation,Presby terian in respect to the standing of ministers in the synod. The synodicalsystem spreadslowly. The ministerium of New York after was soon organized in 1786. A third synod was formed in North Carolina. In 1821 a generalsynod, intended of all local synods, was to be representative formed, but only of a portionof the Lutherans supported it,and this willingness the rapidly multiplyinglocal synods to group themselves as they choose has continued till recentlycharacteristic of Am erican Lutheranism. Steps taken in connection with the four hundredth anniversary of the Reformation, in 1917, promise the union One
of all American
Lutheran
bodies.
further
religious body that developed during the period of struggle for national independence was that of the Universalists. Belief in the salvation of all occasionallyappeared in America elsewhere as a sporadicspecu as eighteenth-century lation. The father of organized Universalism was John Mur ray (1741-1815),who had been touched by Whitefield's preach ing in his native England, and by the writingsof James Relly (1722?-!778), who had passed from the status of one of Whitefield's preachersto that of an advocate of universal salvation. It was of Relly that Murray came in to America as a disciple 1770, and began an itinerating ministry,chieflyin New Eng land. A strict Calvinist,Murray believed that Christ had full payment of the not for the sins of a restricted group and immediate be blessedness would elect,but for all men, theirs at the judgment, when all unbelief in God's mercy would made
vanish.
For
those who
fullybelieve,the divine promised bless
edness A
beginsnow. further impulse was
Elhanan
given to
Universalism
when
in 1780
(1751-1797),a Baptist minister of Phila delphia,independentlyof Murray, adopted Universalist views, which he advocated with eloquence. Unlike Murray, his gen eral opinionswere Salvation is based on the ultimate Arminian. Winchester
free submission
of all to God
; but
will not
be achieved
of the unrepentant tilltheir spirits have protracted,but not eternal, suffering.Even case
was
Hosea
been more
in the
purifiedby influential
Ballou (1771-1852),long a pastor in Boston.
Mur-
UNITARIANS Winchester
and
ray
has followed him.
The
hereafter,tillmen
or
By
turn
from were
moral"
was
to hold
numerous sufficiently
in
convention
an
Sin bringspunishment, here it to God.
Philadelphia. Three land convention was organizedwhich Hampshire, and adopted a ter, New a
was
Universalism
of the atonement
men.
the Universalists
1790
Ballou
direction American
purpose
love to
forth God's
Trinitarians.
been
in this Unitarian
Arian, and to set
had
577
later
years
in 1803
met
brief creed
a
New
Eng
in Winches
which, though
Universalism. modified in 1900, is the historic basis of American The early converts to Universalism were though prevailingly, not
the humbler
always,from
walks
of life.
of some the other hand, won the allegiance of the oldest Congregational of east Churches and eminent men
Unitarianism, on
ern
growth of a "liberal" party before already been noted (ante,p. 573). Theo
Massachusetts.
the Revolution
The
has
overshadowed logicaldiscussion in that region was by the of the strugglefor independence. In 1785, momentous events of King's Chapel, the ancient Church however, the proprietors of England place of worship in Boston, excluded from the Prayer Book all references to the Trinity,thus becoming the firstUnitarian congregationin America. Similar views spread, and criticism of the doctrine of original sin,of the Calvinistic and insistence on salvation by an theory of predestination, character
were
more
even
characteristic of the "liberal"
move
denial of the Trinity. With the incoming of the re vival impulse at the close of the eighteenth century, of which ment
than
mention
will
of the conservative tween
tween
made, and the consequent strengthening evident be soon element, a cleavage was
be
soon
the "liberal" and the
divinityin
two
over
the
"orthodox"
theologyof
parties.A strugglebe the
Hollis
professorof
University resulted in 1805 in the vic tory of the "liberals" by the choice of Henry Ware (1764-1845). Meanwhile, in 1803, William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) had begun a greatlyrespectedand widely influential pastorate in Boston, and was preaching a high Arian Christology. Increasingdivision,and attacks by the "orthodox," led in 1815 to the adoptionby the "liberals" of the Unitarian name. A sermon by Channing in 1819 at the installation of Jared Sparks "(1789-1866)in Baltimore was widely regarded as the authoritative statement of the party, and gave to Channing Harvard
THE
578 henceforth In
1825
Though Unitarian
an
the
GREAT
in American unofficial leadership
American
Unitarian
largelyconfined men
is of eminent
REVIVALS
of
Association
Unitarianism. formed.
was
England, the roll of and public servants letters,philanthropists, to
eastern
New
distinction.
The
periodsof the Revolutionary contest and of the discus sions resultingin the adoption of the Constitution of the United States were epochs of great religious depression. The last decade of the eighteenthcentury saw marvellous trans a formation initiated. Without the aid of any singleoutstanding like that of Whitefield in the "Great personality, Awakening," interest began. Felt in New a mighty reawakening of religious England by 1792, within the next four years it -was strongly manifested in the Middle States,whence it swept through the in 'tri South, and by the dawn of the nineteenth century was West umphant progress in the new beyond the Alleghanies. In Kentucky it was felt with peculiar There the camppower. meeting" began in 1800 ; and there the revival was often accom panied, as had been the "Great Awakening," by outcries and revival periodwas bodilymanifestations. As a whole, this new far less marked of over than the earlier by these symptoms Its effects were the less profound, wrought excitement. none and the new interest was religious long continued and trans "
forming. Indeed, the
revivals may
with less frequency and
predominant Led men
as
who
feature
be said to have
continued,
diminishingintensitytill 1858,
of American
as
the
life. religious
its human this revival movement, on fullyshared the Pietistic and Methodist
was
side,by traditions
of the
eighteenthcentury, it emphasized the relation of the individual soul to God, and regarded a conscious conversion
as
the normal
entrance
into the
Christian
life. It
was
dis
for which some account posed to view that as scarcelyreligion of a transformingchange in feelingcould not be given. All American bodies except the Roman Catholics,Luth religious Protestant Episcopalians,Quakers, and Unitarians erans, shared these convictions. Presbyteriansand Congregationalin these respects essentially ists,Methodists and Baptists,were this type But the Methodists at one. and Baptists,to whom of piety was "most native,found the largestpopular following, aided by their willingness such ministerial instrumentali to use available. They speedily whether educated or not, as were ties,
THE
580
CUMBERLAND
PRESBYTERIANS
elaboratelyequippedtheological seminary,and in that opened by inauguratorof a new many ways era, was the Congregationalists in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1808. Four years later the Presbyteriansinaugurateda similar semi New Jersey. In 1815 a Lutheran theological nary at Princeton, school was established in Hartwick, New York. The Divinity School of Harvard Universitywas opened under Unitarian aus picesthe same Bangor TheologicalSeminary, in Maine, year. founded in 1816. The Baptistsin was by Congregationalists (New York) TheologicalSeminary in 1819. augurated Hamilton Two years later the PresbyterianSchool in Auburn, New York, was established,and in 1822 the Congregationalists opened the Divinity School of Yale University. These institutions for ministerial trainingmultipliedrapidly,and by 1860 had in creased to fifty,a number since greatly augmented. The whole character of pastoral preparationwas broadened, deep and ened, systematized. Out of these religious awakeningsthere grew many divisions. One such of importance was the rise of the Cumberland Pres The Cumberland and byterian Church. region in Tennessee Kentucky was powerfully stirred by the revival in 1800. Churches and in 1802 the Cumberland were rapidlymultiplied, The need of preacherswas Presbyterywas formed. great, and the presbytery desired ministerial standing for some earnest the educational who lacked demanded men qualifications young by Presbyterianismgenerally. The revival preachinghad pro The
most
the
duced elect
a
conviction
that
the doctrines that Christ
died
for the
only, and that any portion of the race is reprobate save hindrances rather than helps. by its own personal acts, were The Kentucky synod viewed these departures with disfavor, in 1806 and ordered the Cumberland Presbytery dissolved. In 1810 the Cumberland Presbytery reconstituted itself as an independent body. Its growth was rapid. In 1813 a synod Pres Cumberland was organized,and in 1816 it took the name soon byterian Church, though it was representedvastly more widely than the regionfrom which the title was derived. in worked The older Presbyteriansand Congregationalists harmony in home missions in what have long been the northern in 1801 by the central states under the plan of union formed the Association of Connecticut and General Presbyterian Old School the General Assembly, till it was repudiatedby
DISCIPLES
THE
581
Presbyteriansin 1837, and by the Congregationalrivalries ists in 1852. In general,however, denominational in the extension keen and controversy bitter,especially were work of the developingWest. of the
wing
Out
of
conviction of the evils of these divisions
earnest
an
much
of
movement
importance
Thomas
grew.
a
Campbell Presbyterian
minister of the Secession a (1763-1854) was Church (ante,p. 553) of the north of Ireland, who
to
came
Pennsylvania. began work in western in welcoming Presbyteriansof all partiesto Here his freedom communion aroused criticism,and he was disciplined by the Secession Presbytery of Chartiers. Campbell felt it his duty and to assert as the stand to protest againstsuch sectarianism, America
in 1807, and
the discipleship
of all Christian
ard
it.
alone,as he understood
Thomas
literal terms
Campbell
now
of the Bible broke
with
but continued to labor in western Presbyterians, the Scrip "Where Pennsylvania,announcing as his principle: tures silent, we are speak,we speak ; and where the Scriptures the Secession
silent."
are
but
a
union
not
was
a
denomination
new
of all Christians
tests of creed
added
bell
It
or
so-called from
the
this Biblical basis,without ritual. In August, 1809, Thomas Camp
Christian
organizedThe
planned,
that he
on
Association
Pennsylvania county
of
of
Washington its origin and for "
"
which has since prepared the "Declaration and Address" document of what was been regarded as a fundamental to be The same known Thomas the Disciplesmovement. as year Campbell's son, Alexander (1786-1866),emigratedto America,
it he
and
was
to
soon
father in fame
his outstrip
as
an
advocate
of
the former's views. of sectarianism, the Campbells spiteof their deprecation organizeda church in Bush Run, Pennsylvania,in May, 1811. The Lord's Supper was observed each Sunday from the begin of to the Scripturalwarrant as arose ning. But doubts now infant baptism. In 1812 the Campbells and a number of their In
associates became Churches. The
a
were
immersed.
member Points of
of the
A
year
Redstone
later the Bush Association
disagreementwith the
Run
church
of
Baptist Baptists developed.
Calvinism. Campbells disliked the Baptists'strenuous To the Campbells the Old Testament far less authoritative was than the New. To the Baptistsbaptism was of the a privilege alreadypardoned sinner;to the Campbells it was a condition
ADVENTISTS.
582
MORMONS
Campbells, without being in Unitarians,refused to employ other than Scriptural any sense expressionsregardingthe Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The from the Baptists,which may be said result was a withdrawal this time onward From the to have been completed by 1827. followers of the Campbells were practicallya denomination, known popularly as Disciplesof Christ. They are Congrega tional in polity. Their growth has been remarkable, and has constituted the Disciplesan important factor in American life. religious A peculiardevelopment of prophetical was interpretation that of William Miller (1782-1849), a Baptist farmer of Low he preached widely, From 1831 onward Hampton, New York. assertingon the basis of calculations from the book of Daniel that the second coming and the inaugurationof the millennial He won in 1843-1844. thousands reignof Christ would occur his dis of followers. In spiteof the failure of his prediction, ciplesheld a generalconference of Adventists, as they styled themselves, in 1845, and have persistedto the present, some holding to the observance of the seventh day. Their belief that the coming of Christ is near, though at a date not deterdo not bear the who minable, is widely diffused among many of
forgiveness.Moreover,
Adventist
the
name.
is Mormonism, perversion of Christianity founded by Joseph Smith (1805-1844),who claimed to have dug Manchester, New York, in 1827, a volume of goldplates, up, near the Book of Mormon, supplementary to the Bible, written in mysteriouscharacters which he was able to translate by means of a pair of magic spectacles, but the originalof which was Smith is book In this removed proclaimed by angelicagency. Mormon The first Church was a organizedin 1830, prophet. in Fayette, New It was York. soon largelyrecruited in the neighborhood of Kirtland,Ohio. Here Brigham Young (1801A
remarkable
1877) became to
a
member.
Missouri,and
in 1840
In 1838 the Mormon
founded
Nauvoo,
leaders removed
Illinois. In spite
Smith of Mormon, claimed to have received a revelation,in 1843, establishing led to his murder by a mob the polygamy. Popular hostility under church the leadershipof The next came now year. Brigham Young, an organizerand leader of the highestability. Under him the Mormons marched to Salt Lake, in Utah, and
of the
monogamy
enjoined by
the
Book
EFFORTS
community
a
SOCIAL
FOR
RIGHTEOUSNESS
great material prosperitywas
of
583
inaugurated.
After protracted conflict with the United States Government, Wilford Woodruff (1807-1898),then head of the Mormon
Church, declared againstpolygamy in 1890. Mormons
The
have
numbers
been
system of economic and has
produced a
^
and their indefatigable missionaries, largely recruited from Europe. Their
been
have
has been remarkable and social supervision largedegree of material prosperity.They
that Christ, Mo also manifes hammed, JosephSmith, and Brigham Young were tations of deity. By these divine beings souls are created,for hold that
God
revealed
was
the faithful should
whom
as
Adam,
and
providebodies.
At their deaths the
divinity. Salvation is through the of Christ,by faith,repentance, and baptism by im atonement mersion; though baptism by proxy is of avail for the dead. bid fair long to be such that the Mormons Their numbers are life. element in American religious an The religious activityof the first half of the nineteenth cen accompanied by efforts for social righteousness.The tury was death of Alexander Hamilton by the hand of Aaron Burr, in 1804, led to a wide-spreadand largelysuccessful attack by the circulated in which an extensively forces on duelling, religious by Lyman Beecher (1775-1863)was of much influence. sermon General Temperance aroused the efforts of the Presbyterian Associations of Connecti Assembly and of the Congregational in 1811. Massachusetts cut and Lyman Beecher's sermons againstdrunkenness, of 1813, attracted great attention. The of Temperance was formed American Societyfor the Promotion in 1826. The result was a great and permanent change in Effort the drinking habits of professedChristians by 1830. in
righteous will share
then
turned
toward
a
promotion of temperance
those
among
of activelyof the church. The Washingtonian movement Prohibition by 1840 sought the reformation of drunkards. Its historyhas been enacted in Maine in 1846. was legislation not
has made checkered, but legislative prohibition since the
opening of
twentieth
the
century
great strides
throughout
the
the constantlyincreasing support of the activelyChristian elements of American population. of Christian people,North Slavery also aroused the hostility United
and
States, and
has
had
South, from the dawn
change came
over
of the nineteenth
the Southern
attitude
soon
century.
A
great
after 1830, partly
AN
584
by
OF
CONTROVERSIES
of the supposedly industrial
reason
and
AGE
partlythrough resentment
tacks of Northern holders.
by
Abolitionists
reason
the
on
of the system necessity of the injudicious at
character
of all slave
The
be to question thenceforth was profoundly sensitiveness of the Northern divisive,but with ever-increasing consciousness to the evils of human religious bondage. The a
fourth and
fifth decades
periodof controversy
had
been
division.
and
recruited from
two
main
of Scotch-Irish parentage and
The
latter were
freedom. Church and
At was
of the nineteenth The
century
were
PresbyterianChurch
elements
those of New
the descendants
"
England ancestry.
inclined to greater doctrinal and administrative the General Assembly of 1837 the Presbyterian
rent into two
the "New
nearlyequalbodies,the
"
Old School"
School."
Controversies
of nearly equal intensity, though with less divisive results, of New turmoiled the Congregationalists Eng land. Hartford TheologicalSeminary was founded in 1834 to offset the supposed under
Horace
the
of the
errors
leadershipof
Yale
Nathaniel
W.
Divinity School, then Taylor (1786-1858).
Bushnell
(1802-1876), of Hartford, Connecticut, in fluenced by Samuel Taylor Coleridge(ante, p. 545),attacked the
conceptionof
Christian doctrine
then stration to the intellect, and would substitute for such
based primarilyon demon almost universal in America, as
logicalproof
an
appeal
to
the
of the religious feeling. BushnelPs most influentialpub lication was his Christian Nurture, of 1847, in which he urged witness
the der
quiet unfolding of the Christian nature of the child,un of entrance the normal method as appropriateinfluences,
in the which
kingdom Pietist and
of
God, instead of the strugglingconversion
Methodist
tradition had
considered the only
legitimateexperience. The Protestant EpiscopalChurch was turmoiled by disputes between the high-churchand Evangelicalparties. The most extensive separationswere caused, however, by the contests of or accompanying the Civil War. anticipatory in 1843, Growing antipathy to slaveryled to the organization, of the Wesleyan Methodist of America the basis of Church on thus in the no slaveowning membership. The question was the General Conference of the Methodist foreground when Episcopal Church met in 1844, and an immediate strugglearose and the retention of a slaveholdingbishop. Northern over
Southern the
divided. The Conference hopelessly report permittingthe division of the church, with that the Methodist EpiscopalChurch, South, was
sentiment
adopted
a
result
585
SLAVERY
OVER
DIVISIONS was
constituted,in 1845. similar division separated the Bap The Alabama State Convention of South.
Contemporaneously and
tists of North
a
Foreign Mission Board make discrimination againstslaveholders in missionaryap no pointments. The board declared that it would take no action, the formation implying approval of slavery. The result was in 1844, that
Baptistsdemanded,
the
BaptistConvention
of the Southern
in 1845
and the
cleavage
of the churches.
formation
Presbyterianbody
PresbyterianChurch, South, did
of the
1861, after the outbreak
of the
between
war
not
and
the till
occur
the states.
divisions,unhappily, stillcontinue, though signs are
These abundant The
School
rupture of the Old
The
of reunion
Protestant
in the not
distant
Episcopal Church
future.
divided
was
reunited at its close. the Civil War, and was A pleasing illustration of an oppositetendency
only during the
was
re
School effort,of the Old School and New PresbyterianChurches of the North, voted in 1869 and com
union, after much
pletedin The
1870.
nation-wide last great revival,
similar,though
1858, though many have
in its scope,
in
occurred
local, movements
more
been
felt to the present. Though the Pietist conception has stillcontinued predominant in American Protes of religion
tantism, Christian
especiallyamong
has
increasingallegiance, since and Presbyterians Congregationalists nurture
won
Civil War, and has greatly favored Protestant EpiscopalChurch, which has
growth of the always championed
the
the
it. The States
Catholic Church
Roman
throughout the nineteenth
immigrationfrom 1890
from
encountered
have
Ireland
Italy and
in their prolific named
enormously in the United
grew
new
between
eastern
home. 1840
relations between been
and
southern
Europe. Bitter and
enormous
Protestants task of
Germany, and These
races
Protestant
1860;
tolerant. increasingly
complishedan
century, chieflythrough
The
but
have
since been
oppositionwas
since the date
and Roman
Roman
Church
last
Catholics has
ac
buildingchurches,parochial
WORK
WOMAN'S
586
and institutions of higherlearn hospitals, giftsand sacrificesof a relatively scanty finan
schools,convents,
ing through the cial ability.National councils have been held in 1852, 1866, of the Congregatio and 1884. Long under the superintendence de Propaganda Fide in Rome, Pius X (1903-1914) granted to the
in the
Church
Roman
States in 1908
United
the
de
same
enjoyed in European lands. An outstanding feature of American life since the religious the states is the steady increase in the demand between war for an educated ministry in those bodies which formerly laid has been met littlestress on training. This demand by con and the older theological seminaries provision, stantlyincreasing have steadily enlargedtheir facilitiesby augmented faculties and of autonomy
gree
extension of the curriculum. The the
period has
work
of
witnessed
of recognition ever-enlarging
an
in the Protestant
women
A
Churches.
Woman's
the Congregafounded of Foreign Missions was among The Methodist tionalists in 1868. Episcopal Church, North,
Board
followed in 1869 ; the Northern Protestant Episcopal Church
Presbyteriansin in 1871.
foreignmissions
for home
and
American
Protestantism.
are
Women
1870 ; and the
Similar organizations universal in well-riigh
now
to eligible
have
long been Baptist and
conventions of the Congrega representative the of Meth election tional Churches. the right to They won in 1900. odist Episcopal General Conference They have been the ordained to ministry by Baptists, Congregationalists, Unitarians,and Universalists. Disciples, The the last twenty-fiveyears, last half-century, especially Protes has witnessed a great theological change in American the
tantism, the so
silentlyand
evidences
it is difficult to estimate, Certain outstanding unequallyhas it come.
exact
have
extent
attracted
troversies aroused
among
of which
wide the
attention.
Such
the
were
by Congregationalists
the
con
"pro
TheologicalSeminary between the depositionof Professor Charles 1885 and 1892. Such was General As Augustus Briggs (1841-1913) by the Presbyterian sembly in 1893. These tangible evidences have been few. Yet even bound in bodies officially by confessional statements gressiveorthodoxy"
of Andover
of the
age,
claimed
Reformation with
the
characteristic doctrines
little of their ancient
satisfaction.
of Germany, and Biblical criticism, especially
the
are
The
pro newer
evolutionary
CO-OPERATION
588
to plant Christian civilization,
hoary supersti and to foster a native Christianity tions and oppressions, which be a transforming force to whole peoples. Never have may giftsto missions been largeror missionary candidates more than they now are. numerous An outstanding feature of the existingreligioussituation to
in the United
and
States
Canada
sweep
away
is the decline of denomina
and the increase of co-operationin religious tional rivalries, work. Voluntary associations for co-operate Christian en
developed remarkably. Conspicuous have been the Young Men's Christian Association,founded by George in in and London since spread Williams 1844, (1821-1905) the Young Women's throughout the world, and its sister society, Christian Association,organizedin England in 1855, and both peculiarlysuccessful in the United States. They have never Less directly been more useful than during the world war. co-operant but uniting in similar aims have been the Young People'sSociety of Christian Endeavor, formed by Francis E. Clark in 1881 ; and the similar BaptistYoung People'sUnion, the Epworth League, the Luther League, and the Brotherhood have
deavor
of St. Andrew. It is from have
come.
missions that the strongestimpulsesto co-operation A powerful force in this direction has been the
in 1886. launched Missionary Movement, divi denominational The manifest improprietyof transferring sions to the mission field has led to largeassociation of similar of Christians into singlebodies in China, India, and groups Japan. The essential unity of missionaryendeavor was mani fest at the World Missionary Conference, held in Edinburgh Student
Volunteer
in 1910, the influence of which has been potent. The evils of rivalries led,in the United States,to the establishment religious of the Home tatives followed
Council
in 1908,
by
of Women's
the
of represen This has been
composed
engaged in similar work. Foreign Missions Conference of North
of societies
the Council These
Missions
for Home
of Women
America,
Missions, and the Federation
Foreign Missions. associations are voluntary. A federation of Boards
of
a
more
created, after considerable preliminary organic character was negotiation, by the formation in 1908 of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, composed of officialdele gates from
its
churches. co-operating
Its functions
are
ad-
TENDENCIES
589
UNION
TOWARD
not legislative or judicial.Its objectsare: "To express visory, the fellowship and catholic unity of the Christian Church.
bring the Christian bodies of
To
the world.
for Christ and
To
into united
America
service
devotional fellowship
encourage
life and religious counsel concerning the spiritual in To activities of the churches. largercombined secure a the fluence for the churches of Christ in all matters affecting and
mutual
social condition of the people,so as to promote the life." of the law of Christ in every relation of human application moral
and
has the support of thirtydenomina tions,includingsuch importantbodies as the Northern Baptists,
The
Council
Federal
now
(under the General
Disciples,Lutherans Congregationalists,
South, Presbyterians,North and the (Dutch and Ger Episcopalians, and
Synod), Methodists, North and South, Protestant man) Reformed. A
movement
rated by the General in the United Church
Convention
conference
union
of Christendom.
on
plans was
of the Protestant
inaugu Episcopal
1910, aiming at an ultimate effect the re order, which may
in
States
faith and
world
in its
ambitious
more
even
object has received
The
the
support
majorityof American Protestant bodies to the extent of which conferences in several preliminary officialrepresentation of
a
have
held, and
been
operationin Great
delegationhas urged
American
an
Britain with
success.
in other countries that was progress for the organic union movement a
delayed the In Canada
has tionalists, Presbyterians Methodists^jtftd^ of
world
The
war
co
has
hoped. of Congrega prospect
every
success.
The
long story of the Christian Church
lightsand and
and
shadows, of achievement exhibited
It has
divisions.
transforming the
lives of
is
a
of
panorama
failure,of conquests
divine life marvellously It has also exhibited those
the
men.
of which
passionsand
weaknesses
universal
bids fair to transform
human
is
capable. Its tasks have seemed, in every age, almost insuperable.They were never greater than at present when confronted by a ma of life, and when the furnace of almost terialisticinterpretation pean
what
and the
war
American church
Its changes may
civilization. Yet has
done
be many,
without
nature
the whole no
fabric of Euro
Christian
confidence
its strugglesgreat.
can
survey
in its future.
But
the
good
THE
590
of
hand
in
usefulness toward He
would
which
God
the
the
has
led
of
all
men
it
hitherto of
advancement
fulfilment draw
FUTURE
His unto
the
prediction Him.
will
guide of
kingdom that
if
He
it its be
to
larger
Lord, lifted
and up
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
No
attempt is made
to do
than indicate what
more
volumes
the
lan if unacquainted with any History,especially besides English,will find most useful. guage The following should be at hand. An encyclopaedia are especially The New serviceable: Schaff-HerzogEncyclopedia of Religious York, 1908-12; Encyclopaediaof Religionand Knowledge, New to (nine volumes York, 1908-17 Ethics, Edinburgh and New New "Phrygians" thus far issued);The Catholic Encyclopaedia, York, 1907-12; The EncyclopaediaBritannicateleventh edition, Cambridge and New York, 1910. The followingsource books are indispensable: BOOKS. SOURCE PhilipSchaff,The Creeds of Christendom,New York, fourth edition, 1905; Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr.,A Source Book for Ancient Church from the ApostolicAge to the Close of the Condliar Period, History, reader
of this
"
York, 1913; Ernest F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1912; James Harvey Robinson, Read New
York [1904,1906]; ings in European History,Boston and New Illustrative of Henry Gee and William John Hardy, Documents English Church History,London, 1896. The selections in the in English translation. For those volumes are just enumerated the following work is of high worth: who can read Latin and French Illustrativeof the Continental Reformation, B. J. Kidd, Documents cited in this history. All these source books are Oxford, 1911. read Latin, Carl Mirbt, Quellenzur Geschichte des To any who can Papsttums,Tubingen and Leipzig,1901,is invaluable for papal de velopment. The SOURCES. are followingsources readilyavailable in Eng lish translation: J. B. Lightfootand J. R. Harmer, The Apostolic Fathers,London, 1898; Kirsopp Lake, The ApostolicFathers,two "
The Ante-Nicene Fathers Down York, 1913. A. D. 325, ten volumes, New The translations are York, 1896.
volumes, New to
of
.
This series is continued
varying excellence.
Post-Nicene
Fathers.
The
York, 1886-94, embraces The
Second
.
.
in the Nicene
and
First Series,fourteen volumes, New the works of Augustine and Chrysostom.
twelve volumes, New Series, 591
York, 1890-95, contains
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
592 the
whole
Gregory
to
selections from
or
the
Great.
The
SUGGESTIONS the
principalwriters from
first volume
Eusebius
of this Second
Series,
Eusebius 's Ecclesiastical
History,translated and annotated by A. read Greek C. McGiffert, is indispensable.For those who and Latin much are ampler sources provided by J. P. Migne in his two and twenty-one vol great series,PatrologiaLatina, two hundred Paris, 1844-64, extending to Innocent III; and Patrologia umes, and sixty-six The volumes, Paris, 1857-66. Grceca,one hundred often uncritically texts are given. Of highest critical excellence for the early portionof the field covered by Migne are the Cor of publication scriptorumecclesiasticorum latinorum,in course pus christsince 1866 by the Vienna Academy; and Die griechischen issued since 1897 by the Prussian Academy. lichen Schriftsteller, edition (Paris,1901-) of J. D. For the acts of councils the new conciliorum nova et amplissimacolledio, Mansi, Sacrorum extending consulted. the be letters and decrees may to Papal present, may in P. Jaffe,RegestapontificumRomanorum, be found to 1304 and The relations of his continuers,Leipzig,1881-88; Berlin, 1874. be studied in the great col the papacy and mediaeval empire may lection by G. H. Pertz and successive editors,Monumenta Germanioe John
historica, Hanover, 1826The
Huss's
S. Schaff,New
Church
to the
present.
is accessible in translation
by David
York, 1915.
fundamental
writingsare translated by H. Wace and C. A. Buchheim, First Principlesof the Reformation,Philadelphia, with His Shorter 1885; enlargedas Luther's Primary Works together Works Luther's in and are Larger Catechisms,London, 1896. of publicationin English, vols. I and II., Philadelphia, process Luther's
of
Much
1915.
Luther's
table-talk
is accessible
in Preserved
Conversations with Luther,Boston, 1915. Gallinger, Lutheran be studied in H. E. Jacob, The Book of symbolics may The Concord: Symbolical Books of the EvangelicalLutheran or, For those who read 1882-83. Church, two volumes, Philadelphia, German and Latin the definitive edition of Luther's writingsis the since 1884, of which Werke, in process of publicationin Weimar than fiftyvolumes have been issued. more The writingsof Zwingli are accessible in S. M. Jackson, The Latin Works and Correspondence of Huldreich Zwingli,two volumes, and
Smith
New
York, 1912, 1917.
Most
Works
H. P.
writingsare translated into English, as The Calvin, fifty-twovolumes, Edinburgh, 1843-55.
of Calvin's
of
John
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL student
The
will find the Institutes
593
indispensable.They are best the series justcited,3 volumes,
by Henry Beveridge,in the read Latin and French For those who Edinburgh, 1845-46. -nine edition of the Strassburgeditors,Joannis Calvini Opera, fifty volumes, Braunschweig, 1863-1900, is a storehouse. The Works of James Arminius are available in English transla Nichols and W. R. Bagnall,three volumes, London, tion by James and 1825 1828, Buffalo, 1853. Hugo Grotius's Defence of the Catholic Faith Concerningthe Satisfaction of Jesus Christ was trans lated by F. H. Foster, Andover, 1889. for Socinianism. is a prime source Racovian The Catechism English translation,London, 1818. The generalstudent will find much regardingthe English Ref Illustrative in Henry Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents ormation of English Church History, London, 1896, already cited under Source Books; and in Charles Hardwick, A Historyof the Articles of Religion,Cambridge, 1859; and in Francis Procter and W. H. and Prayer, London Frere, A New Historyof the Book of Common translated
York, 1901.
New
Puritan
Puritan
wishes
Manifestoes,a Study of
can
the
be studied
Origin of
in W.
H.
the Puritan
Frere, Revolt,
of the London, 1907; and S. R. Gardiner, Constitutional Documents The aims of Congregationalists Puritan Revolution,Oxford, 1899. manifest in Williston Walker, The Creeds and Platformsof Con are New York, 1893; and W. J. McGlothlin, Baptist gregationalism, Confessionsof Faith, Philadelphia,1911, does a similar service for the Baptists. Any who would make a specialstudy of the English Reformation will need to consult the Letters and Papers,foreign and Domestic, volumes, London, 1862of the Reign of Henry VIII, twenty -one Series,of the Reigns 1910; and Calendar of State Papers, Domestic VI, Mary, Elizabeth,James I, twelve volumes, London, of Edward The writingsof the leadingEnglish reformers 1856-72. were pub the lished by the Parker Society,Works EnglishReformers,fiftyof of prime documents four volumes, Cambridge, 1841-54. Many importance may be found in E. Cardwell, Documentary Annals of the Church of England, two volumes, Oxford, 1844; Gilbert Burnet, Historyof the Reformationof the Church of England, Pocock's edi tion, seven volumes, Oxford, 1865; and John Strype, Complete Works, twenty-seven A
volumes, Oxford, 1822-40.
importance for Scotland is [William DunCollection of Confessionsof Faith, Catechisms of Public
collection of much
lop]A
.
.
.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
594
Authorityin
the Church
SUGGESTIONS
of Scotland,two
volumes, Edinburgh, 1719Further 22. study should be made of the Calendar of State Papers Relatingto Scotland (1547-1603),six volumes, Edinburgh, 18981910.
The
works
of Knox
and
other
Scottish
Presbyterianlead ers were publishedby the Wodrow Society,twenty-four volumes, A similar service for the leaders of Scottish epis London, 1842-. was performed by the Spottiswoode Society,sixteen vol copacy Edinburgh, 1844-. umes, HISTORIES
OF
DOCTRINE
AND
CHRISTIAN
THOUGHT.
"
The
fol
lowing brief volumes will constitute a good introduction: Charles A. Briggs,Historyof the Study of Theology, two volumes, New York, Christian Thought to the Reformation,New 1916; H. B. Workman, York, 1911; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought beforeKant, New York, 1911; and E. C. Moore, Historyof Christian Thought Since A more York, 1912. Kant, New comprehensive work is George P. Fisher,Historyof Christian Doctrine,New A work York, 1896. of great value reaching to the Reformation, and with the quota tions in English translation as well as the text, is Reinhold Seeberg, Text-Book of the History of Doctrines,two volumes, Phila the best work delphia,1905. For any who can read German (to the close of the Reformation) is Friedrich Loofs, Leitfadenzum Studium der Dogmengeschichte, fourth edition,Halle, 1906. For the student an work advanced (to the close of the Ref indispensable ormation) is Adolf von Harnack, Historyof Dogma, English trans An illuminating treat lation,seven volumes, Boston, 1896-1900. is that of Henry Osborn ment Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, two vol London and New Julius Kostlin, The Theology York, 1914. umes, two is volumes, Philadelphia[1897], of Luther,English translation, For later development,J. A. Dorner, Historyof to be commended. in Germany, English translation, Protestant Theology,Particularly A useful work is A. C. two volumes, Edinburgh, 1871. very McGiffert, The Rise of Modern ReligiousIdeas, New York, 1915. the The development of modern situation may be further studied in Ernst Troeltsch, Protestantism and Progress,New York, 1912; W. E. H. Lecky, The Historyof the Rise and Influenceof Rational ism in Europe, London, 1867; Andrew D. White, A Historyof the Warfare of Science with Theology,New York, 1896; Leslie Stephen, HistoryofEnglish Thought in the EighteenthCentury,two volumes, New York, 1876; John Tulloch, Movements of ReligiousThought in Britain During the Nineteenth Century,New The best York, 1901. work in its field is Frank H. Foster, A Genetic Historyof the New
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
596
SUGGESTIONS
of Pauline
is discussed in Albert Schweitzer,Paul and investigation His Interpreters, English translation,London, 1912; see also H. A. A. Kennedy, St. Paul and the Mystery Religions, London and New York [1913]. Excellent general discussions of the apostolicperiod are A. C. in the ApostolicAge, second edi McGiffert, Historyof Christianity tion,New York, 1910; J. H. Ropes, The ApostolicAge, New York, A
1906.
elaborate
is Carl
Weizsacker, The ApostolicAge of the Christian Church, English translation,two and New volumes, London York, 1897. The
more
will aid in initiation into the present status discussion : *H. S. Nash, The Historyof the Higher
Testament
Criticism
of The
Moore,
THE
the
New
New
1904 ; James tament, New
Testament, New
the Christian
Church, New
York,
of the New
Tes
York, 1911.
CHURCH
IN
THE
ROMAN
EMPIRE.
"
The
best
introductory
Duchesne, The Early Historyof the Christian
Its Foundation
Church
of the FifthCentury,English trans A good sketch is York, 1909, 1912.
to the End
volumes, New
lation,two
in
Testament
C.
1900; Edward
York,
Moffatt, Introduction to the Literature
is Louis
from
von
followingworks
of New
work
treatment
that of Robert
York, Rainy, The Ancient Catholic Church, New A largerwork the H. is M. 1902. on Gwatkin, Early earlyperiod Church D. A. Indis Historyto 313, two volumes, London, 1909. and Expansion of Harnack, The Mission pensable is Adolf von in the First Three Centuries,second edition,two vol Christianity New
umes,
York, 1908.
is Wilhelm
student
An
Moeller
elaborate and
Christian Church, First Volume London
and
for the
more
advanced
Schubert, Historyof the A. D. 600, English translation,
Hans to
work von
New
A readable collection of biographies York, 1892. is Frederic W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers,two volumes, New York,
suggestivevolume is J. Estlin Carpenter,Phases ofEarly New York, 1916. Christianity, DobEarly Christian life is admirably treated by Ernst von schiitz,Christian Life in the Primitive Church, English translation, New For the persecutionssee H. B. Workman, York, 1904. Persecution in the Early Church, London, 1906; L. H. Canfield, The Early Persecutions of the Christians,New York, 1913; W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire beforeA. D. 170, Lon A
1889.
don
and
For
New
New
the
York, 1893.
Apostles'Creed
York, 1902.
see
A. C. McGiffert, The
Creed, Apostles'
597
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
Hatch, The organizationof the early church, Edwin Organizationofthe Early Christian Churches, London, 1895; Walter and New London York, Lowrie, The Church and Its Organization, 1904; T. M. Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early For
the
and
Centuries,London Constitution and
of
Law
York, 1902; Adolf
New
the Church
von
in the First
Harnack, The Two Centuries,
For the High English translation,London and New York, 1910. Anglican view see Charles Gore, The Ministry of the Christian York, 1909. Church, London, 1889; and his Orders and Unity,New A good guide to the non-canonical literature of earlyChristianity is Gustav Kriiger,Historyof Early Christian Literature in the First London and New York, 1897. Three Centuries,English translation, who
student
The
read German
can
will have
to the monu
recourse
Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, three volumes, Leipzig,1893-1904. mental
work
by
Adolf
von
good brief introduction to Christian archaeologyis Walter Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church, New York, 1901. For the church in the empire after the conversion of Constanof value in The Cambridge Mediaeval tine the student will find much York, 1911. Empire, New History,vol. I, The Christian Roman Good manuals on this period are A. H. Hore, Students' Historyof and New the Greek Church, London York, 1902; and W. F. Adeney, A
Monasticism is Churches, New York, 1908. The Evolution of the Monastic Ideal, discussed by H. B. Workman, London, 1913; and Adolf von Harnack, Monasticism; Its Ideals and A mine of in New Its History,English translation, York, 1895. reader is Max formation for the German Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongregationender Katholichen Kirchet two volumes, PaderThe Greek and
Eastern
born, 1896-97. A
sketch of the councils is that of W.
compact
P.
DuBose,
The
J. fuller is K. Much York, 1896. Hefele, A History of the Christian Councils, English translation, five volumes, Edinburgh, 1871-96.
Ecumenical
Councils, New
specialstudies
Two
St. Patrick
and
His
of unusual
value
are
J. B.
Bury, The Lifeof
Place in
History,London and New York, 1905 ; Gregory the Great: His Place in History and
Dudden, Thought,two volumes, London, 1905.
and
F.
THE
H.
CHURCH
IN
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
AND
TO
THE
REFORMATION.
portionof this periodis well treated in The Cambridge Mcdicsval History,vol. II, The Rise of the Saracem and the Founda A classic exposition tion of the Western Empire, New York, 1913. "The
earlier
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
598
SUGGESTIONS
of the relations of the mediaeval
church
to
the state is James
Bryce,
work of edition,London, 1904. Empire, new the ecclesiastical life and institu wealth regarding tions is Andre Lagarde,The Latin Church in the Middle Ages,English A classic treatment New of the translation, York, 1915. especially is Ferdinand mediaeval papacy Gregorovius,Historyof the City of Rome, English translation,eight volumes, London, 1894-1902. For the latter part of the period(1049-1517)a fresh and suggestive is that of D. S. Schaff in continuation of his father, treatment PhilipSchaff 's Historyof the Christian Church, viz.,vol. V, Parts I and II (each an ample volume), New A general York, 1907, 1910. historyof the period for the advanced student is Wilhelm Moeller, Historyof the Christian Church, vol. II, The Middle Ages, English The
Holy
Roman
A
of information
translation,London, 1893.
Specialtreatises of value are Gustav Kriiger,The Papacy: the New Idea and Its Exponents,English translation, York, 1909; and Francis St. New Paul Sabatier,Lifeof York, 1894. of Assisi, Compact volumes of service are M. R. Vincent, The Age of HilYork, 1896; J. M. Ludlow, The Age of the Crusades, debrand, New New York, 1896j R. L. Poole, Illustrations of the History of Mediceval Thought,London, 1884. For English church historythe student will find the following of use: William Hunt, The English Church from Its Foundation to and the Norman New W. R. W. York, 1899; Conquest,London Conquest to the Stephens, The English Church from the Norman and New Accession of Edward York, 1901 ; W. W. Capes, I, London The English Church in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,Lon don and New York, 1900; G. M. Trevelyan,England in the Age of and New For an York, 1899. unsympathetic Wyclife, London and the James treatment Gairdner, Lollardy see Reformation in England, vol. I, London, 1908. For Huss, David S. Schaff,John Huss, His Life,Teachingsand Death, After Five Hundred Years, New York, 1915; and Schaff 's Church, New York, 1915. For Savonarola, P. Villari, Lifeand Times of Girolamo English translation,two volumes, New York, 1888.
translation of Huss's
Most
valuable
and
The
extensive
of the
Savonarola,
periodpreceding are Creighton,History of the given Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, six volumes, From London and New a Roman York, 1892. point of view, Ludwig Pastor, Historyof the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, the
Reformation
treatments
in Mandell
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
599
GreEnglish translation,twelve volumes, London, 1891-1912. gorovius,History of the City of Rome, already cited, continues of be said of The Cam may great worth for this period. The same bridgeModern History,vol. I, The Renaissance, London and New
York, 1902. REFORMATION.
THE tion T.
The
"
History of the Reformation,two
Lindsay, A
M.
A
York, 1906, 1907.
New
Reformation,New great value by Wilhelm The
will find the best introduc
student
is Williston
succinct treatment A
York, 1900. Moeller
and
elaborate
more
work
of
is Historyof
Kawerau
Gustav
volumes, Walker,
Church, vol. Ill, Reformationand Counter-Reformation, of great wealth of Volumes English translation,London, 1900. and New York, detail are : The Cambridge Modern History,London
the Christian
of Religion; point of view PeopleAfterthe Close
1904-06, vol. II, The Reformation; vol. Ill, The
Thirty Years' War.
vol. IV, The
Wars
the Roman
For
Janssen, Historyof the German of the Middle Ages, English translation,sixteen volumes, London, see
Johannes
A
1896-1910.
brief sketch
good
Reformation,London, lifeof Luther
The
is A.
W.
Ward,
The
Counter-
1889.
is well told in the
following:A. C. McGiffert,
Work, New York, 1911; Preserved Smith, The Life and Letters of Martin Luther, Boston, 1911; H. E. A study of great value York, 1898. Jacobs, Martin Luther, New Luther in the Light of Recent Research, English is H. Boehmer, Martin
Luther, the Man
translation,New that
of Hartmann
and
His
is A Roman estimate of Luther York, 1916. London, Grisar, Luther, English translation,
1913.
Other
leaders
biographiesof Reformation
are:
J. W.
Richard,
York, 1898; Ephraim Emerton, Desiderius Erasmus, New York, 1899 ; S. M. Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli, New York, 1906; York, 1901; Williston Walker, John Calmn, New H. Y. Reyburn, John Calmn, His Life,Letters and Work, London and New York, 1914; H. M. Baird, Theodore Beza, New York, 1899. For German conditions,Henry C. Vedder, The Reformation in For France, H. M. Baird, Historyof Germany, New York, 1914. the Rise of the Huguenots,second edition,five volumes, New York, For the Netherlands, P. J. Blok, Historyof the People 1895-1907. York, of the Netherlands, English translation,five volumes, New 1898-1912; Ruth Putnam, William the Silent,two volumes, New
Philip Melanchthon, New
York, 1895. For
the
Anabaptistmovement,
A.
H.
Newman,
A
History of
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
600
SUGGESTIONS
Anti-P"dobaptism, Philadelphia,1897; Henry History of Balthasar
the
C. Vedder, A
Baptists,Philadelphia[1907];Henry
Hubmaicr,
New
York,
1903; J.
C.
Short
Vedder, Simons,
Horsch, Teaching,Scottdale,Pa., 1916. For contemporary and later developments in the Greek, Russian, and other Oriental Churches: A. H. Hore, Student's Historyof the and New Greek Church, London York, 1902; W. F. Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches, New York, 1908. His
Life,Labours
GREAT
BRITAIN
Menno
and
REFORMATION
SINCE.
The
English carefullytreated by James Gairdner, The English Church from the Accession of Henry VIII to the Death of and New York, 1902; and by W. H. Frere, The Mary, London EnglishChurch in the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I, London and Learned New but unsympathetic is James York, 1904. Gairdner, and the in Lollardy Reformation England, four volumes, London, The Roman 1908-14. point of view is given by F. A. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation,London, 1905. Two biographiesof high value are those of A. F. Pollard,Henry VIII, London, 1905; and
.
Thomas
THE
AND
"
is
Reformation .
IN
.
Cranmer, New
Historyof the
Church
York, 1904.
of England from
See
also R.
the Abolition
W.
of the
Dixon, Roman
five volumes, London, 1878-92. Jurisdiction, An
excellent introduction
merely to the Scottish Reformation but to the whole religious historyof Scotland is that of P. Hume Brown, History of Scotland,three volumes, Cambridge, 1902-09. A good sketch is D. Hay Fleming, The Scottish Reformation,Lon For Knox don, 1910. see Henry Cowan, John Knox, New York, not
1905.
For
the rise and
historyof Non-Conformity valuable introduc tions are: Henry W. Clark, Historyof EnglishNon-Conformity,two volumes, London, 1911, 1913; Champlin Burrage, The Early English Dissenters in the Light of Recent Research, two volumes, Cambridge, 1912; William Pierce, An Historical Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts,London, 1908; R. W. and A. W. W. Dale, London, 1907. Historyof English Congregationalism, A work presentingthe Anglican point of view effectively for the latter part of Elizabeth's reign and the early years of James I is The G. Usher, Roland Reconstruction of the English Church, two and New A general sketch from volumes, London York, 1910. the same standpoint is W. [H. Hutton, The English Church from the Accession of Charles I to the Death of Annet London and New York, 1903.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
SUGGESTIONS
601
in six regarding religiousmovements teenth-centuryEngland, and especiallythe Quakers, is Robert Barclay, The Inner Life of the ReligiousSocieties of the Common For Fox see Thomas wealth,London, 1879. Hodgkin, The Life of from and New York, 1896; and the extracts George Fox, London Fox's Journal, edited by Rufus M. Jones, George Fox, an Autobi 1903. ography,two volumes, Philadelphia,
A
For
of information
mine
Methodist
the
movement
and
its leaders
see
W.
J. Town-
send, H. B. Workman, and George Eayrs, A New Historyof Method Much ism, two volumes, London, 1909. relatingto the religious
England is to be found in W. E. H. Lecky, Historyof England During the EighteenthCentury, eight volumes, London, See also Henry W. 1878-90. Clark, History of English NonConformity,already cited. R. W. Church, The Oxford For the high-church movement see Movement, London, 1891; J. H. Overton, The Anglican Revival, London, 1897; J. H. Newman, Apologiapro vita sua, London, 1864; J. T. Coleridge,A Memoir of John Keble, Oxford, 1869; H. P. Bouverie Puscy, five volumes, London, Liddon, Life of Edward condition
of
1893-99.
GERMANY.
"
History of
For
Pietism
Protestant
and
Rationalism
see
in Theology,Particularly H.
J.
A.
Dorner,
Germany, English E. Guericke, Life
translation,two volumes, Edinburgh, 1871; Moravians, of A. H. Francke, English translation,London, 1837. John Holmes, History of the Protestant Church of the United see Brethren, two volumes, London, 1825, 1830; A. G. Spangenberg, The Life of Nicholas, Count Zinzcndorf,English translation,Lon don, 1838; Augustus C. Thompson, Moravian Missions, New York, 1895. For Rationalism, the followingwork, though unsympathetic, is literature in English: J. F. Hurst, of value in the absence of much
Historyof Rationalism Embracing a Surveyof the Present State of Protestant See also York, 1901. Theology,revised edition,New K. R. Hagenbach, German Edin Rationalism, English translation, burgh, 1864. later developments see For F. A. Lichtenberger,History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century,English translation, Edinburgh, 1889; Otto Pfleiderer,The Developmentof Theology and Its Progressin Great Britain since 1825, London Since Kant and
New
Life
and
York, 1893; Friedrich Paulsen, Immanuel Kant, His Doctrine,English translation,New York, 1902; F. D.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
602
SUGGESTIONS
Schleiermacher,On Religion, English translation,London, 1902; Critical and Historical Study, B. Selbie, Schleiermacher: A W. New York, 1913; A. T. Swing, The Theologyof Albrecht Ritschl, New York, 1901; R. Mackintosh, Albrecht Ritschl and His School, London, 1915. the whole, the most accessible and, on AMERICA. The most E.
"
valuable outlines of the tions in the United Church of this
is
See
States
are
the
series, by L. W.
New
Vol. XIII York, 1893-97. Bacon, A Historyof American Christianity,
life of religious in the Dorchester, Christianity
also Daniel
sketch
denomina principalreligious
those in the series entitled American
History,thirteen volumes,
compendious
a
historyof
of the
the United United
States.
States,New
York, 1895. Denominational
histories of value, besides those
"
in the
Ameri
History" series,are: Abel Stevens, Historyof the Meth odist EpiscopalChurch, four volumes, New York, 1864-67; Charles Its Origin and Early History, A. Briggs,American Presbyterianismr New York, 1885; S. D. McConnell, Historyof the American Epis York, 1890; W. T. Moore, A Comprehensive copal Church, New Historyof the Disciplesof Christ,New York [1909]. life of New A sketch of the religious England is that of G. L. Walker, Some Aspectsof the ReligiousLifeof New England, Boston, Church
can
1897. A
wealth
biographicalinformation
of
isters of many century, may
denominations, be found
in W.
to
the
regarding American middle
of the
nineteenth
Sprague, Annals of the York, 1857-69. Typical B.
Pulpit, nine volumes, New leaders are commemorated religious England Leaders,Boston, 1901;
min
American American
by Williston Walker, Ten New A. V. G. Allen,Jonathan Edwards, Boston, 1889; J. W. Chadwick, William ElleryChanning, Boston, 1903; T. T. Munger, Horace Bushnell,Boston, 1899; J. O. Mur Fisk, ray, Francis Wayland, Boston, 1891; George Prentice,Wilbur Boston, 1890; J. W. Chadwick, Theodore Parker, Boston, 1901; W. W. Newton, Dr. [William A.] Muhlenberg, Boston, 1890; Beecher, Boston, 1903; A. V. G. Lyman Abbott, Henry Ward Allen, Phillips Brooks, New York, 1907. The
followingamong
trative of
many
volumes
in American
may
be cited
as
illus
religious thought: W. N. Clarke, An Outline of Christian Theology,New York, 1898; W. A. York, 1906; Henry C. Brown, Christian Theologyin Outline,New and New King, Theology and the Social Consciousness, London recent
tendencies
other
INDEX of
George, archbishop Abbot, bury, 465, 466. schoolman,
Abelard, 273, Acacius, 135,
church
Severus, school Alexandria, Alexius, Emperors,
158.
of, 157,
the the the
475.
547.
476,
480,
Alogoi, the, 72.
495.
Alva,
missionary, 236. 240. Crusader. Ademar, bishop and 176, 178. Adeodatus, Augustine's son, Adrian VI, Pope, 351, 354, 422.
of
count
338, 345. Ainsworth,
d', theologian,
307,
of
Anastasius, Anaxagoras, Andersson, Andover
340,
286;
V,
303,
Anne,
Great,
the
Alexander
Farnese,
Baptists),
366-
247. 135.
philosopher,
3.
Lars,
385.
reformer, the, controversy,
539,
586.
443. 465.
the,
movement,
547-
of
bishop
of Cleves,
Rome,
Queen
of
64.
Henry
VIII,
of Great Britain, 552. Anne, Queen of Cologne, 227, 228. Anno, archbishop Anselm, 225, 226. bishop of Lucca, of archbishop Anselm, theologian and
347.
114,
276 228, III, 251-253, 308; VI, 318,
Canterbury,
on 264; 233, 263, see 263, 264, 456; 267, 271, 272, 338. missionary, 213, 214, Ansgar,
atonement,
320.
Alexander,
340,
407.
II, 227, 304,
reformer,
549.
146,
Lucca);
von,
also
(see
II, Pope, Emperor,
Anicetus,
of
173,
443.
Jakob, theologian, Lancelot, bishop, Angelico, Fra, painter. 316. Angels, worship of, 171
381.
(see Anselm
165,
Andrew, Andrews,
Brandenburg,
Alciati, Andrea, jurist, 390. Alcuin, scholar, 207, 210, 261. nuncio, 346, Aleander, Girolamo, Alexander, bishop of Alexandria,
128,
141; 167; 176, 190,
461.
453, Anacletus
297.
Mainz,
442,
Anglo-Catholic of
margrave
Popes,
V.
282,
374, 373; beliefs, 368, 369; Minister, Anti-Trini toleration, 375; 457; also tarian, 369, 451; 433, 437, see
Cathari.
archbishop
380,
Anabaptists
308,
Congregationalist,
296,
Nikolaus
Amsdorf,
341.
285,
mentioned,
178;
Aistulf, King, 203, 204. Alaric, Visigoth, 131, 184. 215. Alberic, ruler of Rome, 325, of Mansfeld, Albert, count of Bavaria, 444. Albert V, duke of Prussia, Albert, duke 355, 357. Albertus schoolman, 256, 269. Magnus,
115, 117, Alexander,
radical,
330.
349,
Henry.
Albrecht,
Felix
see
mystic
conspiracy of, 432. 140, bishop of Milan. monasticism. 138; hymns, Augustine, preacher, 168; and
192.
see
Savoy,
Ambrose,
Italy, 132.
cardinal,
of
of Bena,
Amboise,
198.
Kent,
463.
Albigenses,
436.
178.
duke
Amadeus, Amalrich,
Agape, the, 23, 43, 92. Agatho, Pope, 161. 221, 225-227. Agnes, Empress, 327. humanist, Agricola, Rudolf, Aidan. missionary, 197, 199. Aigulf, King, Ailli, Pierre
of, general, 434,
duke
176,
283.
of
King
the
Alypius,
the. 582.
Adventists,
^thelberht,
Albornoz, Albrecht,
III,
IX, King of Leon, 287. the of England, Alfred, Great, King 211. Louis Allemand, d', cardinal, 312. cardinal, 438, 440. Allen, William,
Adaldag,
Aetius,
85.
of, 76, 77. I, 239, 240;
Alfonso
90, 91. Conventicle, 474, 474. Five-Mile, Test, 475, Toleration,
the
269,
243.
Constantinople,
of
Emperor,
Alexander
267,
154.
Acolytes, Act, Act, Act, Act,
also
264-266;
patriarch
schoolman,
276.
275.
Abyssinia,
Hales,
of
Alexander,
Canter
5, 11, 76. of duke Parma,
237.
Anthony,
436-440.
605
monastic
founder,
137.
the also
236,
INDEX
606 the
Antioch,
school
of, 106,
114,
115,
145, 156. 12. King, IV, Epiphanes, of Navarre, 433, 432, King
141,
144,
Antiochus
Antoine, 435.
49-51. Pius, Emperor, theo Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea, logian, 143, 144, 146, 149. Apologists, the, 50. Creed. see Apostles' Creed, Fathers. see Apostolic Fathers, see Poverty. Apostolic poverty, Apostolical succession, see Bishops and Antoninus
of Origen, the, views 82; Anselm, Augustine, 264; 181; 263, Abelard, 272; Calvin, 265; Aquinas, Socinians, 393; 453; Grotius, 456;
Atonement,
573. Edwards, Attila, conqueror,
Succession.
177;
life, 270; theology, Thomas, 271-277; mysticism, 279; see also 256,
conversion,
Aquinas,
291, 324, 332, 340, 562. Arcadius, 131, 142. Emperor, Jewish ruler, 14. Archelaus, Gothic, 245. Architecture,
Aristides, Apologist, 50. 4. Aristotle, 5; system, philosopher, school of Antioch, 145; Leontius, 155; 267, 269; see also 51, 163, 279, 282, 294, 338, 340, 341, 481, 542. Arius, theologian, pupil of Lucian, 106; death, 114-119, 144; controversy, schoolmen,
Aries, Council the Armada,
of,
Council.
see
Great, 439. the Gregorian
Armenia,
Church,
158,
464,
453-457,
466,
468,
Arminius, Jacobus, theologian, Arndt, Johann, mystic, 496. Arnold, Arnold,
controversy, influence on 192; 193; purgatory, Scholasticism, 269; study of, revived, 279, 298, 327; Luther, 337-339; see
also
138,
330,
332,
168, 210, 211, 255, 262, 271, 453, 481, 484, 556, 557.
Augustinus
advo
papal
Triumphus,
cate, 295.
Augustus, Aurelian,
8, 15, 206, 217. Emperor, 129; 84, 87, 104, Emperor, against Paul of Samosata, 73,
Aurelius,
bishop
Authari,
King,
of
Carthage,
186,
192.
140. bishop of Milan. philosopher, 282. the Awakening, Great, 511, 570,
Auxentius,
571,
454.
501. Gottfried, historian, of Brescia, radical, 247, 248. broad-church Thomas, leader,
545.
Arnulf,
215. Emperor, Christology, 72. the 464. Lambeth, the Marburg, 370. 371. Articles, the Schwabach, Articles, the Thirty-nine, 410, 414,
Artemon, Articles, Articles,
Bacon, Sir Francis, philosopher, 483. 243. Baldwin, Emperor, Baldwin I, King, Crusader, 240, 241. Baldwin 241, 243. II, King, Crusader, Ballou, Hosea, Universalist, 576, 577. of Can Bancroft, Richard, archbishop terbury, 462-465. primi Baptism, general view, 93-97; of the church, tive, 24; foundation 42,
415,
the
43,
Francis,
Methodist,
517,
518,
575.
Ascension, the, 169. Asclepiodorus, Christology, 72. Westminster, 471, 472. Assembly, Biblical Astruc, Jean, critic, 528. Ataulf, Visigoth, 131. of Athanasius, theologian, bishop motives, life, 117-125; Alexandria, monasticism, 74,
180;
see
subordina 138; 143, 144, 146,
also
158.
Athenagoras,
Apologist,
50.
in
94;
Trinity,
fore, 61
495.
118; tion,
183, 184; the 207, 212, 229; 178, 182, 185-
578.
516.
Arnold,
church
Averroes,
312.
Arminianism,
Asbury,
Pelagian
fallen
182; the
106.
507.
inventor,
Richard,
177-179, 5, 107; 177, 178; later life, 178; 179; Confessions, 179;
mysticism, the Trinity, 179, 180; man's on
decides
119.
159,
Neo-Platonism,
state, 181, 182; grace, 182, 183; sacraments, 184, City of God,
Aresen, Jon, bishop in Iceland, 384. Arianism, 114-128; missions, 129, 130; renounced, 134, 191, 192.
Arkwright,
132.
Attis, worship of, 10. of Milan, 228. Atto, archbishop Confession of, see Confession. Augsburg, Peace of, see Peace. Augsburg, of Saxony, 443. August, Elector to England, 198. Augustine, missionary Augustine, theologian, early life, 175-
of
name
58,
95;
Christ
instruction
or
of be
previous sins, 68, 95; of, salvation, 94 ; mode with confirmation, 96; from confirmation, 166, 167;
; cleanses
for necessary 96; combined
separated 96; baptism, 95, 96; sponsors, administered, 96, 97 ; valid, by whom Aquinas, 182, 183; 97; Augustine,
infant
273.
Baptists,
see
also
Anabaptists,
English,
368, 465, 466, 472, 477, 478, 519, in America, immersion, 466; 550; 589; 586, 579-581, 585, 566-570, 523. missions, Barlow, William, bishop, 414. 367,
INDEX epistle of, 42, 62. Barnabas, missionary, 27-29. Baro, Peter, Arminian views, 463. Barrowe, Henry, Congregationalist,
Barnabas,
463. of St., 435, 438. Bartholomew, massacre 123. Basil, bishop of Ancyra, Basil, Emperors, I, 236; II, 236.
Basil, the
bishop
Great,
theologian,
and
137, 138, 197, 330. Basilides, Gnostic, 56, 77, 169. and New F. C., historian Testa Baur, ment critic, 536, 539, 541, 543. 125-127,
Baxter, Bayazid
Richard, Puritan,
Beaton, Beaton,
474.
318. II, Sultan, Scottish David, cardinal, 416. of St. An James, archbishop
drews, Beatrice,
416.
Tuscany,
of
countess
225, 226,
230. of
Thomas, archbishop Becket, terbury, 286. Bede, historian, 200, 261. Beecher, preacher Lyman, former,
Can
and
re
583.
the, 260. Beghards, Beguines, the, 260, 283. Belisarius, general, 133. England Bellamy, Joseph, New logian, 572. of monastic Benedict, Aniane, former,
his
138;
219, 246. Benedict, Popes,
monastic "Rule," 139,
re
218,
VIII,
272;
218; 291;
XV,
564. 139, 218,
138,
219.
Albrecht,
Johann
scholar,
Biblical
528.
Italy, 217. Lord's Supper,
II, King on
of
the
263, 265. Berhta, Queen
of
Kent,
262,
198.
philosopher
Berkeley, George, bishop, 489, 507.
Reformation Bern, in, 363, 386. of Clairvaux, life and Bernard,
ings, 246-248, 242; Luther,
265; Second 337, 338; see
and
Crusade, also
Saxe-Weimar,
249,
general,
449.
tyr, 331, Bessarion,
Boniface, Popes, II, 189; VIII, 290-292; IX, 297. Booth, William, Salvation 551. Army, Katherine
mar
bishop
Boston, Thomas, James Bothwell,
of
cardinal
Nicaea, 312,
315.
Anabaptist, reformer,
422,
432.
Giorgio, Unitarian, 451,
452.
356.
214.
Scottish
466.
Bray, Guy de, reformer, Bray, Thomas, Anglican
433.
organizer, 508,
566. of the
Common
Life, the, 281,
282.
William,
Briconnet,
Guillaume,
386,
bishop
of
Maux,
390.
Charles
Briggs,
461,
Congregationalist,
466.
scholar, Browne,
375.
401,
355,
divine, 552. earl of, 421. Hepburn, Botticelli, painter, 316. Bousset, cited, 31, 544. Wilhelm, the Nicholas, Bownde, 466. Sabbath, Bradford, William, Congregationalist,
331, 311,
von,
Borgia, Cesare, 318. Borgia, Lucrezia, 318. Boris, King of Bulgaria,
465,
390.
humanist, Beukelssen, Jan, Beza, Theodore,
Biandrata,
of Africa, 132. missionary bishop, 201-203,
count
Brewster,
of Cluny, 219. Berno, abbot Louis Protestant Berquin, de,
and
Boniface, Boniface,
Brethren of
theologian, mystic, 261,
279.
465, teach
266.
Bernhard,
398.
Bonaventura,
Bora,
Benedictines,
Berengar Berengar,
Blaurock, Georg, Anabaptist, 367, 369. Bobadilla, Nicolas, Jesuit, 425. 314. Boccaccio, humanist, the, 235, 249. Bogomiles, Bogue, David, missions, 523. of Taranto, Bohemund, Crusader, 240. Bohler, Peter, Moravian, 512, 514. Jakob, Bohme, mystic, 451. Boleslaus I, King, 237. Boleyn, Anne, Queen, 402, 403, 405. Bolsec, Jerome Hermes, with contest
209.
V,
IX, 218, 221. 222; X, 226; XI, XIII, 298, 308, 309; XIV, 555;
Bengel,
relative rank, 89; choice ordina and tion, 89, 90; metro 91; support, politans, 164, 165, 208, 209; incomes, 165; under Charlemagne, 208; arch bishops, 209, 212; English, 414; Danish, Mora Swedish, 384; 385; vian, 502-505; 517, 518. Methodist,
270,
Nursia,
of
former,
Bible, reading of, prohibited, 253. Biddle, John, Unitarian, 494. Biel, Gabriel, theologian, 338. Bilson, Thomas, bishop, Anglican con troversialist, 462. Bishops, in Jerusalem, ? 24; collegiate, 45, 46; monarchical, 47; apostolical succession, 48; the Gnostic struggle. 59-61; Rome, 64; Cyprian, 70, 89; guardians of the faith, 88; discipline, 88; city and country bishops, 88;
Calvin, re
219.
218,
Benedict,
theo
607
Augustus,
Biblical
586.
Robert,
Congregationalist,
462.
Bucer, see Butzer. Bude, Guillaume,
scholar, 331, 390.
608
INDEX
Bugenhagen, 364,
Johann,
371,
reformer,
349,
384.
Bullinger, Heinrich, 365. reformer, William Burghley, 413. Cecil, Lord, the, 130-134. Burgundians, theo Bushnell, Horace, Congregational logian, 584. Butler, Joseph, bishop, theologian, 487, 489,
Butzer,
490,
507.
Martin,
372, 376,
377,
with
reformer, 386,
392,
Bolsec,
398;
victory, 399, 400; death, influence, 400; 399;
246, 366, 376, 424,
255,
341, 394, 396,
363, 410.
411,
415,
with
Serve
academy, 401; see 417-419,
tus, 400; also
423,
431.
in Germany, Calvinism, 443, 444, 450. the, 477, 478. Cameronians, Campbell, 'Alexander, Disciple, 581, 582. Thomas, Campbell, Disciple, 581. Lorenzo, Campeggio, papal legate, 355, 372.
Catherine
438,
424. Giovanni
Caraffa, Paul
IV, 375,
Cardinals, formed
elections,
Pietro,
later
Pope
424, 428. the, origin of, 222, 223; re IX, 223; in papal by Leo 423,
227.
Carey, William, missionary, 522, 523. Caroli, Pierre, controversialist, 395. and colonial Carolina, North South, religious conditions, 566. J. B., theologian, 498, 499. Carpzov, Carroll, John, 573, archbishop, 574, 579.
Carthusians, the, 404. Cartwright, Edmund, inventor, 507. Cartwright, Thomas, Puritan, 459, 460. Castellio, Sebastien, toleration, 399. the Heidelberg, Catechism, 443, 455. the Racovian, Catechism, 452.
235.
Queen Queen
of
of
Eng
France,
440.
I, Pope, heathen
Celsus,
147,
148.
controversialist,
80,
105.
Celtes, Conrad, humanist, 328, 56. Cerdo, Gnostic, Council and creed Chalcedon, Council, Creed. Scottish Chalmers, Thomas,
360.
of,
see
leader,
554.
Chandieu, Antoine, Calvinist, 431. W. 577. E.f Unitarian, Channing, life and Charlemagne, work, Emperor, 205-208; 209; see
relation
to the
church,
207-
also
216132, 139, 210-212, 218, 234, 285, 326, 346. the Bald, Charles, 210. Emperor, the duke of Burgundy, Charles, Bold, 326. Charles
of Savoy, 388. III, duke 302. IV, Emperor, Charles V, Emperor, election, 346; at Worms, 371347, 348; at Augsburg, Charles
373;
King, 236. Wolfgang, reformer, 363. Caracalla, 79, 84, 85. Emperor, Caraccioli, of Vico, Galeazzo, marquis
107,
439.
great 380;
521.
also
de, Medici, 435,
Celestine
Cano, Canon,
Canute, Capito,
see
Catherine, St., of Siena, 297, 319. Catholic, the description, 59. under Catholics, English, Elizabeth,
Campion,
Jesuit Edmund, 438. martyr, Melchior, theologian, 324, 428. Marcion's, 62. 57; Muratorian, Canon law, see Law. Canstein, K. H. of, Bible society, 500,
288;
of Aragon, Catherine, land, 402, 403, 405.
432,
Csecilian, bishop of Carthage, 113. Caesarius, bishop of Aries, 189, 193. Thomas Cajetanus, Vio, cardinal, 342. Calixtus, Popes, I, see Kallistos; II, 234; III, 316-318. Calvin, John, early life,389, 390; con version, 391; the Institutes, 392, 394, in Italy, 394, 396; theology, 392-394; in 395; stay early Geneva, 395; in banished, 396; Strassburg, 396; return to Geneva, 396; ecclesiastical constitution, 396-398; contests, 398, 399;
the Westminster, 472. Catechism, Catechumens, 166, 167. the, and Cathari, spread teachings, 249-251, 255; crusade against, 253-
reunion
plan,
efforts,
his 396; Interims, death, 382;
376, the
375-379;
failure,
381, 382; 322, 324, 326, 329, 343, 351, 356, 392, 402, 403, 407, 411, 423, 427, 430, 433. of England, I, policy, Charles, Kings see
also
468-470;
the
executed,
473;
civil
470-472;
war,
II, restoration
and
480. policy, 473-475, V, 307; Charles, Kings of France, 313; VIII, 318, 320; IX, 432,
VII, 435,
436.
Charles
Martel,
ruler
of
208. 160, 200-203, of Anjou, Charles Naples,
the
288,
Franks, 289.
Charles, Chauncy, Liberal, 573. Martin, Chemnitz, theologian, 443. T. K., Biblical Cheyne, scholar, 546. of, 557. Choiseul, duke life and Christ, see teaching, 14-20; Christology. II, 383Christian, Kings of Denmark, 385; III, 383, 384; IV, 447; VI, 504. Christmas,
celebration
Christology, Pauline, John,
38, 39; 51,
Martyr,
of, 169.
24, 23, 35; primitive, 36, 37; the synoptics, 37, 38; Hermas, 52;
39, 72; Justin 53-55;
Gnostic,
INDEX Marcion,
56, 57; Irenseus, 66; Ter75, 114; 71, Logos Christology, see Logos; Monarchians, Paul of 72-75; Samosata, 72, 73; Sabellius, 73, 74; Hippolytus. 74, 75; 75; Kallistos, Novatian, 75-76; of Alexandria, Clement 78; Origen, tullian,
69,
"he
Arian 114controversy, great Christological con troversies, 143-161; Apollinaris, 144; school of NesAntioch, 144, 145; torius, 145, 146; Cyril, 146; "Mother
81,
82;
128;
the
of
God," 146-148; Eutyches, 150; Chalcedon, 151, 152; Monophysites, 153; Leontius, 179155; Augustine, and 181; Felix, Elipandus 207; Paulician, 235; Cathari, 249, 250; Eckhart, 280; Servetus, 399; Socinian, 452, 453; Moravian, 505, 506; Hegelian, 535; Ritschlian, 543. Chrodegang, bishop of Metz, 209. Stoic Chrysippus, philosopher, 6. Greek scholar Chrysoloras, Manuel, ship. 315. ,
Chry_sijsJtoin7" career 142;
see
also
146,
'and
services, 141,
169,
188,
330.
Church, the, early use of name, 22, 23 ; by Paul, 32; early conceptions, 42, 43; primitive organization, 23; char ismatic of leaders, 44; development the officers, 45-48; the Catholic 59;
Cyprian the
on,
name
"Catholic,"
Church, 59-63; in 70, 71; organization
third
of whom 87-91; century, composed, 102; experiential Chris for salvation, tians, 102; an agency Constantino 103; freedom, brings States of 108, 112; property, 165; the Prankish church, 204; church, 208, Augustine 209; 182, 183; on, of Padua Marsilius 294; Wyclif on, 299, 300; Huss 303; Prierio on, on, Luther Cal 342; 351, 352; on, on, vin on, 394; Lutheran, 357, 358, 371; 368; Anabaptist, Congregational, 461.
Church, Church,
the
Catholic
Apostolic,
550.
the
Jansenist, 557. in American col England, the onies, 565-569; organized as Protestant and Episcopal bishops secured, 574, 575; divisions, 584, 585; confer world growth, 585; proposed
Church
ence,
of
589.
Cid, the, 239. Cimabue, painter, 316. Cistercians, the, 245, 246. Clark, Francis E., Christian
Clemens, Clement,
Flavius, consul,
33.
of
Alexandria, theologian, life and teaching, 77-79, 83. of Rome, Clement, Father, Apostolic 35, 36, 42, 46, 48, 61, 63, 89. Clement, Popes, II, 222; III, CounterPope, 231, 232, sec Wibert; IV, 289;
V, 284, 291, 292, 295; VI, 294 (VII, VII, 297, Avignon, 298); 354-357, 372,
375,
402,
403,
XIV,
422;
558.
Clement, Second, sermon, 42, 102. Cleomenes, Christology, 73. le, Biblical scholar, 528. Clerc, Jean from Clergy, distinguished laity, 89; major and minor orders, 90, 91 ; legal 112. exemptions, Clerical celibacy and marriage, 104, 162,
165,
166,
213,
Clovis, Frankish Cluny, monastery,
547.
232,
King,' 133, 134, 200. founded, 219; aims,
219-221.
Coccejus, Johann, theologian, 472. Coelestius, Pelagian, 186, 187. Coke, Thomas, Methodist, 517, 518, 575.
C.olenso, J. W., bishop, 546. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, philosopher, 545,
584.
Colet, John,
humanist,
315,
329,
331,
401.
Coligny, 433,
Gaspard
de, Huguenot,
432,
435.
Collins, Anthony, Deist, 487. 370. Colloquy, the Marburg, British Colman, bishop, 199. Sciarra, adventurer, Colonna, 291. Columba, to Scotland, 196. missionary Conti to the Columbanus, missionary 197.
nent,
Comgall, Commodus, Compton,
Irish
founder, 197. 49, 84, 85. Emperor, of London, Henry, bishop
508.
Concordats, 285; 322;
papal,
with with
of
Ferdinand Francis
Worms, 234, Isabella,
and
I, 319,
321;
with
Napoleon, 558, 559. Conde, Louis, prince of, 432, 433. Confession, public, 100, 101; private, 197, 208, 352; required, 275, 288. the Confession, 371, Augsburg, 373, 383, 386, Confession, Confession,
444, the the
505.
Belgic, 433, Westminster,
456.
471,
472,
478. of 166, Confirmation, development Congregationalists, the, origin principles, 460-463; emigration Holland and America, 465, 466, also for England, see 472, 473, 495, 519, 523, 550; in America, ,
Endeavor,
588.
Clarke, Samuel, Arian, 494. 26. Claudius, Emperor, Claudius Gothicus, Emperor, Stoic Cleanthes, philosopher, Clemanges, Nicholas of, 307.
609
129. 6, 7.
568, 570, 579, 580, 589. Conrad, Kings and Emperors,
II, 218,
221;
III, 242;
167. and to
469; 477, 567,
I, 216;
IV, 288,
289.
INDEX
610 of Conrad, theory, 307.
preacher,
212,
I, 119-121;
II,
161.
donation
of,
204,
I, Emperor, 110; struggle, of Milan, 111;
108, Edict
Christian,
a
10, 120, 128, 129, 136, Constantino, Emperors, 162,
235;
VI,
II, 119;
Chlorus,
108,
243,
James, discoverer, Coornhert, Dirck, Dutch
Chalcedon
(451)
135, 149, 151-153,
343.
Council, of Constantinople (381) (Sec ond General), 127, 144. Council, of Constantinople (553) (Fifth General), 83, 157, 161. of Constantinople Council, (680-681) (Sixth General), 161, 162. Council, of Elvira, 105. Council, of Ephesus (431) (Third Gen eral), 148, 149, 171, 188. (449), the "Synod Council, of Ephesus of Robbers," 150, 151. and of Ferrara Council, Florence, 312, 315.
Council, sion
Fourth
275, 263, 274,
Council, of Nicaea
,
Creed, Creed,
of
Toledo,
134,
403,
London,
poet,
trans
520. of
archbishop
Can
409-412.
406,
405,
478.
and
bishop
Apostles', Chalcedon,
61, 76.
151-153;
see
also
271.
128,
Oliver, protector, 472, 473. 473. Richard, protector, VIII 's Thomas, Henry
Cromwell, Cromwell, Cromwell,
404,
agent,
407.
406,
Crusades, the, 238-245; First, 239-241; of Jerusalem, 242; Kingdom 241, Second, 242; military orders, 241, Fourth, Third, 247, 249; 243; later ef Childrens', 244; 243, 288; forts, 244; results, 244, 245. Nicholas of, scholar, 205, 327. Cues, 242,
Presbyterian
Church,
the,
580. 568. Episcopalian, Timothy, of, 10. Cybele, worship life and Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, teachings, 70, 71; on baptism, 95, 97;
Cutler,
on
the
Lord's
87, 90-92,
99 Supper, 173, 175,
101,
; see
also
73,
193.
of Jerusalem, 128. Cyril, missionary, 214. Alexan of bishop Cyril, theologian, 154dria, 146-150, 153; theology,
Cyril, bishop
157,
171;
see
also
163,
167,
168,
172,
330.
Damasus,
Popes, I, 127, 174; II, 222. Alighieri, poet, 277, 293. Breth John Nelson, Plymouth
288.
Darnley,
180.
of
208.
Darby,
Gen
see
555.
the Nicene, 116, 128. Nicene-Constantinopolitan,
Dante
(325) (First General),
antece
422-430;
470,~471, 477,
Thomas,
255; confes transub288;
also 76, 135, 164. 115-117; see of Nicsea Council, (787) (Seventh eral), 163, 172, 207. of Pisa, 303, 307, 308. Council, of Sardica, Council, 121, 135. of
311,
Lateran,
required,
stantiation,
Council,
the,
Cumberland
171. of and 308-311; Council, Constance, Huss, 304, 305; see also 313, 317, 327,
Superero
bishop
Miles,
153-157,
151,
(Fourth 157, 159,
284.
William,
terbury, .Creed, the
Screed,
522.
251.
561.
321, 322; course, 355, 434, 444-446,
Cranmer,
315. 109.
327. of
theory, 294, 307-
Lateran,
lator, 406, 414. William, Cowper,
112; 267,
scholar, 454. humanist, 390. Cop, Guillaume, Cop, Nicolas, friend of Calvin, 391. 483. Copernicus, Nicolaus, astronomer, Cordier, Mathurin, scholar, 389. 102. Cornelius, bishop of Rome, Cotton, John, 469. Congregationalist, Council, of Basel, 305, 310-312, 316,
General),
Vienne,
Covenanters,
IV,
423-425.
Cook,
Council,
Coverdale,
119-125. Constantius, Emperor, Contarini, cardinal, 375, 376, Gasparo,
Council,
427.
381,
299.
163.
of,
Third
Vatican,
Courtenay,
237.
222,
foundation Constantinople, captured by Crusaders, 268; by Turks, 285, 312, Constantius
conciliar
Council, Council,
also
toward
policy
church, 112, 113, 165, 170, 171; Donatists, 113, 114; Arians, 114-119; baptism, 95, 119; death, 119; see also
V,
380,
dents,
the
109-111;
the
161;
378,
of Perfection, see Counsels, gation. Counter-Reformation, the,
205,
315.
Constantino
the
Council,
289.
Emperors,
Constantino,
Trent,
311.
executed,
Constans, 160,
Bohemian
302.
Conradin,
of
Council, 428.
Waldhausen,
of
Conrad,
conciliar
Gelnhausen,
ren,
551.
Henry
Stewart,
Lord,
420,
421. Charles scientist, 552. Robert, Darwin, John, Congregationalist, Davenport, 469.
David,
Christian,
Moravian,
91. Deaconesses, Deacons, early, 23, 45-47,
503, 90.
504.
INDEX
612 controversialist,
Eutyches,
153,
150,
154.
English,
the
Evangelicals,
519-523,
bishop
Electors
Palatine,
(King
V
200-
195,
130,
III, 443; Bohemia), 446,
of
450.
of
86,
martyr,
Rome,
386-
331,
reformer,
of
326,
286;
285,
III, 325. Frederick, Kings
Denmark,
of
,
I, 383;
IV, 500. Frederick,
Frederick
(CounterPope), 312. 479. Fell, Margaret, Quaker, of I (brother Ferdinand, Emperors, 446Charles 358, 381; II, 355, V), 448, 450; III, 450. Ferdinand, Spanish Kings, I of Castile, "Catholic"
I (Barbarossa) II, 244, 269, 287,
Emperors,
248,
333, 338, 342, 343, 347, 348, 350, 355. Elec "Great the William,
ican, 588, 589. Felix, bishop of Urgel, 207. V III, 135; Felix, Popes,
322-324,
243, 288;
Kings of Prussia, I, 499; II (the Great), 492, 526. Frederick, of Austria, 280, 293. Stephen, Frederick, of Lorraine, Pope IX, 224. of Saxony, Frederick, the Wise, Elector
389, 391, 395, 396. 546. F. W., broad-church, Farrar, the Apostolic, 42, 53. Fathers, Faustus, bishop of Riez, 189. 176. Manichaean, Faustus, Amer of Churches, Federal Council
the
191, papacy, 131.
also
Frederick,
90, 101. Farel, Guillaume,
239; 318,
the
and
IV, 445;
544, 546. 552. Evolution, Exorcists, 90, 91. Fabian,
136;
208; see Frederick,
Aragon,
402;
see
tor," 450. William
I, King
Frederick
of
Prussia,
525.
vivals, 569, 570. Frith, John, Protestant
Fritigern, Visigoth,
283,
Froment,
Isa
Froude,
Antoine, R. H.,
American
J.,
T.
Frelinghuysen,
martyr,
re
406.
130. 388.
reformer,
547,
Anglo-Catholic,
548.
bella.
87. martyr, missionary,
Fructuosus, Frumentius,
influence of, 210. Feudalism, Fichte, J. G., philosopher, 534, 545. Ficino, Marsilio, philosopher, 315. 460. Puritan, John, Filioque, clause, the, 208, 213, 312 Irish monk, 196. Finian, of Clonard, Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea, 97. 494. Unitarian, Firmin, Thomas, Fisher, John, bishop of Rochester, 401,
158. 388.
champion,
Roman
Guy,
Furbity,
Field,
404,
Congregationalist, 461. Fitz, Richard, (Illyricus), Lutheran Flacius, Matthias 442. historian, 380, Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, 149-151.
John
Fletcher,
of
William,
Madeley,
Estienne
de
la, Protestant
mar
tyr, 392.
Forgiveness, Formosus, Formula
see
Pope,
Sins. 215.
of Concord,
the
Lutheran,
443,
562. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, Gaunilo, reply to Anselm, Gelasius, Pope, 135. work
320, 407, 416; 343, 354, 356, 376, 390-392, ,11,409, 413, 418, 419, 431, 432. 559. Francis II, Emperor, 424. of Assisi, 255, 257-260, Francis, Terthe 258-261; the, Franciscans, in 261; 260, divisions, tiaries, 260;
America,
565.
August
Hermann,
Pietist,
498-502.
Franklin,
Gentile, George, George, George, 359,
492. Benjamin, the, conversion
of, 133,
Calvin,
before
Geneva,
263. 387-389;
Cal
in, 395-400. radical, 451. 123. Laodicea, of Saxony, 374, 377.
Giovanni,
bishop duke
of
Brandenburg-Ansbach,
of
355,
371.
colonial
religious conditions,
Johann,
theologian,
567.
478-480. George, Quaker, I, 319, Francis, Kings of France,
Francke,
385.
champion, Galle, Peter, Roman 87, 104. Emperor, Gallienus, 86. Gallus, Emperor, 197. Gallus, missionary, 26. Gamaliel,
Georgia,
444.
Fox,
Franks,
Galilei, scientist, 483.
Galileo
vin's
516.
Forge,
chief, 132. Gaiseric, Vandal 108-110. Galerius, Emperor,
134,
Gerhard, Gerhard,
of
Brogne,
monastic
444.
reformer,
220.
Gerhardt, German
Paul, hymn"Reformed"
writer, 451. 444. Churches,
the, 281. Theology, 195. of Auxerre, bishop Germanus, 502. Katherine Gersdorff, von, Jean de, theologian, 307, 308. Gerson, historian, 493. Edward, Gibbon, Scottish leader, 553. Thomas, Gillespie,
German
Giotto,
painter,
316.
INDEX Gnosticism,
39; teaching, 53"Chris a reply, 60-64; 77, 78; also 235. Gnosticism,"
tian
God,
causes,
Catholic
56;
"Friends
Godfrey, Godfrey,
of,"
281.
of Milan, 228. archbishop of Bouillon, Crusader, 240,
241. of
Godfrey,
Lorraine, count
of
Tuscany,
226.
225,
J. W.
Goethe, Gomarus,
527,
poet,
von,
530, 532. 454, 456.
theologian,
Franz,
Gordian,
85. Emperor, Gospels, written, 34, 35, 60; ture," 61, 62, 67; Baur on
Gottschalk,
monk,
Tertullian
"Scrip the, 536,
211.
68, 69; Augustine, 272-274; Calvin, 393. on,
182; Aquinas, Granvella, cardinal,
statesman,
433,
434.
Gratian,
Canonist,
292.
Gratian, 127, 128. Emperor, Gravitation, 483, 552. Grebel, Conrad, Anabaptist,
Greenwood,
John,
366.
Congregationalist,
466.
Gregorian Gregory,
Armenia. Church, see of bishop Alexandria,
120,
121.
Gregory, of Nazianzus, preacher, theo 146. logian, 125-127, 167, 169, 174. of Gregory, 125Nyssa, theologian, 127,
168.
the
Franks, also 191, 200; 157, see 212, 222, 262; II, 201, 212; III. 162, V, 217; VI, 221, 223; 201-203; VII, Hildebrand; see IX, 244, 254, 258, 259, 288. 292; X, 290; XI, 297-299; 430. XII, 298, 303, 308, 309; XV, the Gregory, "Illuminator," Jane, 411. Grey, Lady
Gribaldi,
Matteo,
158.
170, 543.
Thomas,
Hegel,
G.
W.
Missions,
523.
F., philosopher,
534-536,
451.
Francis, Mary
Scotland,
of
Lorraine,
duke
of,
432,
433
of
Lorraine,
regent
of
416-418.
Adolphus,
IV,
223;
Kings
II, 286; VII,
of
III,
403,
321;
404;
teries
VI,
234;
England,
403
I, 233,
; breach
confiscated, 408;
412-416,
404,
Kings 431; 440,
also
see
457, of
V,
desires
with
407;
Rome, monas
religious
408;
321,
234; 301;
marries
head, 404;
supreme
the
230; see 286, 287.
IV,
288;
attitude, 406, 407; death, under,
with
contest
Canossa,
301; VIII, 401-408; annulled, 402;
marriage Anne Boleyn,
parties
331,
378,
463.
France,
III, 436, 437, 441, 445.
II, 381, 418, IV, 435,
440;
Henry,
of Lausanne, radical, 248. Heraclitus, philosopher, 3, 6, 52. Heraclius, Emperor, 159, 160. Herbert, Edward, of Cherbury, Deist,
Herder, J. G. von, inquirer, 532, 545. Hermann, 543. Wilhelm, of Rome, Hermas, The Shepherd, 39 4246, 62, 72, 100, 102, Herod Agrippa, 24. Herod,
High King
of
Sweden,
447-449.
Hadrian,
218,
487.
435.
Gustavus
also
228-233; papacy, also 239; V, 233,
436,
432.
Guise,
Hegius, Alexander, 327: humanist, of Saxony, Heinrich, duke 379. of Heinrich, Langenstein, conciliar theory, 307. Heinrich of Reuss, 502. XXIX, Heloise (Abelard), 264. Helvidius, 175. Helwys, Thomas, Baptist, 465. Hengstenberg, E. W., theologian, 537. Henoticon, the, 135, 154. duke of Guise, 435, 436, 440. Henry, German Henry, and Kings Emperors, I (the Fowler), 216, 218; II, 218, 221; the papacy, III, rescues 221-225; see
430,
radical,
455-457, 486, 573. of Spoleto, 215. Guido, Guise, Charles, cardinal
rian,
Haweis,
Henry,
of Can Grindal, Edmund, archbishop terbury, 460, 462. Groot, Gerhard, mystic, 281. Grotius, Hugo, publicist, theologian,
Haetzer,
19, 46,
Harold, King of Denmark, 236. Harris, Howell, Revivalist, 513. Harrison, Robert, Congregationalist,
Henry,
Gregory, Popes, I (the Great), 190-193; of Eng papal claims, 191 ; conversion land, 192, 198; theology, 192, 193;
Hadrian
236. I, King of Norway, Hallet, Joseph, Arian, 494. Hamilton, 583. Alexander, Hamilton, 416. Patrick, burned, Harding, Stephen, Cistercian, 246. Hargreaves, James, inventor, 507. Adolf Harnack, historian, cited, von,
539.
Grace,
431, Guise,
Hakon
461. as
537.
463,
613
103,
193.
the Great, 14, 24. Commission, Court, 463, 470, 475
477.
Hilary, bishop Emperor, IV,
pope,
Ludwig,
369, 451,
25, 49,
50,
73.
248.
Anabaptist 494.
Unita
of Poitiers, 122, 123. Hildebrand, Pope, early career, 223, 224 223 ; the real leader, ; sub-deacon, 225-227; Pope, 228-232; Canossa.
230;
posed,
aims, 239;
229, see
crusade 285; pro 212, 220, 233.
also
INDEX
614 of
archbishop
Hincmar,
Rheims,
210-
and theo Hippolytus, Counter-Pope logian, 74, 75, 79, 85. Thomas, Hobbes, philosopher, 486. Hochstraten, inquisitor, 335, Jakob,
Hoen,
John,
bishop, Lord's
Cornelius,
Hoffmann,
Melchior,
the, 162, 163. of the, 428. of theory
controversy,
Index,
Congregation Indulgences, growth practice,
for
276;
and
purgatory,
317;
H.
scholar,
Supper, 364. 374, Anabaptist, New
Testament
Spirit.
see
the,
party,
Homoiousion
VIII,
127,
123-125,
130.
the,
party,
Honorius,
Hooker,
76,
116-128.
131, 132, I, 160,
Emperor, Honorius, Popes, (Counter-Pope),
227;
187.
III, 255.
Ecclesiastical
Richard,
II
161;
Polity,
463.
462,
Hooker,
Congregationalist,
Thomas,
bishop, 406, 412. de 1',statesman,
John, Michel
Sophy,
432.
512.
Hosius,
of
bishop
Cordova,
115,
116,
Hospitallers, the, 242. John, philanthropist, 520, 521. Howard, Hrabanus of Maurus, archbishop scholar, 210, 211, 261. Mainz, Balthasar, Hubmaier, Anabaptist, 366, abbot of Cluny, 221, 224. Hugh, of Vermandois, 240. Crusader, Hugh, the White, cardinal, 223, 229. Hugh, de Payens, 241. Templar, Hugo, of St. and Victor, theologian Hugo, mystic, 266, 267, 273, 279. the, 431-441, 556, 558; in Huguenots,
America,
566,
490,
491,
553.
Hut, Hutten,
see
369, 374. Anabaptist, agitator, 336, von,
Ignatius,
theologian,
Reformation
Apostolic
tyr, 40-42,
Castile,
322-324,
422.
Ernst, Hussite
Jablonski, Daniel
194.
bishop,
504.
502, Jacob,
Henry,
Congregationalist, the, 158.
466.
Church,
James, James,
24.
Apostle, the
Lord's
brother, 24-28. epistle of, 34. and James, Kings of England Scotland, I (VI of Scotland), policy, 464, 466, 467; 467, 470; bishops in Scotland, also 416, 421 ; II (VII of Scotland), see
James,
149,
156.
and
mar
in, 384. Father
429.
416. V, King of Scotland, Janitors, 90, 91. Jansen, Cornelius, theologian, 556.
Jansenism, Jansenist
Jefferson,
556, 557. Church, 557, 561. 492. Thomas, of
Jerome, Jerome,
Prague,
Vulgate, 188,
305.
life and
scholar,
187, 344.
47, 48, 59, 63, 66, 96, 98. founder of the Loyola,
Ignatius, of Jesuits, 424-426,
402,
Isidore, bishop of Seville, 193, of, 10, 96. Isis, worship 233. Ivo, bishop of Chartres,
the
343.
Ulrich
Ibas, of Edessa, Iceland,
also
243. of
Queen
347,
Apostolic
James
227.
Laurence, Puritan, 458. Humphrey, 515. Humphreys, Joseph, Methodist, of, 516. Selina, countess Hunting-don, life Bohemian reformer, John, Huss, and death, 306; teaching, 302-304, 309; Hans,
Catholic
475^78.
569.
cardinal, 223-225, Humbert, David, Hume, philosopher, 530,
163.
550. Church, Isaac II, Emperor,
Jacobite
369.
367,
330.
326,
122.
121,
318,
Inquisition, Spanish, 324; world- wide, 424. Interims, the, 380, 410. the 216, 224-226; Investiture, causes, struggle, 228-234. Irenseus, theologian, life and teaching, 65-67; 60, 61, reply to Gnosticism, 63; see also 67, 71, 95, 98-100, 170,
Isabella,
Samuel, theologian, 572. 434. Netherlander, count,
Horn,
252-254, 258, 268, 283; 288; VI, 296; VII, 298; 555. 333; XI, 555; XII, established, the, 254;
Irene, Empress, Edward, Irving,
469.
Hooper, Hopital, Hopkey, Hopkins,
243,
IV, 254, 261,
122.
the,
party,
Homoousion
also
289;
540.
Spirit,
Homoion
J.,
304; Luther, 340-343. 95, 96. baptism, Infant 99, 274. communion, Ingersoll, Robert G., 492. Innocent, Popes, I, 134, 135; see also 142, 187, 190; II, 247, 265; III, 286Infant
414.
375.
Holtzmann,
305,
Image
Huss,
336.
Hodgkin,
Holy
patriarch of Constantinople,
Ignatius, 213.
213.
174;
190,
see
work, also
330.
Jesuits, origin, 425-427; 559; see 558; restored, 453, 430, 444, 445, 565. America, Joachim, Joan Johan
John,
of
173-175; 46, 138, 170,
abolished, also
Floris, 261.
Arc, 312. of Sweden, 386. III, King Apostle, 23, 24, 28, 33.
of
557,
220, 429, in 556, 560;
615
INDEX bishop of Antioch, 148. 187. bishop of Jerusalem, and monk writer, Cassianus,
John, John, John
Duns
John
Scotus,
Fidanza, Frederick,
John
see
Scotus.
see
542,
Bonaventura. of
Elector
371,
Saxony,
407.
379, John
of
III, Elector
George Gospel
John
John,
60, 62, 537,
of, 35, 38-40,
540.
539,
Hyrcanus, King of the Jews, 13. of 288, 287, England, King
295.
John, John,
of of
436. Austria, governor, Damascus, theologian,
163,
164.
John, John, John,
of
Gaunt, Janden,
of of
298,
299.
publicist, 293. Corvino, missionary,
Monte
284.
Paris, political theorist, Popes, IV, 160; VIII, 214; 217; XIX, 215, 217; XIII, 292, 278, XXII, 261, 280* 304. 308, 309. XXIII, 210. John, Scotus "Erigena," John, the Baptist, 16, 18, 20, 93, of the John, Faster, patriarch stantinople, 191. Elector the John, "Steadfast,"
John, John,
of
Saxony,
355,
218; 294;
94. Con
235, 236. Tzimiskes, Emperor, III, King of Portugal, 429. John 311. VIII, Emperor, Congregationalist, Johnson, Francis, 466.
568. Johnson, Episcopalian, Samuel, Jonas, Justus, reformer, 349, 371. Joseph, King of Portugal, 557. 492. Joseph II, Emperor, of Constanti Joseph II, patriarch nople, 311. 125. Jovian, Emperor, 175. Jovinianus, Juan de la Cruz, mystic, 429. of Spain, 326. Juana, Queen Jud, Leo, reformer, 362. 187. Julian, bishop of Eclanum, 156. Julian, of Halicarnassus, Emperor, Julian, the "Apostate," 123, 124.
Julius, Popes, I, 120, 121; II, 318, 319, 402; III, 381. Junius, Franz, theologian, 454. I, 154; II, 157, 190. Justin, Emperors, theo Justin and Martyr, Apologist logian, 50-52; see also 43, 66, 68, 71, 77, 78, 92, 94, 95, 98.
134,
162,
164,
166,
I, see
190;
theological also
83,
II, 161
Kramer, Kublai
of
John
140. Justina, Empress, Justinian, Emperors, politician, 154-157;
349,
350,
353,
383.
415.
410,
Heinrich, 284. Khan,
inquisitor, 333.
Lainez, Diego, Jesuit, 425, 427. Laity, the, 89. 215. Lambert, Emperor, 357. Lambert, Francis, reformer, of Lanfranc, archbishop Canterbury,
John
463,
343,
543. Ferdinand, Kattenbusch, 547, 548. Keble, John, Anglo-Catholic, John a, 282. Kempis, Thomas Imitation, 282. a, the Kempis, 196. Kentigern, missionary, 483. astronomer, Kepler, Johann, of Mosul, 241. Kerbogha, Sultan 197. Kilian, missionary, broadCharles, English Kingsley, church, 546. Robert, at Oxford, 510. Kirkham, of St. John, see Hospitallers. Knights see Knox, John, life and work, 416-422; also
371.
357-359,
Elector Palatine, 450. Ludwig, Bodenstein of, 340, Karlstadt, Andreas
293.
XII,
530-535,
545.
Karl
Saxony,
499.
John,
103.
Kanis, Peter, Jesuit, 427. philosopher, Kant, Immanuel,
188. John
Christology, Kallistos, bishop of Rome, 74, 75; forgiveness, 101; the church,
133,
262,
273.
263,
of Can Langton, Stephen, archbishop terbury, 287. Arian, 495. Lardner, Nathaniel, Latimer, Hugh, bishop, 406, 412. of Canter William, Laud, archbishop bury, 468-471. 87. Laurentius, martyr, 292. Law, the canon, Law, William, Nonjuror, 488, 489, 508, 510.
League,
of
373, 376, 378.
Schmalkalden,
379.
League,
the
Catholic,
in
France,
436,
440.
Lectionaries, Le
167.
Fevre, Jacques, 386,
humanist,
315,
331,
390.
Lefevre, Pierre, Jesuit, 425. Legate, Bartholomew, burned, 494. Gottfried Leibnitz, philos Wilhelm, opher, 485, 524, 525, 533. Leicester, the earl of, 437. Lent, 93, 169, 213, 361. 261. Franciscan, Leo, Brother, III, 162, 202; V, 206. Leo, Emperors, of Bulgaria, 224. Leo, metropolitan Leo, Popes, I, 132, 134, 135, 150-154, 159, 161, 165, 168. 190; III, 206; IV, 222-224, VIII, 217; IX, 226; 212; X, 261, 318, 319, 340, 342, 343, 346, 351, 384, 402, 422; XIII, 414, 562, 563.
INDEX
616 of
Leontius,
Byzantium,
theologian,
163.
156,
155,
Lessing, Gotthold
critic, 527,
Ephraim,
529.
of Obscure
Letters
the, 336.
Men,
Liberius, Pope, 122. Liberties, the Gallican, 556, 559. 115. Licinius, Emperor, 109-111, 495. Unitarian, Lindsey, Theophilus, Locke,
John,
philosopher,
485-487,
490,
530.
the, in Heraclitus, 3; Aristotle, 6, 7; paralleled in He
Logos, 4;
Stoicism,
brew
"Wisdom,"
Paul,
Johannine
the
36; 38; Justin TertuUian,
16;
Philo, 17; literature,
Martyr,
66; 52; Irenaeus, discussed, 71, 72; in Paul of Samosata, 73; triumphs of Alex West, 75, 76, 83; Clement Neo78; 81, andria, Origen, 82; Platonic, 106; Arius, 115, 144; Apol69;
145; linaris, 144; Cyril, Diodorus, 146; Leontius, 155. 564. Loisy, Alfred, modernist, the, 133, 134, 159, 190-192, Lombards,
Loofs, Friedrich, cited, 69, 82, 541, 543. Lord's Supper, the, general view, 97-99; 97; Pauline, 23; 40, primitive, Johannine, 40, 98; Ignatius, 41, 98; Justin 43, 92, 98; Irenaeus, Martyr, 66; the real presence, 98; a sacrifice, communion, 99; infant 99, 274; com memorative, 167, 99; developments, 168; Augustine, 193; 183; Gregory, Kadbertus and Ratramnus, 211;
Catharite, 250; Berengar, transubstantiation, 263, 273, 274; disuse Aquinas,
262, 274, of
263; 288;
by cup to laity,
laity, 274; Wyclif, 300; cup 305; Luther, 345, 352, 364, 370, 411; Zwingli, 364, 370; Calvin, 394; Eng Melish 409, 410; Books, Prayer lanchthon, 442, 443; Socinians, 453. 209. Lothair, Emperor, Lothair II, King, 213. R. H., philosopher, Lotze, 542. Louis, Kings of France, VII, 242; IX, 244, 288; XI, 320, 326; XII, 318, 320; XIII, 441, 448; XIV, 441, 556; XV, 558. 558; XVI, Louis, of Bavaria, imperial claimant, 278,
280,
"Child,"
Louis, Louis,
"German,"
216.
210. Emperor, the "Pious," 209, 219. Emperor, Loyola, Ignatius, see Ignatius. Antioch of Lucian, theologian, 106,
114, Lucius
Luder, Luke,
115, 144. III, Pope, 251. 327. Peter, humanist, of, 35, 57, 60, Gospel
bishop
of
professor,
to Wittenberg, 350; con 350-352; public worship, with Erasmus, 352; breach 352, 353; the Peasants' War, 353, 354; mar
356; churches the 351, 352, 357, 358; chism, 358; "Protestants,"
riage, 355,
organized, Short
Cate
359; dis pute with Zwingli, 363, 364, 370; the the 370; Marburg colloquy, Augs 371-373; burg Confession, Philip's 377, 378; death, 379; see also bigamy,
186, 246, 279-281, 306, 333, 334, 360, 361, 382, 391, 392, 394, 405, 415, 422, 442, 453, 481, 496, 513, 543. Lutherans, the, churches organized, 357,
Augsburg Confession, 371-373; 441rights, 382; controversies, 568, 569, 575-578, 445; in America, 358; full
Macaulay,
Mainz,
202.
Zachary, Jewish
Maccabees, Macedonians,
Evangelical, rulers,
520.
13, 14, 20.
the, on Holy Spirit, 125. Magnentius, imperial pretender, 121. Swedish suc Magni, Peter, bishop, cession,
385.
Major, Georg, theologian, 442. 113. Majorinus, bishop of Carthage, 569. Francis, Makemie, Presbyterian, 107. Mani, religious founder, 107, 176-178, Manichseism, 235, 249. H. 549. E., cardinal, Manning, Manwaring, Roger, Royalist, 469. Felix, Anabaptist, 366, 367, 369. Manz, Marburg colloquy, see Colloquy. 118, 120, Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, 126.
121,
Marcian,
Emperor,
Marcion,
Gnostic
151.
391, Marcus
56, 57.
reformer,
Marcionites, 235. Marcourt, Antoine,
radical
Protestant,
392.
Aurelius,
6, 49,
Emperor,
83,
85, 129.
Marguerite Mark, Mark,
391. d'Angoule"me, Persian, 156. of Ephesus, 312. archbishop Gospel of, 34, 37, 60, 62, 536, the
540.
Marprelate Marquette,
Tracts,
the,
462.
Jesuit
Jacques,
explorer,
565.
Marsilius, of Padua, 62,
536,
the
293-295, 306, 307. Martin, bishop of Tours,
Defensor
Pads,
138.
Popes, I, 160, 161; V, 310, 317. Martyrs, honored, 93, 170.
Martin,
540.
Lull,
337;
349; return servatism,
Maris,
293-295.
Louis, the the
337; a 338; religious experience, 338, 339, 346; theses, 340, the 341; Leipzig debate, 343, 344; the at great treatises, 344-346; Worms, 347, 348; the Wartburg, 348, monk,
580.
215.
203-205,
Lull, Raimon, missionary, 284. Luther, Martin, early life, 336,
INDEX 326. of Burgundy, Mary, of Scots," 409, 413, 417; Mary "Queen death, 439; see also reign, 417-422;
66; "Mother
of
God,"
for,
reverence
"Second
the
Virgin;
the
Mary,
'
464.
438,
431,
170,
278, conception, England,
maculate
of I, Queen 417, 457, 458. colonial Maryland,
Mary
Eve,"
146-148, 171, 175;
152; im
411-413,
Samuel H.
Milman, Milner,
Congregationalist,
Richard,
Anabaptist,
Mathys,
Jan,
Matilda,
countess
226/230.
of, 35, 38, 60, 62, 536,
Gospel
Matthew,
374.
of Tuscany,
540.
Matthias,
446.
Emperor,
Janov, preacher, 302. J. F. D., 545, 546. 455, 456. Stadholder, of
Matthias, Maurice, Maurice,
rival
Maxentius,
Constantino,
of
H.,
Maxfleld, Maximilian,
Maximus
Mayhew,
Missions,
under 216; Scandinavia,
586,
Philip,
Melanchthon, Loci
371-373; Confession, 377; Philip's bigamy,
the
Leipzig
Servetus, 399; Interim, 380, 442; on from Luther, faith, 399 ; differences on 442, 443; death, 443; 442; contests, also 329, 454. see 50. of Sardis, Melito, Scottish Andrew, Melville,
fects
the,
14, 15, 19-23, 510-517;
development,
508,
524,
570,
578,
586,
and
development, of Nursia, of Anlane, 218, 220; Camaldoli,
Benedict
219, Cluny, Cistercians,
221; minicans,
73;
Benedict
245,
246;
Do
Franciscans,
254-256;
258-261.
Monnica,
175,
Monophysites, Monothelite
178.
176, the,
312. 153-160, the, 160, 161. controversy, 57-60, 62-64, 67. 71. 72,
135,
171.
Michelangelo, artist, 316. Milicz, of Kremsier, preacher, 302. Mill, John, Biblical scholar, 528.
Morality, higher and lower, 103, 104. 511-514, the, 501-507, 532, Moravians, 579;
also
Hannah,
306.
Evangelical,
520.
Sir Thomas, More, 401, 404. Elector of duke and Moritz, 427, 442. 379-381, 39. ef
589.
83. bishop of Olympus, 214. missionary, Michael Cerularius, patriarch of Con stantinople, 224. III, 213, 214; Michael, Emperors,
Methodius, Methodius,
VII, 239. Michaelmas,
139;
72,
180.
sources
138, 219;
569,
of, 518-523, 544; in America, there, 572; 518, organization divisions, 584, 585; 584; 580,
also
72-75,
136-140;
514.
Dynamic,
the,
104,
More,
375. Simons, Anabaptist, Mennonites, the, 375, 465, 568, 569. Rulman, Merswin, mystic, 281.
Hope,
159, 160. H., Moravian,
88.
reformer,
Menno
Methodism,
579,
10, 106, 107, 169. the, 564.
Montanism,
432, 467. 148. Memnon, bishop of Ephesus, of Toledo, 323. Mendoza, archbishop
Messianic
American,
523;
522,
Modalistic, Monasticism,
342, 353, 349; Augsburg 373; Apology,
Communes,
Is
201,
587.
P. Molther, Monarchians,
357,
British
Germany, Charlemagne,
to
205, 213, 214, 236, 237; Hun Slavs and Russia, 214, 237; to China, 284; 237; mediaeval gary, to Mohammedans, 284; Francis, 258, 284; Lull, 284; Roman Catholic, 429, America, 479; 565; Quaker. 430; Halle-Danish, 500, 522; Moravian, modern Protestant 522; 504, 505, 202, 206;
Mohammed,
de', 315.
129-134;
195-200;
445-450.
328,
evidences, of, 488, 491,
540.
Arian,
326,
58, 59. Montanist, 109-111. Daia, Emperor, Jonathan, Liberal, 573.
Cosimo
376;
325,
Christian criticism
494;
Modernists,
515.
346.
343,
Maximilla,
Medici,
Bavaria,
of
duke
I, Emperor,
Maximilian
335,
Methodist,
Thomas,
494.
main
493, 527,
Mithraism,
110.
545.
343.
von,
awakening, 109,
dean,
Evangelical, 520. Joseph, Evangelical, 519.
Milner,
452,
Adventist, 582. 523. J., Jr., missions,
Isaac,
Miltitz, Karl Milton, John,
525,
religious conditions,
469.
see
Mills,
lands,
Mather,
575,
Miller, William,
Miracles,
560.
566.
517,
617
Saxony,
Mormons, the, 582, 583. J. L. von, historian, 526. Mosheim, Luth H. M., American Milhlenberg, eran,
575,
Miiller,
576.
George,
Mtinzer,
Murray, Murton,
Mystery
of
Bristol, 551.
Thomas, radical, 353. 576. Universalist, John, John, Baptist, 465. religions, the, 9-11,
40, 44, 54,
92, 94.
Mystics, the, 279-283, Napoleon,
Emperors,
429.
I, 558, 559;
562.
Narses, general, 133. J. A. W., historian, 538. Neander,
III,
INDEX
618 Neo-Platonisni, system 106, 107; Augustine, see
also
280,
282,
influence, 177-180, 185; 163, 266, 279,
and
5, 76, 80, 82, 327, 545.
33. Nero, Emperor, Nestorians, the, 149, Nestorius, patriarch life and teaching, Netherlands, the,
works, ture,
158, of
160, 284, 312.
Constantinople, 171,
145-149,
187.
Protestantism
in,
433-438.
New
colonial
England,
Omar, Caliph, 160. Ordination, 89, 90. Origen, life and theology, 78-83;
religious
threefold
80; 80,
sense
fundamentals, 81; a and Christ, 81, 82; salvation, final restoration, 83; 82; significance, 83 ; in Arian controversy, 114-117, demned,
; God
122, 123, 125, 127; 83, 142, 156, 157; see
New
Newton, Newton,
the, 130, 133-135. Ostrogoths, Oswald, King, 199. Oswy, King, 199. Othman, Caliph, 160. Otto, Emperors, I, 215-217; III, 217, 218; IV, 287, 290. 449. Oxenstjerna, statesman,
ditions
in, 567,
568.
religious condi Jersey, colonial tions in, 569. New York, colonial religious conditions in, 568, 569. John Newman, Henry, cardinal, 547549.
John, Sir
Evangelical, 519. Isaac, gravitation,
483,
chief
Scrip
81;
Platonist, 81
85, 92, 95, 103, 175, 180, 330. Osiander, Andreas,
con
of
105,
106,
reformer,
171,
con
also
174,
442.
II, 217;
552.
Niceea, Council of, see Council. of, 122. Nice, Agreement Nicholas, of Hereford, translator, 300. I, 212-215, Nicholas, Popes, 235; II, 226, 227; V, 312, 316. Nicolaitanism, 220, 232, 237, 245, B. G., historian, 539. Niebuhr, David, Nitschmann, Moravian,
246.
504,
511.
Noailles,
L. A. de, cardinal, 557. 430. de, missionary, Nobili, Roberto Noetus, Christology, 73. William, 291. Nogaret, Nominalism,
262-264, 269, the, 476, 488.
the
279.
Nonjurors, the duke Northumberland, of, 410, 411. the Reformation Norway, in, 384. Counterand Novatian, theologian the Trinity, 75, 76, 114; Pope, on schism, 102, 113, 117.
Occam,
William
of,
schoolman,
261,
278,
279, 295, 337, 338, 364. Ochino, Bernardino, radical, 424. XII. Octavian, see Pope John of Cluny, Odilo, abbot 219, 228. of Cluny. 219. Odo, abbot Odovaker, King of Italy, 132, 133. Johann, reformer, 363, CEcolampadius,
364,
370.
Oglethorpe,
James
Edward,
colonizer,
511.
Olaf,
of Kings Norway, "Saint," 236, 237. Olaf Skottkonung, King
I, of
236;
monastic Pachomius, founder, 137, 138. Pack, Otto 358. von, Paine, radical, 492. Thomas, Paley, William, Apologist, 493, 494. Pantsenus, of Alexandria, 77. Papacy, early steps toward, 63-65, 70, 71, 76; Constantinople, 112, 113; Sardica, 121; Theodosius and Grain fifth century, tian, 127; growth claims of 134-136; Gelasius, 135; theological triumphs, influence 161; of Augustine's theories, 184; Gregory
II,
Sweden,
237.
Great, 190, 191; the Franks, 191, the Decretals, 212, 213; 195, 202-208; Nicholas I, 212, 213; rescued by Otto I
and III, 217, Henry 221, 222; break with 222-225: reform, Cluny electoral 225-228; empire, reform, 226, 227; Hildebrand's struggle, 228leader 232; 233, 234; compromise, at ship in Crusades, 233, 239-241; Innocent height, 285-288; III, 286288; dependence on France, 288, 289; Philip IV, 290-292; unam sanctam, 291; Avignon, 291, 292; critics, 293295; 295; defenders, English op position, 295; taxation, 296; return to
Rome,
296,
councils,
297;
306-313;
schism, Italian
297,
298;
princes,
since the Reformation, 555317-320; 564; infallibility, 561; temporal
sovereignty, 562. Parish, origin of the, 166, 208. of Can Parker, Matthew, archbishop terbury, 414, 458. Parma, 433. of, Regent, Margaret
Old
Parsons,
Olga,
Pascal, Blaise, critic of Jesuits, 556. Paschal II, Pope, 233. Patrick, 195, 196. missionary, Patripassians, the, 73. work, Paul, Apostle, life and 26-30; freedom, 28-30; theology, 30-32, 66;
Catholics, the, 561. Sir John, Oldcastle, Wycliflte, 301. ArminJohan Oldenbarneveldt, van, ian, 454, 455. Olevianus, 443, theologian, Kaspar, 472.
Queen
of
Russia,
237.
Robert,
Jesuit,
438,
440.
INDEX
620 Episcopal,
Protestant
in
England
Church
see
of
of, 295.
Provisors,
statute
Provoost,
Samuel,
Pseudo-Dionysius to Dionysius
bishop, 574. (writings attributed the 171, Areopagite),
210, 266, 269, Pseudo-Isidorian
270, 279. Decretals,
De
see
cretals.
Empress,
Purgatory,
193, the,
Puritans,
458,
stages,
147,
the
460;
two
struggle,
460-
473.
Catholic,
Anglo-
Bouverie,
Edward
Pusey,
549.
548,
Ritschl,
Albrecht,
Robert,
of
Jansenist,
556,
557.
de, liturgist, 409.
Paschasius,
Lord's
Supper,
273.
262,
mystic, 281. 521, Sunday-schools,
Florentius,
Radewyn,
Robert,
Raikes, 522.
Toulouse,
of
Raimond,
240.
Crusader,
Ratramnus,
Lord's du
Raymond, Readers, Realism, Recared,
Supper,
262.
211,
242.
Hospitaller,
Puy,
263,
279.
264,
Anglo-Catholic,
James,
547.
Andreas,
Johann
Rothe,
Soissons,
of
bishop
Rothad,
213.
Pietist, 502,
King, 134, 191. 568, (Dutch), 569, 589; (German),
America
569, 575, 579, 575, 589. Hermann Reimarus, Critic, 526-529, reverence
radical
Samuel,
the, 455, 456. Remonstrants, 313-317, Renaissance, the, ideal of reform, 331. Renan, 541. Ernst,
Luis
436.
de, governor,
Roman
Rusticus,
John
magistrate, 50. of, mystic, 281.
of
Ferrara,
Sabellianism,
Sabellius, and 105, 117, Saccas,
114, 122,
265;
Nicene
73-75. result
83,
seems,
124.
Neo-Platonist,
Ammonius,
80,
106.
nas,
423.
326-332;
395,
402,
Saints, aid of, 170, 193, 277. Saisset, Bernard, legate, 290. Saladin, 242. der, 377. Sale, Margarete von Sales,
Francois
de,
Roman
missionary,
429.
423.
Reuchlin,
231. 173.
scholar,
Ruquesens,
336.
II, 446.
183; Aqui the, Augustine, 345. 273; Scotus, 278; Luther, the, 13. Sadducees, cardinal, 375, 396, Sadoleto, Jacopo,
383. reformer, for, 93, 172.
Mystery. see Religions, Mystery, 576. Universalist, Relly, James,
duchess
humanist, I, 290;
Sacraments,
540.
Martin,
Reinhard,
391.
Crotus, Rubeanus, Rudolf, Emperors, of Swabia, Rudolf,
269.
Visigothic in
375. Bernt, Anabaptist, 214. duke of Moravia, Rotislav, 366, 367. Roubli, Wilhelm, Anabaptist, Jean Rousseau, Jacques, 529. Calvin's Roussel, Gerard, friend, 390,
Rothmann,
Ruysbroeck,
90, 91. 262, 264,
Reformed,
Johann,
humanist,
315,
328,
335, 336, 342. Reunion the, 376, 424. conferences, the French, 558. Revolution, Edward, bishop, 474. Reynolds, Rhode Island, colonial religious condi tions, 568. Ricci, Matteo, missionary, 430. Riccio, David, 420, 421. 329,
schoolman,
Hugh
221.
132.
Augustulus,
Ruflnus,
painter, 316.
Raphael,
Renee,
565"
568, 573, 574, 579, 585, 586. monastic Romuald, reformer, 220,
503.
Radbertus,
Relics,
546.
Congregationalist,
466.
Roscelin,
570.
Quesnel, Pasquier, Fernandez Quinones,
211,
240.
Jesuit, 425. Simon, Rodriguez, 412. Rogers, John, burned, in Roman Catholics, America,
Rose,
Apologist, 50. Quadratus, see also 368, 519, Quakers, the, 477-480; colonies, 566, 568520; in American
541-544.
theologian,
John,
Romulus
Pyrrho, Sceptic, 6. the, 3, 51. Pythagoreans,
schoolman,
Crusader, Normandy, 268. Sorbon, founder, F. W., broad-church,
de
465, 458;
415,
I, 243;
Richelieu, 441, 448. statesman, 406, 412. Ridley, Nicholas, di, 296. Rienzi, Cola
Robertson, Robinson,
151.
150,
277.
aims,
England,
277.
Robert
17. Philadelphus, Samuel, Pufendorf, jurist, 486.
Ptolemy
Pulcheria,
of
Kings
Richard,
II, 301, 302. of Middletown, Richard,
America.
Salmeron,
Alfonso,
Jesuit,
425,
427.
23, 24; Pauline, 40; Ignatius, 41, 31, 66; Johannine, and Latin, 41, 167, 168, 66; Greek 51, 52; Gnostic, 173; Justin Martyr, Irenseus, 66; Marcion, 56; 54-56;
Salvation,
primitive,
Tertullian, 68, 69; Origen, 82; 118; Platonic, 107; Athanasius, Cyril, 146, torius, 146; 145,
NeoNes-
153;
INDEX 182; Cathari, 250; Aqui 277, 278; 277, 291; Scotus, Boniface 338Luther, VIII, 291; 340, 368; Anabaptist, 368; Calvin, Pietist, 497; Socinians, 393; 453;
Augustine, 272,
nas,
; An
543 513; Ritschlian, American, 548;
Methodist,
578,
glo-Catholic, 585.
584. Salvation
Army,
Sampson,
Thomas, William,
Sancroft,
the, 551. Puritan,
458. Can
of
archbishop
476.
terbury,
Saravia, Adrian, Anglican, Satornilus, 56. Gnostic,
462.
Sattler, Michael, 368, Anabaptist, Savonarola, Girolamo, reformer, 319, 320. Schell, Hermann, F.
Schelling,
modernist, W.
534, 545. Schiller, J. C.
F.
Schleiermacher,
Scholasticism,
538, see
542,
530. influ 545.
269-279.
Friedrich, mission
Franciscan,
bishop,
259.
414.
in, 415-422; un Presbyterianism
Reformation
Scotland,
Episcopacy the
and
Stewarts,
467,
470,
478;
477,
470, 471; Presby covenants, tolera terianism established, 478; tion, 478, 552; patronage, 552, 554; divisions, 553, 554; Moderatism, 553, reunions, Chalmers, 554, 554; 554; the
555.
Scott,
Sir
Scripture. 61,
62;
544.
Walter,
Scott, Thomas, John Scotus, 278, 453.
Evangelical, 519, schoolman, Duns,
New
Testament
threefold
as,
523.
277,
34,
35,
80, 81; sole 361, 362, 392;
sense,
authority, 279, 344, printed, 324, 332. Samuel, bishop, 574. Seabury, 126, 127, 543. Seeberg, Reinhold, Selnecker, Nikolaus, theologian, Semler,
Johann
Salomo,
529, 532, 536. Seneca, Stoic, 6, 8. 390, Septuagint, the, 17.
Biblical
schol
391.
Serapis, worship of, 10. of Sergius, patriarch Constantinople, 161.
Sergius, Pope, 201. Servetus, Miguel,
Anti-Trinitarian,
399, 451, 452. Severus, 156. bishop of Antioch, Jane, Queen, 405, 408. Seymour,
Shaftesbury, 487.
the
earl
V, 440. Smith, Joseph, Mormon, 582, 583. John, Smyth, Baptist, 465. Societies, Bible, 521, 560. Societies, the English, 508, 513, 515. Societies, tract, 521. Knowl Christian Society for Promoting edge, 508, 521. Society for the Propagation, 508, 522, 566.
568.
Socinianism,
of, moralist, 486,
330, 3, 52.
Socrates,
451-453,
494.
Somerset, the protector. 408-410. Sophronius, 160. bishop of Jerusalem, the, 268. Sorbonne, Soto, Domingo de, theologian, 324. Sozzini (Sozini), the, Fausto. 452; Lelio, 452. A. Spangenberg, 504G., Moravian, 506,
511.
Sparks, Spener,
532,
ar,
160,
Con 393; Jesuit, 426; Westminster fession, 472; Edwards, 572. Sixtus. Popes, II, 87; IV, 317, 322, 324;
Jared, Unitarian, 577. Philipp Jakob, Pietist, 496-
499;
443,
No-
102;
Am 68; 95; Cyprian, brose, 141; Augustine. 181; Pelagian, Lom 185, 186; Aquinas, 272; Peter Cathari bard, 275; Scotus, 278; te, 249, 250; Luther, 339, 345; Calvin,
see
Spinoza,
444.
An
of Mainz, 228. Siegfried, archbishop Sigismund, Emperor, 304, 305, 308, 309. Silvester, Popes, II, 218; III, 221. Charles, 520. Simeon, Evangelical, head of Jerusalem Simeon, church, 25. Simeon 137. Stylites, hermit, Simon 56. Magus, 220, 224, 238, 245. Simony, Simplicius, Pope, 165. Sin, and forgiveness, in general, 100102, 173; unto death. 100; absolvers,
Tertullian,
500.
Sciffl, Clara, Scory, John,
St.
of
archbishop
477.
256,
League.
261-267,
245,
Christian
Schwartz,
der
537,
League,
James,
drews,
Kallistos's 101; decree, 101; vatian, 102; all sins forgivable,
564.
poet, 527, E., life and
D.
Sharp,
369.
philosopher,
von,
von,
F.
532-535,
ence,
Schmalkaldic
ary,
J.
621
also
Baruch,
500-503.
508.
philosopher,
484, 485,
533.
Spirit, the Holy, Paul's doctrine, 57; distinguished, 58; Tertullian, 69; 74; Sabellius, Origen, 82, 124; Athanasius, 124; Macedonians, 125; the Nicene creed, 128; Augustine, 178-182; ism, 481.
Calvin,
393;
Protestant
Spirituals, the. 361. Sprenger, Jakob, inquisitor, 333. 546. Stanley, A. P., broad-church, Luther's Johann, monastic Staupitz, superior, 337, 338. Stephanas, 44, 48. 24. Stephen, martyr, Stephen, Popes, I, 97; II, 204; V, 215; VI, 215; IX, 225.
INDEX
622 I,
Stephen
"
Saint,"
King
Hungary,
of
of
earl
James,
Moray,
420-
Theophilus, Thomas
Stilicho, general, 131. Stoicism, teaching, 6, 7; at Tertullian,
26;
Origen,
Pelagius,
77-80;
Tarsus,
Clement
67-69;
185;
6, and also
see
Thomas, Thomasius,
rationalist,
Christian,
499,
524. Three
16, 51, 52. Storch, Nikolaus,
117.
F. A. G., theologian, 538. see Aquinas, Aquinas. of Stitney, preacher, 302.
Tholuck,
422.
Nicaea,
the, 156. controversy, 142. bishop of Alexandria,
Theopaschite
Stewart,
of
bishop
Theognis,
237.
the,
Chapters,
156.
.
radical,
350.
D.
F., critic, 539-541. Methodist, Robert, Markus Thoma, radical,
Strauss,
Strawbridge,
517.
Stiibner,
350.
abbot of Fulda, 201. Sturm, 90. Sub-Deacons, Succession, apostolical, 48, 60, 61, 68.
Sunday-schools, Supererogation,
521, works
522, 579. of, 43, 103, 104,
Henry,
mystic,
Reformation
Sweden,
Symeon, Symeon, Synods,
281.
Aries,
235.
115, 121, 195; Antioch, Dort, 455, 120, 130, 164; "the Oak," Milan, 456; 121; 142; Tou 122; 189; Sirmiurn, Orange,
113,
254.
louse, 253,
Tindal, Matthew, Tiridates, King Tithes,
208,
Toland,
in, 384-386.
235. "Metaphrastes," the "New Theologian," of
Tilly, general, 446-449. 29. Timothy, Timothy, bishop of Alexandria, Deist, of
153. 488.
487,
Armenia,
158.
354.
335,
Titus, 28. Titus, Emperor,
272.
Suso,
462. Throckmorton, Job, Puritan, Tiberius 157. II, Emperor, Tillet, Louis du, Calvin's friend, 391.
25.
John,
Deist,
487.
and Wesley, 516. Toplady, Augustus, Tomas, Torquemada, inquisitor, 324. 42, 49. Trajan, Emperor,
Travers,
Walter,
Puritan,
460,
of Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty, Passau, 381; of Verdun, Tregelles, S. P., Plymouth
462. of
431;
209, 210. Brethren,
551. and 399. Calvin, Trie, Guillaume, 58; Tertullian, Trinity, the, formulae, 74, 75; Augustine, 69, 70; Novatian,
the,
305, 306. 240. Crusader,
Taborites, Tancred,
Tatian,
Apologist, 50. John, mystic,
Tauler,
280,
256,
281,
265. 179, 180; Abelard, 544. Troeltsch, Ernst, Truce of God, the, 220.
584.
Truchsess,
339.
Hans,
Tausen,
Nathaniel
Taylor,
the
of
Teaching
383. reformer, W., theologian, Twelve
Apostles,
Tennent,
100, 103. 95-97, the, 241, 242, 292. Gilbert, Revivalist,
Tennent,
William,
42, 45,
Templars,
the,
Turks, 571.
Tennyson,
the,
teach theologian, life and Montanist, 67; 59, a ing, 67-72; 94-97, 61; baptism, Apostles' Creed, 69, 71, 73-75, 114, 166; Christology, also 89, 143, 180; "priest," 99; see
Tertullian,
103,
175,
180,
188,
481.
indulgences,
340,
341,
284,
285,
William, translator, 405, Tyndale, 564. Tyrrell, George, modernist, cardinal,
see
Pope
406.
Gregory
Ulflla, missionary, 129, 130. of WUrttemberg, Ulrich, duke 365, 374. 564. Ultramontanism, 559-562, in England, 477, 494, 495, Unitarians, 573, 577, 578, 524, 550; in America, 580, 586. Universalists,
in America,
573, 576, 577,
medteval,
267-269;
586.
343. Teutonic
Theodore,
Knights, the, 242, 355, 357. of Canterbury, archbishop
Universities, teenth
Unni,
199.
Theodore, 145,
238,
IX.
260.
Tetzel, Johann,
of
357.
Ugolino,
546.
Tertiaries,
archbishop
236,
conquests,
356,
571. teacher, Alfred, Lord, broad-church,
Gebhard, 445.
Cologne,
147,
Theodoret,
of
Mopsuestia,
156, of
theologian,
157.
Cyrus,
theologian,
148,
156.
Theodoric, Theodosius, 140, 141; Theodotus, rier," 72;
Ostrogothic
King,
133.
I, 126-128, Emperors, II, 147, 148, 150, 151. "the Christology, money-changer,"
"the
131, cur
72.
century,
fif
326-328.
236. missionary, II, 232, Popes,
233, 239-241. 276; IV, 288; V, 296, 297; VI, 297; VIII, 556. 121. Ursacius, bishop of Singidunum, Zacharias, Ursinus, theologian, 443. Utraquists, the, 305, 306, 310. Urban,
Valdes, Valdez,
Juan, see
reformer,
Waldenses.
423.
INDEX Mursa,
of
bishop
Valens,
Valens, 125, Emperor. Valentinian, Emperors, 140; III, Valentinus, Valerian, Valerius,
121, 122. 127, 131. I, 125; II, 128,
86, 87.
Emperor,
178.
Hippo,
of
385,
517,
Vasey,
Pietro
575.
390.
Wightman,
reformer,
Martire,
231-233. 409.
von,
burned,
Edward, William,
Puritan,
Wilcox, Wilfrid,
Thomas,
bishop
of
Wilhelm,
duke
of
494. 520.
Evangelical, 460.
199. York, 378. Cleves,
228. I, the Conqueror, and III, and Mary, of England 552. Scotland, 476-478, of schoolman, William, Champeaux,
264, 267. of Occam, William, of Orange, William,
Occam.
see
"the
Silent,"
434-
437.
198.
the
William,
founder
Pious,
of
Cluny,
219.
423.
Victor,
I, 65,
Popes,
III, 232; Victor
Counter-Pope, Hermann
William
386.
Vermigli,
Wied,
William
critic, 205, 315. Valla, Lorenzo, the, 130-134, 178, 188. Vandals, of Sweden, Gustaf, King Vasa, Methodist, Thomas, Francois, teacher, Vatable, missions, 523. John, Venn, Vergilius, bishop of Aries,
Wibert,
Wilberforce,
132, 148, 165. Gnostic, 55, 56.
bishop
623
72;
II, 224,
225;
285. (Counter-Pope), of II, King Italy,
IV
Emmanuel
Williams,
Roger, 568. missionary,
Willibrord, Winchester,
562. 177.
Neo-Platonist,
Victorinus,
577.
Winfrid,
Vigilantius, 175. Vigilius, Pope, 157. of L6rins, 188. Vincent, Vinci,
Leonard!
Viret,
Pierre,
Congregationalist,
Jewish conception of, 16, 17; 36. Pauline, Wishart, George, burned, 416. Witchcraft, 333, 445. Wolff, Christian, philosopher, 524-526,
Wisdom,
197.
religious conditions,
566.
492, 557. the, 174.
Vulgate,
John,
469.
159, 160. Visigoths, the, 127, 129-134, Vitalian, Pope, 199. Vittoria, Francisco de, theologian, 324. 237. of Russia, Vladimir, grand-duke Voltaire,
Boniface.
see
Winthrop,
da, 316. 395. reformer,
Virgil, missionary, Virginia, colonial
201.
341. Konrad, Elhanan, Unlversalist, 576,
Wimpina,
530-532. of
Wolfgang, Wolflin,
Anhalt,
359, 371. 360. humanist,
Heinrich,
Wolsey,
Thomas,
Worms,
Concordat
cardinal, of,
403.
402,
Concordat.
see
Worship,
of Emperors, 8, 9, 49. William, scholar, 544. Johan, Arminian, Wtenbogaert,
Wrede, Waldenses, 306, 387. the, 251-254, Alfred Russel, scientist, 552. Wallace, Albrecht 446-449. Wallenstein, von, War, 503, Thirty Years', the, 446-451,
Watts, Webb,
Unitarian,
Henry, James, Isaac,
507.
inventor,
Assembly,
Whatcoat,
scholar, 528. Methodist, 517,
575.
514; 509,
Francis,
Ximenes, 331,
in
519,
bishop, 574, 575. George, Evangelist,
America, 576,
567,
360.
571;
see
510also
578.
Whitgift, John, archbishop bury, 459, 460, 462, 464,
missionary,
425,
429,
Young, Young
Spanish
reformer,
323,
324,
422.
Mormon,
Brigham,
Christian
Men's
the, 588. Women's
Christian
Young
582, 583. Association,
Association,
the, 588. Zacharias, Pope, 203, 215. of Zbynek, archbishop Prague,
of 465.
Canter
303,
304.
Zeisberger, William,
Whitefleld,
humanist,
Assembly
see
J. J., Biblical
Richard,
Thomas,
430.
Confession.
Wettstein,
White,
405.
Xavier, 508.
hymn-writer,
Methodist, 517. Thomas, 507. Josiah, inventor, Wenzel, 303, 304. King of Bohemia, 509-517. Wesley, Charles, also John, see 509-518; 456, Wesley, 508, 519, 520, 528, 567, 575. 508-511. Wesley, Samuel, 509. Wesley, Susanna, Westminster
life
332,
577.
Wedgwood,
and
and
454.
John, reformer, English also 306, work, 298-304; see
Wyttenbach,
555.
Ware, Watt,
Wyclif,
David,
Zell, Matthew, Zeno, Emperor, Zeno, Stoic, 6.
Zephyrinus, Ziegenbalg, ary,
500.
missionary,
reformer, 135,
154,
Pope, 74. Bartholomaus,
505.
363. 165.
mission
INDEX
624
507
Zizka, Zosimus, Zwilling, Zwingli, 366;
founder,
Moravian
Zinzendorf,
Pope, Gabriel, Huldreich, education,
development,
religious marriage,
187.
life
360;
349. and at
work,
Zurich,
360-
361:
372 415.
366,
;
death,
365,
373
;
367;
365; the
confession,
370;
colloquy,
Marburg
362; Luther,
plans,
political
370; Anabaptists,
opposes
radical,
361, with
disputes
363; 364,
363,
305.
Hussite,
John,
502-
575.
America,
in
513;
see
also
394,
CHRISTIAN
HISTORY
OF
CHURCH
THE
Ill
A
OF
HISTORY
THE
CHURCH
CHRISTIAN
BY
WALKER
WILLISTON TITUS
STREET
PROFESSOR IN
OF TALE
NEW
CHARLES
ECCLEHIASTICAL
HISTORY
UNIVERSITY
YORK
SCRIBNER'S 1918
SONS
BR i^fe
Ws
COPYRIGHT, CHARLES
1918,
BY
SCRIBNER'S
Published
March,
SONS
1918
MY To
WIFE
this
!N:
of
field
he
as
is
the
of
which
life
of
directed
which
in
is
He
der
of
its
make
to
origin,
the
far
as
its
and
well
would
Christian
is
a
mine
special
express
Halle,
of
has
thought
and
Giessen,
have
who
many
Loofs,
Kirchengeschichte
tendencies
his
been
;
associates, of
recent
whose
the
has
modifica
and
to
in
labored
March,
1918.
this
indebtedness
to
Leitfaden
in
Gustav
Professor
whose
zum
helpful
specially
Handbuch
der
informa
bibliographical
WILLISTON HAVEN,
of
he
permit
tion.
NEW
as
influences
those
and
doctrine
develop
as
and
far
as
early
would
space
of
growth
evident,
Reformation,
situation
present
Dogmengeschichte of
treatment
of
to
to
he
but
Friedrich
Studium
Kriiger,
the
obligation him,
Professor
as
vast
thought.
under
before
field
the
As
to
so
the
treat
to
upheaval,
church.
the
Christian
of
led
tremendous
that
attention
tion
the
circumstances
resulted
have
endeavored
church
the
changes
course
the
the
able,
has
writer
of
story
the
ment,
the
history the
NOTE
PREFATORY
(
WALKER.
CONTENTS
I.
PERIOD
THE
FROM
BEGINNINGS
TO
THE
GNOSTIC
CRISIS PAGE
I.
THE
GENERAL
II.
THE
JEWISH
III.
JESUS
IV.
PAUL THE
CLOSE
VII.
THE
INTERPRETATION
OF
COMMUNITIES
22
CHRISTIANITY
GENTILE
25
APOSTOLIC
THE
AGE
33
JESUS
OF
CHRISTIANITY
GENTILE
18
CHRISTIAN
VI.
VIII.
11
DlSCIPLES
THE
AND
1
BACKGROUND
PALESTINIAN
THE
V.
AND
SITUATION
OF
35 SECOND
THE
CENTURY
41 ...
IX.
CHRISTIAN
X.
RELATIONS
XL
OF
II. III.
CHRISTIANITY
TO
ROMAN
THE
GOVERNMENT
48 50
FROM
II.
I.
44
APOLOGISTS
THE
PERIOD
ORGANIZATION
THE
GNOSTIC
CRISIS
CONSTANTINE
TO
GNOSTICISM
53
MARCION
56
MONTANISM
57
*
IV.
THE
CATHOLIC
CHURCH
V.
THE
GROWING
IMPORTANCE
VI. VII.
OF
ROME
63
IREN^US
65
TERTULLIAN THE
TRIUMPH
IX.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
CHURCH
CYPRIAN
AND
VIII.
X.
59
AND
OF
THE
67
LOGOS
CHRISTOLOGY
SCHOOL STATE
FROM
IN
THE
WEST
71 76
180 ix
TO
260
83
CONTENTS
x
PAGE
XL
DEVELOPMENT
CONSTITUTIONAL
THE
OF
CHURCH
THE
87 .
XII.
PUBLIC
WORSHIP
XIII.
BAPTISM
XIV.
THE
XV.
XVI.
LORD'S
XIX.
OF
100 THE
CHURCH
HIGHER
THE
AND
AND
102
260-303
GROWTH,
RELIGIOUS
104
FORCES
106
STRUGGLE
FINAL
THE
97
MORALITY
AND
RIVAL
XVIII.
92
SINS
OF
COMPOSITION
REST
SEASONS
SUPPER
FORGIVENESS THE
SACRED
93
LOWER XVII.
AND
108 .
PERIOD
I.
THE
II.
THE
III. IV. V.
III.
CHANGED
THE
GROWTH
MONASTICISM
'VIII.
AMBROSE
AND
THE
OF
OF
CONSTANTINE
114
SONS
119 ....
THE
123
GERMANIC
INVASIONS
129 .
.
.
PAPACY
134 .
.
136
AND
CHRYSOSTOM
IX.
THE
CHRISTOLOGICAL
X.
THE
EAST
XL
DEATH
THE
TO
STRUGGLE
NICENE
MISSIONS
112
CONSTANTINE'S
UNDER
LATER
""TIL
CHURCH
SITUATION
CONTROVERSY
ARIAN
STATE
IMPERIAL
CONTROVERSY
ARIAN
THE
THE
140
CONTROVERSIES
143^ 153
DIVIDED
CATASTROPHES
FURTHER
AND
CONTROVERSIES
IN
THE
159
EAST XII.
THE
DEVELOPMENT
CONSTITUTIONAL
XIII.
PUBLIC
WORSHIP
XIV.
LOWER
CHRISTIANITY
XV. XVI. XVII.
SOME
WESTERN
AND
SACRED
CHARACTERISTICS
SEASONS
OF
THE
CHURCH
164 .
167 170 172
JEROME
173
AUGUSTINE
175
~"a**a
CONTENTS
XI
PAGE
XVIII.
CONTROVERSY
PELAGIAN
THE
XIX.
SEMI-PELAGIANISM
"^XX.
GREGORY
188 190 ...
II.
FRANKS
III.
THE
liV.
CHARLEMAGNE
V. VI. VII. VIII.
MISSIONS
CONTINENTAL
REFORM
EMPIRE
X.
THE
PAPACY
BREAKS
HlLDEBRAND
XII.
THE
STRUGGLE
XIII.
THE
GREEK
XIV.
THE
III.
PAPACY
RISING BY
SECURES
THE
ENDS CHURCH
SPREAD
OF
V. VI. VII.
EARLY THE HIGH
EMPIRE
214 .
225
IV
228
COMPROMISE
IN
232
PICTURE
THE
AFTER
CONTROVERSY
234 .
236
CHURCH
THE
V.
222
MIDDLE
LATER
THE
AGES
CRUSADES
238
MOVEMENTS
RELIGIOUS
ANTICHURCHLY
THE
REVIVED
EMPIRE
245
CATHARI
SECTS.
AND
INQUISITION IV.
209
PAPACY
THE
THE
WITH
HENRY
AND
PERIOD
NEW
208
218
PARTY
II.
....
MOVEMENTS REFORM
THE
200
GROWTH
202
RENEWAL
AND
THE
'I.
PAPAL
PAPACY
AND
IX.
XI.
195
INSTITUTIONS
DECLINE
PAPAL
THE
205
ECCLESIASTICAL COLLAPSING
OF
ISLANDS AND
THE
AND
CLOSE
CONTROVERSY
BRITISH
THE
IN
THE
TO
AGES
MIDDLE
INVESTITURE
Vs-I.MISSIONS
185
.
GREAT
THE
'THE
iv.
PERIOD
.
DOMINICANS
WALDENSES.
THE 249
AND
FRANCISCANS
SCHOLASTICISM
261
UNIVERSITIES SCHOLASTICISM
254
267 AND
ITS
THEOLOGY
269
CONTENTS
xii
PAGE
VIII. IX. X. XL
MISSIONS THE
DEFEATS
AND
PAPACY
WYCLIF
REFORMING
XIV.
THE
ITALIAN
XV.
THE
NEW
III.
THE
.
.
.
SCHISM
292
POPES
313 20 320
INFLUENCES
OTHER
AND
ITS
AND
POWERS
NATIONAL
THE
VI.
NORTH
OF
ALPS
THE
AND
3-35
DIVISIONS
349
REVOLT
359
V. VI. VII.
366
ESTABLISHED
PROTESTANTISM
GERMAN THE
.
ANABAPTISTS
THE
REVOLT
IN
370
LANDS
SCANDINAVIAN
382
SWITZERLAND
FRENCH
AND
GENEVA
BEFORE
CALVIN
386
JOHN
CALVIN
IX.
THE
ENGLISH
REVOLT
401
X.
THE
SCOTTISH
REVOLT
415
XI.
THE
ROMAN
XII.
THE
VIII.
STRUGGLE
389
REVIVAL IN
422
FRANCE,
THE
NETHERLANDS,
AND
ENGLAND XIII.
GERMAN
430
CONTROVERSIES
AND
THE
THIRTY
YEARS'
WAR
441 .
XIV.
SOCINIANISM
451
XV.
ARMINIANISM
453
XVI.
ANGLICANISM, ENGLAND.
THE
AND
AND
CONGREGATIONALISM PRESBYTERIANISM IN
IN
SCOT 457
LAND
XVII.
PURITANISM, EPISCOPACY
QUAKERS
,(\
26X/
REFORMATION
.
IV.
326
REVOLUTION
SEPARATIONS Swiss
306
RENAISSANCE
LUTHERAN
THE
CRITICISM.
.
298
PERIOD
II.
285 .
COUNCILS
RENAISSANCE
THE
DECLINE
Huss
AND
THE
I.
ITS
AND
AVIGNON,
IN
XIII.
XVI.
283 HEIGHT
ITS
AT
PAPACY
THE
XII.
279
MYSTICS
THE
478
xiii
CONTENTS
THE
TO
TRANSITION
THE
VII.
PERIOD
MODERN
RELIGIOUS
SITUATION PAGE
THE
TURNING
II.
THE
BEGINNINGS
III.
DEISM*AND
IV.
ENGLISH
V.
PIETISM
SCEPTICISM
OPPONENTS.
494 495
501
METHODISM
EFFECTS
OF
THE
MISSIONARY
X.
THE
GERMAN
507
METHODISM
518
AWAKENING
522
ENLIGHTENMENT
(AUFKLARUNG)
524 ....
ROMANTICISM
529
XII.
FURTHER
GERMAN
XIII.
ENGLAND
IN
XIV.
SCOTTISH
DIVISIONS
XV.
ROMAN
THE
DEVELOPMENTS
536
NINETEENTH AND
CENTURY
544
REUNIONS
552
CATHOLICISM
AMERICAN
XVI.
483 487
MORAVIANISM
AND
IX.
XL
PHILOSOPHY
AND
GERMANY
IN
AND
SOME
VIII.
SCIENCE
UNITARIANISM
WESLEY
VII.
MODERN
OF
ITS
ZlNZENDORF
VI.
481
POINT
I.
555
CHRISTIANITY
564
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
591
INDEX
605
MAPS
LANDS
ABOUT
THE
EASTERN
MEDITERRANEAN
CENTURY EUROPE THE
IN
THE
DURING
THE
FIRST 28
TIME
OF
CHARLEMAGNE
206
CRUSADES
EUROPE
IN
240 THE
REFORMATION .
350
PERIOD
FROM
I.
SECTION
birth
THE
Christ
of
possessionof unapproached
equalled,and
territories, which
embraced
civilized
under
life,were
civilizations
The
side
its borders
The
Roman
All
and
Roman
by
peace
common
small
in
and
tribes. co
were
men
single Em
together by allegiance to a military system subject to him. comparison with that of a modern
the Roman adequate to preserve flourished,communication commerce roads
Out
semicivilized
civilized
the
within
Empire.
by
and
sea,
^mili
made
was
educated
among
The
Under
peace.
was
excellent
by
of
world
the
of
culture.
of
come
Roman or
savage
men
not
vast
knew
held
was
a
army,
tary state, that
and
did
never
these
times,
single type
a
the
degree
a
common
of the
only
knew
Empire
extensive. peror,
he
of China
or
inhabitant
ordinary
of the
vision
of India
in modern
of
sway
To
Rome.
all that the
surrounded
which
lands
the
saw
in the
Mediterranean before
SITUATION
GENERAL
THE
I.
THE
TO
CRISIS
GNOSTIC
*
;
BEGINNINGS
THE
easy
men,
at
language, that of Greece, larger towns, a common facilitated the interchange of thought. It was empire that, an of rulers lower in spite evil and corrupt officials,secured many and before rough justice such as the world had never a seen; least in the
its citizens with
Yet
control, domestic
proud
were
of it and
all its unity
Rome
far
was
the
matters
of its achievements.
imperial authority
of
crushing local
from
inhabitants
of the
and
military
institutions.
provinces
were
In
largely
generally self-governing. Their local religiousobservances were ancient the the respected. Among languages and masses limited allowed customs native rulers were a persisted. Even in portions of the empire, as native states still persist sway under time
British
rule
of Christ's
in India.
birth.
mistress
of its diverse
siderate
treatment
Not
Such a
a
land
little of the
was
Palestine
success
at
of Rome
the as
due to this con subject population was of local rights and prejudices. The diver1
RELIGIOUS
GENERAL
THE
2
BACKGROUND
sityin the empire was scarcelyless remarkable than its unity. nowhere more This varietywas apparent than in the realm of thought. religious Christianityentered no empty world. Its advent found men's minds filled with conceptionsof the universe,of religion, and punishments, with which it had to of sin,and of rewards it had and reckon to which to adjust itself. Christianity could not build on virginsoil. The conceptionswhich it found already existingformed much of the material with which it must erect its structure. Many of these ideas are no longer those of the modern
world.
fact of this inevitable inter
The
the permanent from compels the student to distinguish the transitoryin Christian thought,though the process is one of exceeding difficulty, and the solutions given by various mixture
scholars
diverse.
are
Certain
factors in the world
of
thought into
which
Chris
tianitycame belong to universal ancient religionand are of hoary antiquity. All men, except a few representativesof believed in the existence of a sophistication, philosophical of powers, invisible, or superhuman, and eternal,con power, human trolling destiny,and to be worshipped or placatedby sacrifice. The earth was viewed as the cen or prayer, ritual, it the sun, planets,and stars ran Around tre of the universe. their
Above
courses.
or departedspirits
called natural
ongoings of and
was
the
tfce abode
heaven; below
conceptionof what penetrated the popular mind.
of the wicked.
law had
nature
evil,who
it
the work
were
is now
No
of invisible powers
ruled arbitrarily.Miracles
of
All the of
good
therefore,
A~
were,
be regarded not merely as possible;they were to be expect( d the in the higher forces would whenever impress men witji the abode of inm The world was portant or the unusual.
spirits, righteousor malevolent,who touched human li entered into such possession" in all its phases,and who even to control their actions for good or ill. A profoun as men merable
of
sense
the
unworthiness, of ill desert,and of dissatisfaction wit
conditions "existing
kind.
The
varied
of life characterized the
forms
of
mass
religiousmanifestation
of were
mar ev
dences of the universal need of better relations with the spiritu* and of men's Jonging for help greater than an. and unseen,
they
could
give one
another.
Besides these generalconceptionscommon
to
popular re
PLATO
4
AND
world, since known by reason give whatever of realityis present to
our
vious existence. remembrance
the body, must
before
soul knew
"
these "ideas"
in pre of the visible world call to
"ideas."
The
soul, existing
be independent of it,and
decay.
This
doctrine
of resurrection.
sires to
be
"ideas"
is the true
All "ideas"
affected
not
conception of immortality as of the soul,not shared by the body, was always Greek to thought and stood in sharp contrast
by
its
shared
known
once
than
and by the senses by the passing phenomena
phenomena
The
these
rather
The
senses.
ARISTOTLE
an
attribute
influential in the
Hebrew
of
equal worth. The highestare those of the true, the beautiful,and especially of the good. A clear perceptionof a personalGod, as embodied in the "idea" of the good, was perhaps not attained by Plato; but he certainlyapproached closelyto it. The good rules the of all lesser goods,and de It is the source world, not chance. imitated
in the home
actions
of the
satisfaction in communion
with
not
are
of
soul, which
them.
The
men.
of-
realm
finds its highest
Salvation
is the
recov
goodness and beauty. of a far less mystical spirit Aristotle (B. C. 384-322) was than Plato. To him the visible world was an unquestioned between reality.He discarded Plato's sharp discrimination and "ideas" phenomena. Neither exist without the other. of the vision of the eternal
ery
in the case of substance, the result,save God, who is purelyimmaterial,of the impress of idea," as the in formative Matter which is the content. force, on matter It has always existed,yet itself is only potentialsubstance. the world is eternal,for a realm without form. Hence never Each
existence
is
a
"
of
"ideas"
does -not and
antecedent
exist.
Aristotle
The
world
is therefore
changes
demand
Himself
unmoved.
argument
to
the
their manifestation is the in
a
prime object of true
initiation of Hence
for the existence
in
a
sense
a
phenomena knowledge,
scientist.
"prime mover,"
Its
who
is
Aristotle
presents this celebrated
of God.
But
the
"prime
mover"
God and is, therefore,not intelligent purpose, only the beginning but the end of the process of the world's belongs to the world of substances, but development. Man in him there is not merely the body and sensitive "soul" of the which he animal; there is also a divine spark,a Logos (Xcfyo?), is eternal,though, unlike Plato's shares with God, and which impersonal. In morals Arisconception of spirit, essentially
works
with
EPICUREANISM
5
1
Itotleheld that happiness, or
is the aim, and is at well-being, of the golden mean. tained by a careful maintenance much be Greek philosophy did not advance scientifically yond Plato and Aristotle,but they had little direct influence at
the time
of Christ.
birth,a modified
Two
centuries and
half
a
Platonism, Neo-Platonism,
was
to
after His
arise,of
profoundly affected Christian the powerfully ology, notably that of Augustine. Aristotle was to influence the scholastic theology of the later Middle Ages. in had viewed Those older Greek philosophers man chiefly the lightof his value to the state. The conquests of Alexander, who died B. C. 323, wrought a great change in men's outlook. the Eastern Hellenic culture was world, plantedwidely over but the small Greek states collapsedas independent political entities. It was difficultlongerto feel that devotion to the new and vast political units that a little, independent Athens had, for instance, from its citizens. The individual as an inde won pendent entitywas emphasized. Philosophy had to be inter could the individual preted in terms of individual life. How of himself? Two make the most were given, great answers of which was one wholly foreignto the genius of Christianity, and could not be used by it; the other only partially foreign, and therefore destined profoundly to influence Christian the ology. These were Epicureanism and Stoicism. Epicurus (B. C. 342-270), most of whose life was spent in Athens, taught that mental bliss is the highest aim of man. This state is most perfectwhen passive. It is the absence of all that disturbs and annoys. Hence Epicurus himself does deserve the reproaches often cast upon his system. In not great importance, which
deed, in his mental
baseless.
they
life,he
was
govern
an
ascetic.
The
worst
foes of
fears. Of these groundless/ dread of the anger of the gods and of death. Both did do The gods exist,but they not create nor
happinesshe taught
the chief are are
own
the world, which
are
Epicurus holds,with Democritus
by the chance and ever-changing combinations All islnaterial, of eternally even existingatoms. DeatlTelridsall,but tlie soul of man and the gods themselves. is no evi" since "in it there is no consciousness remaining. Hence, as far as it was a religion, Epicureanismwas one of in difference. The school spread widely. The Roman poet Lu (B. C. 470?-3SO?),
cretius
was
formed
(B. C. 98?-55), in his brilliant De
Rerum
Natura,
gave
STOICISM
6
of the
ence
system
view
sensual
side of
the worthier
expressionto
as
whole
a
Epicureanism;
but the influ
destructive and
was
toward
a
of
happiness. Contemporarily with Epicurus,Euhemerus (about B. C. 300) were taught that the gods of the old religions simply deified whom about myths and tradition had cast a halo of men, divinity. He found a translator and advocate in the Roman (B.C. 239?-170?). Parallel with Epicureanism, poet Ennius in the teaching of Pyrrho of Elis (B. C. 360?-270?), and his followers,a wholly sceptical point of view was presented. Not be understood, but merely can the real nature of things never of action the best course In practice is equally dubious. Pyrrho found, like Epicurus,the ideal of lifeone of withdrawal all that
from
could Christianity did not
disturbs.
or
annoys
nothing in
have
all these
With
and
common,
theories
they
in turn
affect it.
The
other
great
of Stoicism,the noblest ethical thought, the nearest in some re
answer
was
that
type of ancient pagan and in others spects to Christianity,
remote
from
it. Its lead
(B. C.?-264?),Cleanthes (B. C. 301?-232?), and Chrysippus (B. C. 280?-207?). Though developed in Athens, it flourished best outside of Greece, and notably in Rome, where Seneca (B. C. 3?-A. D. 65), Epictetus(A. D. 60?-?), and the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 121-180), had great influence. ers
wereZeno
powerfullyrepresentedin Tarsus during the early life Stoicism was of the Apostle Paul. primarilya great ethical system, yet not without claims to be considered a religion. Its thought of the universe was curiouslymaterialistic. All It
was
is real is
that
fineness of Hence
bodies, and
fine and
dis correspond roughly to the common Stoicism approximated, spiritand matter.
coarse
tinctions between
though
there is great difference in the the coarser are penetratedby the finer.
physical. Yet
it much
The
modified, the view of Heraclitus.
source
the shaping,harmonizing influence in the universe is the vital warmth, from which all has developed by differing of
all,and
interpenetratesall things,and
degrees of tension, which
to
Heraclitus's fire,which it resembles,it is the intelligent, self-conscious world-soul,an all
which
all will return.
indwellingreason, It is
We
God,
can
the
Far
more
than
of which Logos (Xcfyo?),
life and
"follow the God
wisdom
of all.
within" ; and
reason
our
It is
by
is
a
truly within
reason
of it one
part. us.
can
STOICISM
popular gods
The
Since
law,
are
of Zeus:
"We
too
are
thy offspring."
for the forces that stream
simply names
God.
from
out
did
Cleanthes
as
say,
7
wisdom
one
exists in all the world, there is one
rule of conduct
one
Since all
are
frfom
station in lifeare
for all
God, all
accidental.
men
are
To
All
men.
are
brothers.
follow
reason
natural
morally
free.
Differences in the
in
placein
is equally oneself is the highest duty, and is an Emperor or a slave. So to praiseworthywhether a man which
finds
one
J obey reason, is
no
the Logos, is the sole objectof pursuit.Happiness just aim, though duty done brings a certain happiness
by-product. The chief enemies of a perfectobedi are passions and lusts, which pervert the judgment. ence These must resolutelybe put aside. God inspiresall good pantheistic. acts, though the notion of God is essentially The strenuous ascetic attitude of Stoicism,its doctrine of the divine wisdom, Logos (Xctyo?), its all-pervadingand all-ruling insistence that all who do well are equallydeserving,whatever i their station,and its assertion of the essential brotherhood of / all men, were profoundly to affect Christian theology. In its the creed and its results were noble. ( highestrepresentatives It was, however, too often hard, narrow, and unsympathetic. It was for the few. It recognizedthat the many could never reach its standards. Its spiritwas often one of pride. too That of Christianity is one of humility. Still it produced re markable effects. Stoicism gave Rome excellent Emperors and lesser officials. Though it never became a really popular many followed by many of high influence and position creed, it was in the Roman law for the better. world, and modified Roman It introduced into jurisprudencethe conception of a law of and above all arbitraryhuman nature, expressed in reason, statutes. are By its doctrine that all men by nature equal,the features of slavery were worst gradually ameliorated,and Roman citizenship widely extended. One may and thought in Rome say that the best educated the provinces,by the time of Christ, in spiteof wide-spread Epicureanism and Scepticism,inclined to pantheisticMono to the theism, to the conception of God as good, in contrast non-moral character of the old Greek and Roman deities,to belief in a rulingdivine providence,to the thought that true is not ceremonies but an imitation of the moral qualireligion
purelyas
a
POPULAR
8
RELIGION
The two God, and toward a humaner attitude to men. elements those of lacking in this educated philosophy were certaintysuch as could only be given by belief in a divine revelation,and of that loyaltyto a person which Christianity to emphasize. was The common people,however, shared in few of these bene fits. They lay in gross superstition.If the grip of the old of Greece and Rome had largelyrelaxed,they never* religions theless believed in gods many and lords many. Every town had its patron god or goddess,every trade,the farm, the spring, of life,marriage, childbirth. the household, the chief events These views, too, were ultimatelyto appear in Christian his into saint-worship.Soothsayers and magi tory transmuted cians drove a thrivingtrade among the ignorant,and none Above all, were more patronizedthan those of Jewish race. the of the common convinced that maintenance people were the historic religious cult of the ancient gods was necessary If not observed, for the safety and perpetuityof the state. in calamities the gods wreaked vengeance an opinionthat was of much later persecutionof Christianity.These the source not vigorouslyopposed by the learned, popular ideas were who largelyheld that the old religionshad a police value. They regarded the state ceremonies as a necessityfor the com Seneca put the philosophical mon man. opinionbluntlywhen will observe all religious he declared that "the wise man usages commanded as by the law, not as pleasingto the gods." The lowest point in popular religious Empire feelingin the Roman correspondsroughly to the time of the birth of Christ. The abler Emperors strove to strengthen and modify the into worship \Jancient popular worships, for patrioticreasons, deification of the This patriotic of the state and of its head. Roman state began, indeed, in the days of the republic. The be found in Smyrna as early worship of the "Dea Roma" may This reverence B. C. 195. was strengthenedby the popu as larityof the empire in the provincesas securingthem better than that of the republic. As early as B. C. 29, government Pergamum had a temple to Rome and Augustus. This worship, ties of
"
/
directed
and
the ruler
as
the embodiment
of the state,
or
rather
spread rapidly. It soon indwellingspirit, elaborate an priesthood under state patronage, divided and celebrating not only worship organizedby provinces,
to his
had
to
"genius"
or
WORSHIP
OF
THE
STATE
9
largescale. It was probablythe most char of a professedly religious highlydevelopedorganization the earlyempire,and the degreeto which it ulti acter under mately affected Christian institutions awaits further investiga of tion. From a modern point of view there was much more in this system. Christian mission than of religion patriotism aries in Japan have solved a similar, though probablyless diffi to the Emperor to be cult, situation by holding reverence But early Christian feelingregarded this purely patriotic. irreconcilablewith allegiance worshipof the Emperor as utterly of Pergamum is shown in the description to Christ. The feeling in Revelation 213. Christian refusal to render the worshipseemed treasonable,and was the great occasion of the martyrdoms. Men need a religion deeper than philosophyor ceremonies. Ceremonies Philosophy satisfiesonly the exceptionalman. but not those whose avail far more, thoughts are active,or Some attempt of personalunworthiness is keen. whose sense made to revive the dying older popular paganism. The was of them, extensive builders and earlier Emperors were, many patrons of temples. The most notable effort to effect a revival that of Plutarch (A.D. and purification of popularreligion was but annual
games
on
a
46?-120?), of Chseronea of others.
He
in
Greece, which
criticised the traditional
may
serve
mythology.
as
typical All that
impliedcruel or morallyunworthy actions on the part of the All the popular gods gods he rejected.There is one God. Plutarch His attributes personified, subordinate spirits. are or had faith in oracles, and future retribution. providences, special He taught a strenuous morality. His attempt to wake up what best in the dying older paganism was a was hopeless task and
won
few followers.
The great majorityof those who felt religious longingssimply those of a redemptivena adopted Oriental religions, especially
mysticismor sacramentalism were prominent fea the great -influx Ease of communication, and especially tures. world of Oriental slaves into the western portionof the Roman The spread during the later republicfacilitated this process. of these faiths independentof,and to a certain extent as rivals of,Christianity duringthe firstthree centuries of our era made that epoch one of deepeningreligious feeling throughoutthe em pire,and, in that sense, undoubtedly facilitatedthe ultimate^ ture in which
'
triumphof Christianity.
J-
MYSTERY
10
RELIGIONS
One
of considerablyextended appeal, such Oriental religion, though with little of the element of mystery, was Judaism, of which
there
will be
occasion
fullyin another The connection. popular mind turned more largelyto other Oriental cults,of greater mystery, or rather of largerredemp tive sacramental significance.Their meaning for the religious world has been only recentlyap development of the Roman preciatedat anything like its true value. The most popular of these Oriental religions those of the Great Mother were (Cybele) and Attis,originating in Asia Minor Isis of and Serapisfrom ; time there Egypt ; and of Mithras from Persia. At the same much of these religions, with mixture was syncretistic one of the lands to which they another, and with the older religions That of the Great came. Mother, which was a essentially primitive nature worship, accompanied by licentious rites, in B. C. 204, and was the first to gain extensive reached Rome That of Isis and Serapis,with its em foothold in the West. well established in was phasison regenerationand a future life, Rome by B. C. 80, but had long to endure governmental oppo sition. That of Mithras, the noblest of all,though having an extended historyin the East, did not become conspicuous at tilltoward the year A. D. 100, and its great spread was Rome in the latter part of the second and during the third centuries. It was especiallybeloved of soldiers. In the later years, at to
speak
more
in the Roman least of its progress Empire, Mithras fied with the sun the Sol Invictus of the Emperors "
Constantine.
Like
the universe
was
other
was
identi
just before
of Persian origin, its view religions
of
dualistic.
religions taught a redeemer-god. All held that the initiateshared in symbolic(sacramental) fashion the experiences with him, became of the god, died with him, rose partakersof the divine nature, usuallythrough a meal shared symbolically in his immortality. All had secret with him, and participated rites for the initiated. All offered mystical (sacramental) cleansingfrom sin. In the religionof Isis and Serapis that cleansingwas by bathing in sacred water; in those of the and of Mithras by the blood of a bull,the tauGreat Mother the initiate was robolium,by which, as recorded in inscriptions, "reborn forever." All promised a happy future life for the All these
faithful.
the world.
All
were
more
or
less ascetic in their attitude toward
Some, like Mithraism, taught the brotherhood
and
AND
LAW
THE
12
undisturbed practically
SYNAGOGUE
after their restoration
consequent upon
conquest of Babylonia ; and the hereditarypriestly the real native aristocracy of the land. In their
the Persian families
THE
were
they
higher ranks
be marked
interest and by political indifference. The high-priesthood in particular became religious of its influence. a coveted office by reason pecuniaryand political from the Greek With it was associated,certainly period,a body the Sanhedrim, ultimately of advisers and legalinterpreters, Thus administered,the temple and its seventy-one in number. came priesthood
to
came
to
represent the
more
formal
aspect of the reli
On the other hand, the feeling that gious life of the Hebrews. a holy people livingunder Yahwe's holy law, their they were of religious separatism,and the comparative cessation of sense prophecy,turned the nation to the study of the law, which was of tradition. As in Mo mass interpreted by an ever-increasing lands to-day,the Jewish law was hammedan at once religious and civil the Its statute. interpreters, scribes,became precept the real religious and more leaders of the people. Juda more ism grew of a the religion to be, in ever-increasing measure, and its mass of interpretative sacred scripture precedent. For of the law, and for fuller understanding and administration a developedwherever Judaism prayer and worship,the synagogue was represented.Its originis uncertain,going back probably to local congregationin the Exile. In its typicalform it was a by a group of cluding all Jews of the district presidedover These were em "elders,"having often a "ruler" at its head. and punish offenders. The services powered to excommunicate were very simple and could be led by any Hebrew, though usu a ruler of the synagogue." They included prayer, allyunder the readingof the law and the prophets,their translation and exposition(sermon), and the benediction. Because of the un and the growing im character of the priesthood, representative the temple,though highlyregarded, portance of the synagogues, life of the people as less and less vital for the religious became the time of Christ is approached,and could be totallyde stroyedin A. D. 70, without any overthrow of the essential ele "
in"Judaism.
ments
Under into
the Seleucid
Judaea, and
office.
The
Epiphanes
influences Kings Hellenizing
divided
the
claimants
for the
strongly high-priestly
came
forcible support of Hellenism IV, by Antiochus (B. C. 175-164), and its accompanying repression
AND
PHARISEES
SADDUCEES
13
worship and customs, led, in B. C. 167, to the great rebellion headed by the Maccabees, and ultimatelyto a period lasted till the conquest by the of Judsean independence which This Hellenizingepisodebrought about in B. C. 63. Romans
of Jewish
a
profoundcleft in
Jewish
life. The
rulers secured
Maccabean
the family office ; but high-priestly though and by re had risen to leadershipby oppositionto Hellenism ;zeal,it graduallydrifted toward Hellenism and purely ligious Under John Hyrcanus, the Maccabean politicalambition. for themselves* the
ruler from
B. C.
135
to
105, the distinction
between
the
re
marked. The aristo became ligiouspartiesof later Judaism cratic-political party, with which Hyrcanus and the leading to be known Sad as priestlyfamilies allied themselves, came ducees title the meaning and antiquityof which is uncer a tain. It was a worldly party without strong re essentially ligiousconviction. Many of the views that the Sadducees entertained were conservativelyrepresentativeof the older Judaism. Thus, they held to the law without its traditional and denied a resurrection or a personalimmor interpretation, tality. On the other hand, they rejectedthe ancient notion of influential, Though politically they were spirits, good or bad. of the people,who opposed all foreign unpopular with the mass influences and stood firmlyfor the law as interpretedby the traditions. of this The most thoroughgoing representatives which attitude were the Pharisees,a name democratic-legalistic the Separated, presentingwhat was signifies undoubtedly a long previouslyexistingattitude,though the designationap shortly before the time of John Hyrcanus. With his pears reignthe historic struggleof Pharisees and Sadducees begins. As a whole, in spiteof the fact that the Zealots,or men of not action, sprang from them,_lhe Pharisees were a political held the admiration of a majority of the party. Though they The ordinaryworking never people,they were very numerous. "
Jew to
lacked the education
become
daism which normal
wras were
a
Pharisee.
in the minutiae of the law Their
the
the leisure of Ju
mass
however, They represented,
contemptuous.1
widely
attitude toward
or
entertained
and
results of Jewish
were
in
many
views
respects
since the Exile.
religious development prime emphasis was on the exact keeping of the law interpretedby the traditions. They held stronglyto the
Their
1
John
749.
as ex-
MESSIANIC
THE
14
istence of
and
good spirits,
that
bad
HOPE a
"
doctrine of
angels and of powerful impulse from growth of a belief in
apparently received a Persian ideas. They representedthat the resurrection of the body, and in future rewards and punish^ remarkable which had seen ments a development during the centuries preceding Christ's birth. They held, like the two The Pharisees,from to the Messianic hope. people generally, pointsof view, were deservingof no littlerespect. From many the circle infused with these ideas Christ's disciples were largely Satan
to
had
The
come.
learned
most
a
Pharisee,and
a
Christian.1
called himself Their
keeping of
an
such
earnestness
failure of Pharisaism the
of the
was
twofold.
was
external
Apostleshad
been
himself
after
having become praiseworthy. The great It looked upon as religion
years
law, by which
a
reward
was
earned.
necessityneither a real inward right eousness a warm personalrelation to God. It also"* shut out from the divine promises those whose failures,sins, the attainment of the and imperfectkeeping of the law made lost sheep" Pharisaic standard impossible. It disinherited the
Such
keeping involved of spirit, nor
of
"
of the
house
condemnation
of Israel.
As
such
the
it received
well-merited
of Christ.
hope, shared by the Pharisees and common the outgrowth of strong national conscious people alike,was and faith in God. It was most ness vigorous in times of na God the earlier Maccabees, when tional oppression. Under a fearingline had given independence to the people,it was little their family felt. The later Maccabees, however, deserted tradition. The Romans conquered the land in B. C. 63. Nor the situation reallyimproved from a strict Jewish stand was point,when a half-Jewish adventurer, Herod, the son of the Idumean overAntipater,held a vassal kingshipunder Roman lordshipfrom B. C. 37 to B. C. 4. In spiteof his undoubted services to the material prosperityof the land, and his mag looked upon nificent rebuildingof the temple, he was a tool as The
Messianic
of the Romans
and
a
Hellenizer
at heart.
The On
Herodians
were
Herod's
death
and Pharisees alike. by Sadducees his kingdom was divided between three of his sons, Archelaus of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumea (B.C. becoming "ethnarch" and Persea 4-A. D. 6); Herod Antipas "tetrarch" of Galilee (B. C. 4-A. D. 39) ; and Philip"tetrarch" of the prevailingly disliked
1
Acts
236.
aroused
Augustus,
bitter
enmity,
was
succeeded
and
deposed by the
was
by A.
occupant of this post from
15
of the Sea of Galilee.
heathen regioneast and northeast laus
JUDAISM
IN
FORCES
OTHER
D.
26
to
Emperor
procurator the
Roman
a
Arche-
"
being Pontius
36
Pilate. With
it seemed adverse political conditions, hppelessly
such
if the Messianic
as
be realizable
could
hope
only by divine aid.
hope involved the destruction of Roman authorityby supernaturaldivine intervention through Messiah; and the establishment of a kingdom of God in a should flourish under Judaism freed and all-powerful which a a righteousMessianic King of Davidic descent,into which the Jews scattered throughout the Roman Empire should be gath be begun. To the ered, and by which a golden age would than that, by divine littlemore Jew it probablymeant average would be driven out and the kingdom the Romans intervention, based on Malachi restored to Israel. A wide-spreadbelief, 31, of heralded Messiah would be the the that held by a coming By
the
of Christ that
time
forerunner. These
ture,
nourished
hopes were
as pessimistic
color the age
ancient
to
to
come.
litera body of apocalyptic the present, but painting in brilliant often ascribed to The writingswere a
in the Old
Such
worthies.
by
prophecy of Daniel, such without Assumption of Moses, and a number this class of literature from much
use
are
the Book
of others.
Christian
canon
is the
of Enoch, the A specimen of
point of view, but with
is Revelation in the New Testa conceptions, nourished a forward-looking,hopeful religious
of Jewish These
ment.
a
Testament
attitude that must
served
have
in
a
to offset
measure
the strict
of the law. interpretation of religious lifewere Other currents moving also in Palestine, of which it is impossibleto estimate,but the reality the extent
legalismof
of which from
the Pharisaic
In the country districts especially, away of official Judaism, there was real mystical a
is evident.
the centres
that piety. It was spirit"of the New
later Psalms
"poor in Testament, and the "Magnificat" and l well be expressions of it. To this mystic Benedictus may type belong also the recentlydiscovered so-called Odes of Solo From this simplerpiety,in a largerand less mystical mon. appeals for repentance, of which those prophetic sense, came "
of the
"
1
Luke
I46-"- ""'",
and
of the
of John far
the
on
the
not
was
Pharisaic,but
"wisdom/' which istingside by side with God, of the
the foundation
is of
importance by theology. as practically ex personified with Him, His "possession"
development of Christian is
It is that of
before
It
later Judaism
conceptionof
further
of its influence
reason
best known.
Baptistare
vital.
more
One
PALESTINE
OUTSIDE
JUDAISM
16
one
world, His agent in its creation.1
possiblethat the influence of the Stoic thought of the allis here to be seen ; but a more pervading divine Logos (Xcfyo?) ethical note sounds than in the correspondingGreek teaching. It is
Yet
views
the two
Palestine is Judaism.
It
were
easy
of assimilation.
naturallyfirst in thought its
home, and
the
in
a
consideration
of
of the
beginningsof the importance of the dispersion Christianity.Nevertheless life of of the Jews outside of Palestine,both for the religious the Roman Empire as a whole, and for the reflex effect upon Judaism itselfof the consequent contact with Hellenic thought, was great. This dispersionhad begun with the conquests of the Assyrianand Babylonian monarchs, and had been furthered rulers,notably by the Ptolemies of Egypt, and the by many of the closingdays of the republicand the dawn great Romans but it is not ing empire. Estimates are at best conjectural, five or six improbablethat, at the birth of Christ there were was
scene
"
times
as
many
Jews
outside
as
within its borders.
population of Alexandria. were They were stronglyrooted in Syriaand Asia Minor. small numbers, in Rome. Few to be found, if in relatively without their presence. Clannish and citiesof the empire were viewed with littlefavor by the heathen population,they pros by the rulers, pered in trade,were valued for their good qualities their religious scrupleswere generallyrespected,and, in turn, they displayeda missionaryspiritwhich made their religious impress felt. As this Judaism of the dispersionpresentedit self to the surroundingheathen, it was a far simplercreed than It taught one Palestinian Pharisaism. God, who had revealed His will in sacred Scriptures, a strenuous morality,a future life with rewards and punishments, ,and a few relatively simple and the the commands to circumcision, use Sabbath, relating with It carried with it everywhere the synagogue, of meats. its unelaborate and non-ritualistic worship. It appealedpower-
They They
were
a
notable
of Palestine
part of the
"
iProv.
319; 8; Psalms
336.
.
HELLENIZED
JUDAISM
fullyto
many
agogues
had
Judaized
17
the heathens; and, besides full proselytes, them
about
much
a
converts,
for much
largerpenumbra men/' wh'o
the "devout
of
to
were
syn
partially as
serve
a
early Christian missionary
of the
ground recruiting propaganda. In its turn, the. Judaism of the dispersion much influenced was by Hellenism, especiallyby Greek philosophy,and nowhere more deeply than in Egypt. There, in Alexandria, the Old Testament was given to the readingworld in Greek translation, the so-called Septuagint,as earlyas the reignof Ptolemy Philathe Jewish Scriptures, delphus (B. C. 285-246). This made heretofore locked up in an obscure tongue, widely accessible. In Alexandria, also,Old Testament ideas were com religious bined with Greek philosophical conceptions,notably Platonic and Stoic, in a remarkable syncretism. The most influential of these Alexandrian Philo (B. C. 20?-A. D. was interpreters To
is the wisest of books, a Philo, the Old Testament real divine revelation,and Moses the greatest of teachers ; but
42?).
Philo by allegorical interpretation harmony with the best in Platonism that the Old
Testament
and
finds the Old and
in
Testament
Stoicism.
The
belief
Greek
in essential philosophywere of far-reaching for the develop one significance agreement was of Christian theology. This allegorical ment method of Bib lical explanationwas greatlyto influence later Christian study of the Scriptures. To Philo, the one God made the world as an expressionof His goodness to His creation; but between God and the world the unitinglinks are a group of divine powers, viewed partlyas attributes of God and partlyas personalexist Of these the highestis the Logos (Xctyo?) which flows out ences. of the being of God Himself, and is the agent not merely through ,
whom
God
flow.
Through
actual
man
well
created
is
the
the
a
world, but from whom
Logos
poor
God
created
the work
copy,
all other
powers
the ideal man, of whom of lower spiritual powers
of the
Logos. Even from his fallen state man may rise to connection with God the the through Logos, agent of divine revelation. Yet Philo's conception of the Logos is far in Proverbs, of more philosophicalthan that of "wisdom" as
which tament
as
mention
Logos
has been
made
doctrine
is to
tion of "wisdom" was,
however, a
rather
; and
the
be found
source
of the New
in the Hebrew
Tes
concep
in the thought of Philo. He in which Helgreat illustration of the manner than
THE
JOHN
18
lenic and
Hebrew
be
united, in the
no
other
Philo
BAPTIST
ideas
might be united, and were actuallyto development of later Christian theology. In
world portion of the Roman so fullydeveloped as represented
SECTION
^
III.
JESUS
AND
THE
was
the
process
which
in Alexandria.
DISCIPLES
prepared for Jesus by John the Baptist,in the of the Mes thought of the early Christians the "forerunner" he preached in the regionof the Jordan siah. Ascetic in life, Israel was that the day of judgment upon at hand, that the Messiah about and despisingall formalism in to come; was and all dependence on Abrahamic descent, he pro religion, claimed in the spiritof the ancient prophets their message: "repent,do justice." His directions to the various classes of He his hearers were bap simple and utterlynon-legalistic.1 tized his disciples in token of the washing away of their sins ; the Jesus classed him he taught them as a specialprayer. last and among the greatest of the prophets. Though many those of Jesus, some of his followers became persistedinde pendently and were, to be found as late as Paul's ministryin Ephesus.2 While the materials are lackingfor any full biography of of one Jesus such as would be available in the case livingin modern times, they are entirelyadequate to determine His if many of life, His character,and His teaching,even manner points on which greater lightcould be desired are left in ob scurity. He stands forth clearlyin all His essential qualities. of Galilee,in the simple sur He was brought up in Nazareth The home. land, though despised roundings of a carpenter's of of the Judaea on account more by purelyJewish inhabitants of races, was re a considerable admixture loyalto the Hebrew ligionand traditions,the home of a hardy, self-respecting pop ulation, and particularlypervaded by the Messianic hope. Here Jesus grew to manhood through years of unrecorded experience,which, from His later ministry,must have been The
also of
way
was
insightand profound spiritual
with
"favor
God
and
man." From
the 1
this
quietlife He
Baptist. Luke
To
32-14; Matt.
him 31-12.
He
by the preachingof John baptized in went, and by him was
was
drawn
2
Acts, 191-4.
TEACHING
THE
20
of the
founder
the Messianic
OF
JESUS of God.
kingdom
Yet
that
king always spiritual.
It was earthly,Maccabean. But His conceptionof it enlarged. At first He seems to have regarded it as for Jews only.1 As He went on, His conception of its inclusiveness grew, and He taught not merely that many dom
not
was
"shall
from
come
the
that
south,"2 but
the
unbelievingJews.3 friend
the
and
Jesus
and
west
held
the
north
taken
from
from
itself will be
kingdom
Himself
in
and the
peculiardegree sons daughters kingdom whom disinherited,the outcasts, publicans,harlots, of value in the sight of Their repentance was and
of the had
Pharisaism
and
east
the poor.
a
of the
God. The
sovereigntyand
nition -of God's dren.
Hence
whom
we
now.
Hence God
to
help
are
need
we
fatherhood.
love
should
we
can
; and
God, in Jesus' teaching,involves the
of
kingdom
Him
and
repent with
this attitude
of
faith) is followed
like
was,
Though much
more
love
so
sin,and
turn
is in heaven
which
toward
strenuousness
others.9
Forgiveness forgivingus.10 There the other
easy,
the
are
and
narrow
ends.11
Jesus
strongly eschatologicalin His outlook. felt that the kingdom is begun now,12 it is to be in the near future. The powerfully manifested
His
He
and
destruction
or
for
not
trust
of God's
broad
blessed future
A
hard.
chil
(repentanceand ethical divine forgiveness.6The the highest conceivable. "Be ye and
sorrow
condition one
are
do
sorrow
by the standard of the kingdom is Father therefore as perfect,even your the utmost is perfect."7 It involves self,8and unlimited forgivenesstoward of others is a necessary in life: two are ways
recog
His
neighbors.4 All
our
neighbors.5 We
our
to
We
age,
of the present age seemed not far off.13 doubtless Most of these views and sayingscan
end
of the
thought religious revolutionary. "He taught
in the
and
not
as
1
Mark
4
Mark
7
Matt.
10
727; Matt.
than
John
2
105-7,1524.
1228-34. 548.
Mark
II25- 26.
13
Matt.
1023,1928,2434
14
Mark
I22.
as
one
could
say
the
paralleled
total effect
that
had
that the least of His that heaven
3
Mark
121-12.
Luke
1025-37.
6
Luke
1511-32.
Mark
943'60.
9
Matt.
IS21- 22.
Mark
41-32;Luke
Matt.
713- 14.
1330. Matt.
11".
was
authority,
1329.
Luke
8
16
the
Baptist;15and
B
"
; Mark
them
He
the scribes."14
is greater disciples
age;
but
be
12
1721.
earth should pass
and
who
them
before His but
Father
a
Son, and he
law.
the God-given Jewish felt His
did not
that
world-age; His
left in His His
power
hand, He
He
arid His
the Father's
will,not
of the The
me?"10
not
was
right hand
cried in the agony
forsaken
It
alone.7
His
on
prayed that
He
exaltation.8
God, why hast Thou
sit
should
who
be done.9
own,
to the Father
known
was
determine
to
had
other
the
part of
humanity and its limitations no less clearly. He He declared that to pray. taught His disciples know the day or the hour of ending of the present
own
prayed, and He
He
that
sins.6 On
reveal the
sacred
more
no
affirmed
He
forgivenessof
pronounce
was
the
Sabbath,5 than
of the
lord
to
confess knew
none
should
the Son
to whom
proclaimedHimself popular estimate, there
which, in
that
declared
He
Father.3
promised
would
He
that
called the
He He
rest.2
men
He
Father.4
to
before
Him
confessed
those
offered them
and
21
before His words.1
away
Him
heavy-laden to
PERSON
HIS
OF
MYSTERY
THE
"My
cross:
of His
mystery
divinityis no less evident how is beyond our than its humanity. The experience,and of comprehension ; but the church therefore beyond our powers has always busied itself with the problem, and has too often emphasized one side to the exclusion of the other. practically Jesus substituted for the external, work righteous,cere monial religion of contemporary Judaism, the thought of piety as consistingin love to God and to one's neighbor to a God manifested is a brother who is a Father and a neighbor who primarilyin an attitude of the heart and inward life,the fruit is in these
person
Its
utterances.
"
"
is external acts.
of which
to personalallegiance
the
type of redeemed
motive
The
Himself
as
of that
power
of the
the revelation
humanity, the
Elder
end is
"
Father, the
Brother, and
kingdom- of God. What Jesus taught and was gained immense from the conviction of His disciples that His death King
life is
of the
from
one
the resurrection
of the most
of this conviction first to 1
Mark
4
who Peter,11
faith.
puzzlingof
The
how
historical
is unquestionable. It was
in that
sense
significance not
was
of this conviction The
problems. the
have
to
seems
at least
the
"
rock"
fact come
Apostle
1331.
2
Matt. II28.
8
Matt.
1032.
Matt.
II27',Luke
6
Mark
223-28.
"
M
21-11.
7
Mark
1332.
8
Mark
1040.
9
Mark
16
Mark
1534.
"1
1022.
Cor. 155.
ark
1436.
It
shared it. It gave
church
the
whom
on
to
courage
risen
Lord,
All
the
early disciples
turning-pointin the conversion
the scattered
made
them
in the exaltation
Messiah
of Jewish
realitythan
Judaism
had
ever
of Paul.
disciples, brought
witnesses.
The
them.
PENTECOST
founded.
was
the
was
getheragain,and a
AND
RESURRECTION
22
them
Henceforth
to
they
had
of
glory,yet ever interested in hope,in a profounder spiritual imagined Him, had reallylived,
died, and risen again for their salvation. These
convictions
deepened by the experiencesof the of the pentecostalmani The exact nature day of Pentecost. festation is,perhaps,impossibleto recover. Certainlythe con ception of a proclamation of the Gospel in many foreignlan is inconsistent with what know of speaking with we guages tongues elsewhere1 and with the criticism reported by the "full of new author of Acts that they were wine/' 2 which Peter deemed worthy of a reply. But the point of significance manifestations is that these spiritual appeared the visible and of Christ.3 To these audible evidence of the giftand power the triumphant inaugurationof a rela first Christians it was tion to the livingLord, confidence in which controlled much If the disciple of the thinkingof the ApostolicChurch. visibly by faith,repentance, and baptism, acknowledged his allegiance the exalted Christ, it was believed,in turn no less evidently by His giftof the Spirit. Pentecost acknowledged the disciple indeed a day of the Lord ; and though hardly to be called was the birthdayof the church, for that had its beginningsin Jesus' it marked association with the disciples, an epoch in the proc conviction of Christ's lamation of the Gospel,in the disciples' and
presence,
SECTION
The
were
in the increase of adherents
IV.
THE
in Jerusalem
rapidly. persionas
It speedilyincluded well
as
Jews
who
natives of Galilee and
the
faith.
new
COMMUNITIES
CHRISTIAN
PALESTINIAN
Christian community
to
seems
had
to have
grown
lived in the dis
Judaea,and
even
some
the
name priests.By the Christian body "church" was early adopted. The designationcomes very from the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, where it had been employed to indicate the whole people of Israel as a fittingtitle a divinelycalled congregation. As such it was
the
of
1
See
Hebrew
1 Cor. H2-19.
2
Acts 213.
3
Acts 233.
felt themselves
Christians
he.
to
23
such the early
The
early Jerusalem com in obedi at the temple, and addition, they had their own
faithful in attendance
were
ORGANIZATION
Israel,the real people of God, and
for the true
pany
AND
WORSHIP
PRIMITIVE
law, but, in mutual themselves, with prayer, specialservices among ex of bread" in and houses.1 hortation, "breaking daily private the Jewish
ence
to
This
bread" "breakingof and of fellowship
bond
served a
a
twofold of
means
It
purpose.
for the
support
was
a
needy.
The
expectationof the speedy coming of the Lord made the at Jerusalem a waiting congregation,in which the company provided by the giftsof the support of the less well-to-do was better able, so that they "had all thingscommon."2 The act was
much
and
a
than
more
of the Lord's
reminder
before
His
that, however.
crucifixion.
It
Last
had,
It
was
Supper
continuation
a
\vith His
disciples the first, a
therefore, from
sacramental
significance. of the Jeru Organizationwas simple. The leadership very salem congregationwas in a lesser at first that of Peter, and With them the whole apostoliccompany degree of John. was associated in prominence, though whether they constituted so fullya governing board as tradition affirmed by the time that be doubted. Acts was written may Questions arisingfrom the distribution of aid to the needy resulted in the appointment of
a
of seven,3 but
committee
originof
the diaconate
a
or
lar situation is uncertain.
the
duties
thus
by
deacons
in
The
Gentile
this action
device to meet
temporary
intrusted the
whether
that
utmost
resembled
those
churches.
At
the
was a
particu
be said is that
can
later discharged
early though (Trpeafivi-epoi) are mentioned,4 these whether older the of the members were though simply officers6 not improbably patterned after those church,5 or were of the Jewish synagogue, is impossibleto determine. The Jerusalem filled with the Messianic congregation was at first in a cruder and less spiritual form hope, it would seem than Jesus had taught.7 It was devoted in its loyaltyto the somewhat
later
Christ, who receive
period "elders"
would
until the
tion it viewed
as
return, but
soon
times
of restoration
to be obtained
1
Acts 248.
2
Acts 244.
4
Acts
"
As
7
See Acts
8
Acts
II30. I6.
an
Acts 3".
1523
"whom of all
the heaven
things."8
by repentance, might imply.
which
must
Salva
included
8
Acts 61-8.
6
Acts
1423.
CONGREGATION
24
THE
sorrow
for the
national
IN
sin of
JERUSALEM
rejectingJesus
as
the Messiah
personalsins. This repentance and acknowledg followed by baptism in the name of loyaltywas of Christ, ment and was a as relationship, sign of cleansingand token of new of spiritual sealed with the divine approval by the bestowment gifts.1This preaching of Jesus as the true Messiah, and fear of a consequent disregardof the historic ritual,led to an at tack by Pharisaic Hellenist Jews, which resulted in the death of the first Christian martyr, Stephen,by stoningat the hands The immediate of a mob. was a partialscatter consequence ing of the Jerusalem congregation,so that the seeds of Chris sown throughout Judsea, in Samaria, and even tianitywere in as remote regionsas Csesarea,Damascus, Antioch, and the island of Cyprus. Of the original Apostles the only one who known is certainly to have exercised a considerable missionary Peter, though tradition ascribes such labors to activitywas well
as
as
all.
them
for
John
may
have
engaged,also, in
such
endeavor,
historyof this Apostle is much in dispute. The comparative peace which followed the martyrdom of Stephen was broken for the Jerusalem church by a much more severe persecutionabout A. D. 44, instigated by Herod Agrippa the I, who from 41 to his death in 44, was vassal-kingover the Great. former territories of Herod Peter was imprisoned, but escaped death, and the Apostle James beheaded. In was this persecu connection with the scatteringconsequent upon truth underlies the tradi tion is probably to be found whatever twelve years after the tion that the Apostles left Jerusalem crucifixion. At all events, Peter seems to have been only oc of the Jerusalem there henceforth;and the leadership casionally though
the later
church
fell to
James, "the
Lord's
brother," who
even
earlier
which he prominent in its affairs.2 This position, held till his martyr's death about 63, has often been called a "bishopric,"and undoubtedly it corresponded in many ways There churches. the Gentile in to the monarchical bishopric of the is no evidence, however, of the applicationto James the successions of re term "bishop" in his lifetime. When Semitic remembered, peoples are ligiousleadership among to relationshipto the especiallythe importance attached much more founder, it seems likelythat there was here a rudi is rendered the more mentary caliphate. This interpretation
had
1
become
Acts
2".
38.
2
Gal. I19,29; Acts 2118.
PALESTINIAN
IN
TENDENCIES
James's
probable because
church, though
Jerusalem
CHRISTIANITY
25
in the leadershipof the chosen tillafter the conquest of
successor
not
Jesus' kinsman. the cityby Titus in 70, was Simeon, esteemed the church in Jerusalem Under the leadershipof James em both in agreement that the ancient law of parties, Israel was binding on Christians of Jewish race, but differing it was to whether similarly regulativefor Christian converts as One wing held it to be binding on all ; the from heathenism. was was a willingto representative, other, of which James from the law to Gentile Christians,though it allow freedom viewed with disfavor such a mingling of Jews and Gentiles at table as Peter was a disposed,for a time at least,to common The welcome.1 catastrophewhich ended the Jewish rebellion braced
two
in the year 70 was fateful,however, to all the Christian com munities in Palestine,even though that of Jerusalem escaped
by flight.The yet greater overthrow of perilsof the 'siege of 132 to 135, left Jewish hopes under Hadrian, in the war Even before the Palestinian Christianitya feeble remnant. influential foci of Christian in first capture of the city,more in other portionsof the empire. The fluence were to be found the
were
flowed
and
church
Jerusalem
important forth,and
as as
of Jesus' life and rather
from
which
Christianityfirst
of many securingthe preservation that
words
would
otherwise
have
as
SECTION
As
the fountain
memorials
been
influencing, by direct and permanent as a whole. development of Christianity
than
ship,the
its associated Palestinian communities
V.
AND
PAUL
GENTILE
lost,
leader
CHRISTIANITY
already been mentioned, the persecution which brought about Stephen's martyrdom resulted in the planting of Christianity beyond the borders of Palestine. Missionaries, whose have perished,preached Christ to fellow Jews. names In Antioch a further extension of this propaganda took place. Antioch, the capitalof Syria,was a city of the first rank, a remarkably cosmopolitan meeting-placeof Greeks, Syrians, faith was and Jews. The There the new preached to Greeks. effect of this preaching was the spread of the Gospel among those of Gentile antecedents. By the populace they were title little used by the followers nicknamed Christians" a has
"
"
1
Gal. 212-18.
till well into the
themselves
of Jesus
the
earlier
prevalent among farthest goal of Christian tumults
among
second
heathen.
effort.
the Jews
UNIVERSAL
BE
CHRISTIANITY
SHOULD
26
By
Nor 51
Antioch
was
52, under Christian
or
consequent upon
the
Claudius, preaching
governmental attention itself. At this early period,however, Antioch in Rome was this of of effect conversion of the centre development. The had been heathen was antecedents those whose inevitablyto of the of these the relation raise to the Jew disciples question that rule be imposed upon Should ish law. Gentiles,Christi anity would be but a Jewish sect ; should Gentiles be free from universal religion, but at the it Christianity could become a this inevitable conflict Jewish sympathy. That cost of much decided in favor of the largerdoctrine was was primarilythe work of the Apostle Paul. by
missionaries
century, though
unknown
Paul, whose
V"
Hebrew
attracted
reminiscent of the hero
Saul, was
name,
Benjamin, of which he was a member, was born in the Cilician city of Tarsus, of Pharisaic parentage, but of a father citizenship.Tarsus was eminent possessedof Roman
"of the tribe of
in the educational a
of Stoic
seat
there is
no
world, and
teaching. Brought
reason
He
education.
of Philo
of Alexandria.
could not become
grew now
it
and
up,
unknown,
study
to
How
of Jesus
other
than
termine.
His
holy by his
less." faction not
mind was
even
with
give
a
when no
by
true
largerworld
future under
while his
as
a
own
a
city
his orthodox
tried
that
he
of the
ministry impossibleto de conceptionof a nation
report, it is
of the Jewish law
by
Pharisee, to
attainments
was
that standard, was
of the keenest
man
sense
scribe that he went, at an age the famous Gamaliel the elder,
common
careful observance
a
outside
in the rabbinical tradition
to the Pharisaic
devotion
Always
youth
in such
Hellenic ideas,and to and at least,with the political
much, if anything,he knew
conduct,
own
he came,
a
ever
was
strictJewish home, received a formal
receive many
of the
as
was
a
never
a
birth
Hellenizer in the
wide-awake
it was Still,
in Jerusalem.
and
A
fail,however, familiar,in a measure
home.
made
was
to
religious atmosphere Jewish
up
in
to believe that Paul
Hellenic
of Paul's
the time
at
extreme, "blame
however, insight, spiritual dissatis feel deep inward
in character.
The
law
did
his state of righteousness.Such was with Christianity.If Jesus brought into contact Messiah, He had justlysuffered,and His disciples
real inward
THE
PAUL
28
point of
focal
MISSIONARY
Christian activity;and
it in
from
obedience,as
congregation believed, to divine guidance, set forth for a missionary journey that Paul and Barnabas of Pisidia, took them to Cyprus and thence to Perga, Antioch the so-called first missionary Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe journey described in Acts 13 and 14. Apparently the most thus far in the history of the endeavor fruitful evangelistic Antiochian
the
"
church, it resulted in the establishment of a group of congre gationsin southern Asia Minor, which Paul afterward addressed scholars would find the those of Galatia, though many as Asia
Minor,
growth
mixed
churches
of Gentile
Moses
"
:
cannot
ye
Taking
vert,
as
went
with
a
among
Galatia on
turmoiled
and
the
plantingof
raised the
now
great scale.
a
regions of
The
visitors from
by
question congre
Jerusalem
of Except ye be circumcised after the custom be saved."1 Paul determined to make test a him
Barnabas
uncircumcised
Titus, an
example
concrete
a
and
central
is recorded.
in Antioch
the law
was
with
privately. The was
Cyprus
relation to
asserted
case.
in
and
visit of Paul
no
of the church
in Antioch
gation
northern
more
which
to
The
who
in
churches
Galatian
to
of
con
he non-legalistic Christianity,
Jerusalem
result reached
Gentile
and
with
met
the
leaders
there
James, Peter, and
John
cordial recognitionof the genuineness of Paul's work the Gentiles,and an agreement that the field should be leaders to continue
divided,the Jerusalem
the mission
to
Jews,
of the law, wThile Paul and Barna course It was bas should go with their free message to the Gentiles.2 a decision honorable to both sides;but it was impossibleof full with maintenance
of
What
execution.
to be the relations in
were
mixed
a
church ?
law-keeping Jews and law-free Gentiles eat together? with a raised in connection That further question was soon visit of Peter to Antioch.3 It led to a publicdiscussion in the Jerusalem congregation, probably in the year 49 the so-called Could
"
Council
of Jerusalem
"
and
the
formulation
of certain rules
governing mixed eating.4 To Paul, anything but the freest equalityof Jew and Gentile seemed impossible. To Peter and Barnabas the question of terms of common eating seemed of both. them He must prime importance. Paul withstood held to have fightthe battle largelyalone, for Antioch seems with 1
Jerusalem
Acts
151.
in this matter z
Gal
21-10.
of intercourse 3
Gal.
211-16.
at
table. 4
Acts
158-29.
Longitude
LANDS
ABOUT
EASTERN IN
East
THE
MEDITERRANEAN THE
FIRST
CENTURY
Scales .Roman
9
'"*".
English 00
50
O
L
I
B
Y
A
from
Greenwich
PAUL
MISSIONARY
THE
29
followed the brief years of Paul's greatest missionary all his epistles. activity,and the period to which we owe Then
citizenship, Taking with him a Jerusalem Christian,of Roman of dis from Barnabas Silas by name, he separated by reason agreement regardingeating,and also by dissension regarding A journey through the conduct of 'Barnabas's cousin, Mark.1 the region of Galatia brought him Timothy as an assistant. Unable to labor in western Asia Minor, Paul and his companions entered Macedonia, founding churches in Philippiand now Thessalonica, being coldly received in Athens, and spending
eighteenmonths 53). Meanwhile
in successful work the
Judaizers
in Corinth
had
(probably51-
undermining his
been
apostolicauthorityin Galatia, and from Corinth he wrote to these churches his great epistlevindicatingnot merely his from all obliga own ministry,but the freedom of Christianity tion
to
the
Jewish
It
law.
was
the
of
charter
universal
a
Christianity.To the Thessalonians he also wrote, meeting their peculiardifficultiesregarding persecutionand the ex pectedcoming of Christ. his fellow la who had become Taking Aquila and Priscilla, borers in Corinth, with him to Ephesus, Paul left them there and made
a
hurried visit to Jerusalem
and
Antioch.
On
his return
Ephesus, where Christianityhad already been planted,he began a ministry there of three years' duration (53?-56?). also full of oppositionand of such peril it was Largelysuccessful, of life"2 and ultimatelyhad to flee. that Paul "despaired even but increased during this stay at The Apostles'burdens were and consequent Ephesus by moral delinquencies, party strife, rejectionof his authority in Corinth. These led not merely letters to the Corinthiam, but on to his significant departure in Corinth itself. His from Ephesus, to a stay of three months restored. In this Corinthian sojourn he wrote authoritywas the greatestof his epistles, that to the Romans. Paul had never ceased to hope that the breach Meanwhile to
between
him
and
of the Jerusalem for what
his Gentile Christians and
church
to
and
file
thank-oft'ering the parent community, he had
could be healed.
the Gentiles owed
the rank
As
a
collectinga contribution from his Gentile converts. he determined to take to Jeru This, in spiteof obvious peril, salem. of this giftand of the course Of the reception of Paul's
been
1
Acts
1536-40.
2
2 Cor.
I8.
negotiationsnothing is known speedily arrested in Jerusalem ing.
;
but
the Apostle himself
and
sent
a
Two
was
prisoner of
Csesarea,doubtless as an years'imprisonment (57?-59?) led
Government
Roman
DEATH
AND
IMPRISONMENT
PAUL'S
30
the
inciter of riot
to
to
decisive
no
result,since Paul exercised his rightof appeal to the imperial followed by his adventurous tribunal at Rome, and were jour ney
to the
capitalas
part of the
time
prisoner. At
a
at
least in his
Rome
he lived in
hired
own
custody, lodging,for two
wrote to his beloved churches (60?-62?). Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and briefer letters
he
Here
years
our
to
Timothy (thesecond epistle).Whether he was further journeys is a released from imprisonment and made problem which still divides the opinion of scholars,but the weight of such slightevidence as there is appears to be against and
Philemon
it.
to
is
There
beheaded
on
no
the Ostian
doubt
to
reason
the
; but
outside of Rome
way
that
tradition
places his martyrdom in with the great Neronian persecutionof 64. It was joined in place with that savage attack, and may occurred a little earlier without being dissociated in Tradition
uncertain.
from
heroic
anity has
been
considered
in
remaker
nestlyhave tion
was
the year is connection not
well
con
have
later view
that event.
Paul's
the
he
battle
for
a
Christi universal,non-legalistic
indicated. sufficiently another
connection.1
His Was
Christologywill he
the
theology? He would repudiated these imputations. Yet
trained
founder himself
of Christian
an
be or
ear
interpreta
to present the simple faith of sure altered form. somewhat Though
mind
was by a primitive Christianityin that came from his Paul wrought into Christian theologymuch rabbinic learningand Hellenic experience,his profound own Christian feelingled him into a deeper insightinto the mind of Christ than was possessedby any other of the earlydisciples. with the picture of Paul the theologianis often at variance Christ presentedby the Gospels. Paul the Christian is pro foundly at one. far from the Jewish law was Paul's conceptionof freedom as undervaluation of morality. possiblefrom any antinomian as "the the Christian is under If the old law had passed away, has the Spiritdwellingin law of the Spiritof life." He who and will "mortify him, will mind "the things of the Spirit," 1
Section
VII.
TEACHING
PAUL'S
32 it is
in the
is confidence
Nor
"slave."
of Christ's
crowning proof
is the
Christ
epitome of his faith.
an
"Lord/' himself the
resurrection
less necessary,
divine
Sonship.1 one Spirit. All graces from Him, all giftsand guidance. Man having the Spirit are is a new creature. Living the life of the Spirit,he no longer But that all-transformingand in lives that of the "flesh." "The Lord is the Spirit."2 dwelling Spiritis Christ Himself. If Christ thus stands in such relation to the individual disciple the
as
is in
He
is necessary less vital association
lievers
"
no
designatingthe
as
"the
church
body body
of
Paul
church.
the
all true
with
the
whole
church
the word
uses
Christian
life, of
body in two
be
senses,
congregation,Philippi,Corinth, Rome, their house," and as indicatingthe whole
local is in
that
the
for
Him
with
union
that
filled with
life is
Christian
The
believers,the true of Christ, of which
In the
Israel.
latter
it is the
sense
local
each
congregation is a part.3 all officers and Christ come From helpers,all spiritualgifts.4 of the life of the church, and these giftsare is the source He evidence of His glorified lordship.5 Like the early disciplesgenerally,Paul thought the. coming of Christ and the end of the existingworld-order though near; modification. In his earlier epistles his views underwent some it would he evidently believed happen in his lifetime.6 As he felt it likelythat he the close of his work toward he came die before the Lord's would coming.7 Regarding the resur had
rection, Paul Hebrew
tion the
of the
great
in
1
all,8and
Tbe great differences.9 Christ, to God all,even 1
I22-
*Eph. 5 Eph. 47-10. 7 Philippians 9
1 Cor.
of all
123"
310-15.
; 2
posi
thought; the
to
saved
Greek.
there
A
things is the subjectionof
2 Cor.
*Eph.
Tim'.46-8.
but
will be
the Father.10
I18.
24
con
his
make
Hebrew
the
Hebrew
Greek, the im
The
points
2
2S; Col
The
always
not
among
I4.
Romans
flesh.
1535'54
even
Here, however,
variance.
like the
Cor.
end
confidence.
does
811 looks
Romans
is for
judgment
of the
Paul
soul.
passage
at
were
livingagain
a
clear.
greatest
ideas
Greek
and
ception was mortality
the
317.
411; 1 Cor.
6
1 These.
8
2 Cor.
510.
10
1 Cor.
1520-28.
413-18.
124-11.
SECTION
historyand
The
Peter
Though
OF
CLOSE
THE
VI.
of the
have
in
cannot
been
a
shprt time
at
least,and
and
such especially
the
Roman
a
A
Nero
great fire in Rome,
in Rome
was
for
martyrdom
in
stay,
a
of John
residence
a
it
ikjce as
as
sur
permanently with
link him
was
was
have
as
Such persecutions.1
death, would
persecutionunder
The
he
On
Ephesus is much
in
intimations
the other hand, less assured.
Church.
Paul
while
his stay ended
that
Neronian
in the
by crucifixion
show
probable that
the conclusion
vived make
unknown.
scholars of weight still there that he was ever
force of such
all,the cumulative
at
AGE
Apostlesis
Rome
some
insufficient to
the evidence
33
APOSTOLIC
THE
fate of most
writing his epistlesthence, and hold
GROWTH
AND
PERSECUTION
local.
was
followedby charges un Christians,probably at Nero's instigation, in
July,64, was
justlyinvolvingthe suffered death Numbers from himself. to turn popular rumor by horrible torture in the Vatican gardens,where Nero made he lived in Chris Thenceforth their martyrdom a spectacle.2 tian tradition survived
in
as
a
of the church.
heathen
of Jerusalem an
of
event
at
more
the per
already waning in Palestinian congregationsin the largerconcerns and the rapid influx of converts This collapse,
fluence of the
from
rebellion,in 70, was
significance.It
manent
destruction
strength. The
close of the Jewish
Church
type of antichrist ; but the Roman
ended
almost
antecedents
soon
the
Paul's
made
battle for freedom
longera livingquestion. Antioch, Rome, and be the chief cen fore the end of the century, Ephesus, were now tres of Christian development. The converts were mostly from of better position, the lower social classes,3 no though some them. Such were to be found Lydia were tably women, among of Philippi,4 and, in much higher station,probably the consul,
from
law
no
Flavius
Clemens, and
the
death
one
under 1
2118-
19
; 1
Against Heresies,3:1:1;
tory, 2:25: 2
513 ; John
To
95.
of banishment
sentence
Domitilla, the
Clement, 5, Caius
suffered
Domitilla, who
wife, Flavia
the other
Domitian, in
1 Peter
naeus,
and
his
6 ;
of Rome
in Rome
Church
Roman
Ignatius,Romans, 43 in Eusebius, Church
; IreHis
5-7.
Tacitus, Annals
p. 6. 31 Cor. I26-2*.
1544; Ayer, A Source-Book
for Ancient
Church *
Acts
History,
1614.
CHANGES
RAPID
34
owed
Of
of its oldest catacombs.
one
details
(81-96) few
Domitian
this
but
known,
are
under persecution it must
have
and in Asia Minor.1 severityin Rome be recovered from this period, Yet though some can gleanings the fortyyears from 70 to 110 remain one of the obscurest por tions of church history. This is the more to be regrettedbe an cause they were epoch of rapid change in the church itself. be clearly the characteristics of the church can When once more shows surprisingly traced its generalconceptionof Christianity Not only must little of the distinctive stamp of Paul. many been
of
unknown
now
labored in addition to the great other than Christian of ideas from
missionaries have
Apostle, but an inrush brought undoubtedly by sources,
of heathen
converts
ante
practices,especially regarding the sacraments, fastings,and the rise of liturgical forms. The old conviction of the immediacy of the guidance of the Spiritfaded, without becoming wholly extinguished. The constitution of the church itself underwent, in this period, will be account a far-reachingdevelopment,of which some given (p.44). An illustration of this non-Pauline though Christianity, cedents, modified
without
evidence
beliefs and
Christian
of the
infiltration of heathen
ideas,is
to be
Written late in the first cen Epistleof James. tury or early in the second, it is singularly poor in theological in Its directions are content. largelyethical. Christianity, the conceptionof the writer,is a body of rightprinciples duly practised. Faith is not, as with Paul, a new, vital,personal relationship.It is intellectual conviction which must be sup and simple plemented by appropriateaction. It is a new in the
seen
moral To
law.2
this obscure
periodis
due
the
the Gos difficult. It would
compositionof
subjectin church historyis more definitely however, that at an early period,not now appear, in circula to be fixed,a collection of the sayingsof Christ was tion. Probably not far from 75-80, and according to early into Mark's .and credible tradition at Rome, Gospel came pels.
No
existence.
Its
arrangement
tion of the materials
portance which 1
attached
to
was
not
purelyhistoric,the
being determined the doctrines
they illustrated. With
1 Clement, 1; Rev. 2l"- 13; 713- 14.
and
large use
selec
evidentlyby the im ecclesiastical usages of the collection of 2
James
I26; 214-26.
GOSPELS
THE
35
into sayings and of Mark, Matthew and Luke's Gospels came being,probablybetween 80 and 95 ; the former probablyhaving Palestine as its place of writing,and the latter coming, there The Johannine Gos believe,from Antioch. not unfairlybe ascribed individual,and may pel is distinctly is
to
reason
some
Ephesus, and
to
to
of which circulation,
canoriical. There
as
fragments survive, but
with the four which
in value
pare
Other
the period 95-110.
seems
which
none
the church
to have
in
gospelswere to
came
com
regard
littleof recollections
been
at the close of the first century which extant was That this was the gathered into the familiar Gospels.
of Jesus
be ascribed to the great Jewish war Palestinian Hebrew congregations. To
and
may
the
owes
priceless heritageof
Master, and
a
case
the decline of the
the
Gospels the church its knowledge of the life of its
perpetualcorrective
which, like interpretation, pays littleattention to His
not
to
the
even
the one-sidedness
of
an
of Paul,
great message
earthlyministry. r
VII.
SECTION
inevitable
An with
the
THE
INTERPRETATION
questionof
proclamation of
the
OF
JESUS
highestimportancewhich
and Christianity,
arose
always de
must
in every is age of the church, is: What of be the Founder? The earliest Christology,as to thought has been pointed out, was Messianic. Jesus was the Messiah mand
consideration
hope, only in a vastlymore hope commonly implied. He had
of Jewish
time.1 of His
He
was
now
death,
but
was
shadowed Jewish
exaltation,yet what
earthlylife,that had
that term?
use
in
the
little of
for be
must
"
than a
that brief
thought
"
so glory in it,as men That life of humiliation,ending in a slave's the fulfilment of prophecy. God had fore
things that "His
Christian
sense spiritual but only gone,
Christ should
thought recurred
suffer.2
Early
to the
of sufferingservant for our "wounded Isaiah,who was transgressions."3Christ is the "servant" or "child," (TTCUS"eoO), in the early Petrine addresses.4 The glorification He is at the resurrection. was now "by the right hand of God exalted." 5 This primitive conception of the sufferingservant exalted, persisted. It is in of that, spite a good deal of Pauline admixture,of the epistle 1
Acts 321.
4
Acts
313.
26
; 427- 30.
2
Acts 318.
6
Acts
232-
3 33
:
4l".l2.
Isaiah
536.
known
Clement, writingfrom
1 Peter 318"22.
as
CHRISTOLOGIES
EARLIEST
THE
36
Corinthians, 93-97, also shares
imply
It does pre-existence.
Christ
by
Christ
known
in His
not
soon
necessarily
not
that
problem
earth.
They
out.
The
apparent.
was
life on
does
to the
clear the relationship of
make
thought
not
distinction
obvious
An had
It had
to God.
it.1 It
Rome
disciples knew
now
Him
Him after giftsin His exaltation. They had known knew Him after the spirit2 that is as flesh; they now Jesus of historyand the Christ of experience. To super
His
the
"
the
ficial consideration,at
adjustment. The
least,these of
Jesus
two
aspects
history lived
in
were a
not
easy
of
definite land,
of space and time. under human conditions The Christ of the as experienceis Lord of all His servants, is manifested in
placesthe most diverse,is om Paul regardsit as a mark of Chris Him everywhere.3 He prays to Him solemn asseveration that his apostleorigin,Paul classes God and Christ
moment Spiritat the same nipresentand omniscient. call upon tianitythat men
himself.4
In
his most
ship is not of any human These attributes and powers of the together as its source.5 is Christ of experienceare very like divine,it evident ; and they inevitablyraised the questionof Christ's relation to the Father it had
as
powers
been
not
and
far,and in
raised thus
greater trainingand
education
a
mind
of far subtler
than that of any
of
that of Paul. the earlier disciples, Hebrew Paul knew theology well,with its conceptionof the divine "wisdom" as present with God before the foundation of the world.6
something of Stoicism, with its doctrine of the universal,omnipresent,fashioningdivine in resembled the He the Logos, that in many telligence, ways the Isaian conception of the suffer brew wisdom. He knew To Paul, therefore, the identification of the ing servant. exalted Christ with the divine wisdom not only Logos was wisdom be but and that natural; Logos must preeasy, existent and always with God. He is "the Spiritof God,"7 He
also knew
"
"
"
"
the
"wisdom
"In
of God."8
Him
dwelleth
all the fulness of
bodily." Even more, as in the Stoic conception of the Logos, He is the divine agent in creation; "all things have been created through Him and unto Him." 10 Though Paul
the Godhead
1
1
Clement,
9
2
16.
4
2 Cor. 128- 9.
7
1 Cor. 210- ".
5 s
Romans Gal.
I3- 4.
I1.
Ibid.,I24.
9
Col. 29.
3
1 Cor. I2.
6
Prov. 822- 23. 10
Col. I16.
CHRISTOLOGY
PAUL'S
God,1 he taught
called Christ
in set terms
probably never
37
He "knew Christ's unity in character with God. sin";2 He no is the full manifestation of the love of God, which is greater than any human love, and the motive springof the Christian
plain,therefore,that though Paul often calls and he gives Him an absolutelyunique position,
life in us.3 Christ
It is
man,
classes Him
with God.
If the Christ of
existent in glory for Paul, how He the sufferingservant.4 was in the
followed, as reward.
explain the
Jesus
conception,by highly exalted Him
also God
is above
great
and
gave
that
Him
every
tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord."
looks
upon
tion.
It
earthly life of Jesus indeed significant."God was
the whole was
world
cilingthe
resurrection"
unto
that He
Himself." was
it
Yet
5
name
every
"declared
to
as
.
.
.
Paul
of humilia
one
in Christ
recon
the
only "by
was
of God
the Son
be
was
the
unto
name
which
history?
obedience
humble
His
of
earlier Petrine
"Wherefore the
and postpre-existent
thus
experiencewas
Christology combines, therefore,in a Hebrew and Gentile conceptions. In it remarkable manner, the sufferingand exalted servant, the pre-existent appear
with
power."
Paul's
6
divine wisdom, the divine agent in creation,and the redeemer down who for man's sake came from heaven, died, and power
again.
rose
Within
half
a
generationof
Paul's
death, however,
a
ing interpretationappeared, probably representingan
differ inde
that of the Gospel of Mark. thought. It was The writer knew nothing of Paul's view of Christ's pre-existence. In his thought, Christ was from His baptism the Son of God the Son of God thenceforth, in by adoption.7 That He was all His earthly lot, is the evangelist'sendeavor to show. There was humiliation,indeed, but there was a glory also in His earthlylife, of which Paul gives no hint. He had not to
pendent line
wait from with
for
of
the
heaven an
demonstration
of
declared
the
unclean
"the Holy One 1
The
various 2
6
to
Son
spiritsaluted Him of God" (I24). The
which translations, reasons
Him
the resurrection.
2 Cor. 521.
3
2 Cor. 519.
6
Romans
Romans
baptism. The man His first preaching as
at
of spirits
those
95 and
possessed
Titus 213,are
for
Pauline.
839,57I4.
voice
at
imply that, in Romans
be rejected as
The
8
; Gal. 220.
4
Philippians
7
Mark
I9-11.
26-11.
CHRISTOLOGIES
38
cried,"Thou
art
OF
the Son
of God"
Peter, James, and
before
THE
(312). He
John, while
only
is my beloved Son" explainthe lack of universal
time
on
"This
claims:
earth by the declaration
not disciples
that
evident
to
make
Him
this is
a
GOSPELS
very
heavenly voice
a
(92'8).The
pro
evangelistcan
recognitionin Christ's life that
known
transfigured
was
He
(e.g.
different
and charged spirits I34,312,543,99). It is
from interpretation
that
of Paul.
view
Mark's It had
back in
no
to evidentlyunsatisfactory
was
real theory
of the incarnation.
It does
own
not
age. trace
the sonship far enough. If that sonship was manifested portionof Christ's life, why not in all His life? That im
a
pressedthe writers of the Like Mark, they have no ence
his
"
their authors
osophicalrealm.
next trace
did not
But
two
move
they make
and Luke.
Gospels,Matthew
of Paul's
doctrine
in Paul's
of
pre-existor phil theological of Christ's
the manifestation
inceptionof
His
earthly of supernaturalbirth. existence. He was Like Mark, both regard His life as other than one of humiliation only. these Yet for minds steeped in the thoughts of Paul even could not be satisfying interpretations.A fourth Gospel ap peared about 95-110, probably in Ephesus, which sprang into inter of its profoundly spiritual favor, not only on account pretationof the meaning of Christ, but because it combined in one harmonious presentationthe divided elements of the In the Gospel which had thus far been current. Christologies of John, the pre-existence and creative which bears the name Christ is the activityof Christ is as fullytaught as by Paul. with God, and the Word who "was was Logos, the Word made God"; "All things were (I1-3). There is no by Him" and Luke, but a real,though hint of virginbirth,as in Matthew unexplained,incarnation is taught: "The Word became flesh and dwelt among us" (I14). The tendency of the earlier Gos pels to behold glory,as well as humiliation,in Christ's earthly divine
sonship
life is carried which to
the
He woman
date
much
from
the very
further.
That
life is
one
primarilyin
His glory" (211, see I14). He declares of Samaria that He is the Messiah (426). He is
"manifested
(518). He re "making Himself equal with God" members the glory of His pre-existence (175). He walks through life triumphantly conscious of His high divine mis regarded as
sion. In the account
of the Garden
of Gethsemane
no
note
NATURE
THE
40
its rise in
probably had worked. tion
of
much
a
the
about
region,Ephesus, where Paul long Pauline, but developed in the direc mysticism. This mysticism centres a
positionis
Its
intenser
thoughts
SALVATION
OF
of life and
union
with
Christ, both
of
Pauline, and
unlike that of yet treated in a way Life is the great word of the Johannine literature. Paul. This He who knows the Christ of present experiencehas life. which
are
"
is life eternal,that Him
and
whom
they
know
didst send,
Thou
writer,the world
the
should
Thee, the only true
is divisible into two
simple classes
For "
:
He
life,he that hath not the Son of hath not the life." God By life,the author does not mean simple existence. To him it is blessed,purifiedimmortality. children of God, and it is not yet made mani "Now are we hath
that
hath
Christ.3'1
Jesus
even
God,
the Son
the
2
fest what
shall be.
we
We
shall be like Him."
we
and
this union
is
know
that if He
This lifeisbased
3
on
union
with
Christ,
participation.One
real sacramental
a
shall be manifested
can
but feel that there is here the influence of ideas similar to those of the mystery religions.Paul had valued the Lord's Supper. of the body and blood of Christ, To him it was a "communion" "remembrance"
a
the goes
till He
death
Lord's
Christ,through which:
of
come."4
The
"Ye
Johannine
further: "Except ye eat the flesh of the Son
drink
His
blood
is
Supper
have
ye
already a
not
life in
mystical
proclaim literature
yourselves." The
sacrament
is to procure literature stands on which
and
of Man
5
necessary
Lord's
for
blessed
that
immortality. a spiritual plane of ut loftiness. It is instructive to see how some of these prob most of the same lems looked to a contemporary general school, elevation. an equallyearnest Christian,but of far less spiritual Condemned Such a man is Ignatiusof Antioch. as a Christian in his home city,in the last years of Trajan, 110-117, he was Of sent a prisonerto Rome to be thrown to the wild beasts. his historylittleis known, but from his pen seven brief letters exist,six of them written to the churches of Ephesus, Magnesia, and Smyrna ; and one Tralles,Rome, Philadelphia, a personal full of of note to Polycarp,bishop gratitude Smyrna. They are of for kindnesses shown his journey, on warnings againstspiriunion
The
with Christ Johannine
1
John
2
1 John
4
1 Cor.
173 ;
see
also 316- 36,647,1027. 28,etc. John 336.
512 ; compare 1016, II24- 26.
a
3
6
1 John John
32. 653.
IGNATIUS tual
of exhortations
and perils,
41
unity. Their significance
to
for the
history of Christian institutions will be considered
Section
IX.
Ignatius has
the
same
God."1
the
blood
of
in "Jesus
greets the Romans
He
loftyChristologyas
sacrifice is
literature. Christ's
Johannine
in
"the
Christ
our
God."
"He he did nojt identifyChrist wholly with the Father. of David accordingto the flesh,but Son of is trulyof the race As in the Johannine God by the divine will and power."
Yet
for life: Ignatiusheld union with Christ necessary literature, and have not true life" 3 "Christ Jesus, apart from whom we "
His concep magical. He says well-nigh
that life is ministered through the Lord's
Supper was, however, Breaking one bread which
tion of the of it :
"
the antidote that
talityand
Christ."
in Jesus
the incarnation tion of
a
death.
the devil and
In the Johannine
life,in the
was
should not
die but live forever
originalthought
the manifestation
was
humanity.
new
we
of immor
is the medicine
Ignatius'smost
4
Supper.
of God
for the
Christ the world
Before
that
was
was
revela
under
Christ brought life and immortality.5 and the Ignatianwritingsalike,salvation of the transformation
sense
of sinful
mortality
into blessed immortality. This thought had roots in Paul's this teaching. Through the school of Syria and Asia Minor
became, in the Greek-speaking church, the conception of sal vation.
was
one
of Christ and
son
will be of
It
seen,
was
rightrelations
that lays necessary emphasis on the per Latin conception,as The the incarnation.
that with
its Pauline
too, had
salvation consists in the establishment God
and
the
sins.
forgivenessof
antecedents.
It
This,
lays prime n^fcarily
the atonement. weight on divine grace, the death of ChrisflBKd These conceptions are not mutually exclusive ; but to these differences of emphasis is ultimatelydue much of the contrast in the later theological development of East and West.
VIII.
SECTION
GENTILE
CHRISTIANITY
OF
THE
SECOND
CENTURY
By the Asia
bly
year
100
Christianitywas
stronglyrepresentedin
Minor, Syria,Macedonia, Greece, and also in .
Eph.
20.
Egypt, though
and
Rome,
regardingits introduction 2Smyrn.,\. *Eph. 19, 20.
8
proba
into that
Tral,
9.
land
is
there
Asia Minor
**
FATHERS
certain knowledge.
no
all,to the
if at slightly,
i
APOSTOLIC
THE
42
extended
portion of
western
more
It had
the
very
empire.
extensivelyChristianized than any other About land. of Bithynia,could 111-113 Pliny,the governor the older temple worship.1 affecting report to Trajan that it was and constantlyextending, It was stronglymissionaryin spirit, Common far from Christianity,however, was representing, of Paul the of the understanding, loftytheology or even or Johannine
was
more
literature.
in
It moved
a
much
thought. Profoundly loyal to Christ, it
primarilyas
the divine revealer of the
God, and the proclaimerof
a
"new
simplerrange conceived
of
knowledge of
law"
of
of
Him
the true
simple,lofty,and
morality. This is the attitude of the so-called "ApostolicFathers," with the exceptionof Ignatius,whose thought has already been discussed. strenuous
These
Christian
writers
were
thus
named
because
it
was
believed that they were long,though erroneously, personaldis ciplesof the Apostles. They include Clement of Rome (c.93-
97); Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110-117); Polycarp of Smyrna of Rome (c.115-140); the author who (c.110-117); Hermas of Barnabas, possibly in Alexandria under the name wrote called Second Clement sermon (c. 131) ; and the anonymous (c.160-170). To this literature should be added the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles(c. 130-160, but presentinga survival
primitiveconditions). The anonymous Epistleto Dithe writingsof the Apostolic Fa ognetus,often included among thers,is probably later than their period. themselves Christians looked upon as a separated people, the whose true Israel, new was a no longer citizenship race, for its in the Roman and welfare Empire, though they prayed that of its ruler,but in the heavenly Jerusalem.2 They are created before the sun and the church "which was moon," framed."3 "and for her sake the world was The conceptionof the church was not primarilythat of the aggregate of Chris tians on earth, but of a heavenly citizenship reaching down the scattered embrace to earth, and gathering into its own this church To Christian communities.4 the discipleis ad mitted waters."5 That by baptism. It is "builded upon of very
1 3
5
Letters,1096 ; Ayer, p. 20. Hermas, Vis.,24; 2 Clem., 14. Hermas, Vis.,33.
2 4
Clem., 61 ; Hermas, Teaching, 9. 1
Sim., 1.
CHRISTIAN
live the Christian
to
engagement
43
belief in the truth of the Christian
baptism impliedantecedent message,
WORSHIP
AND
LIFE
and repentance.1 life,
probably on other days.2 kinds: had consisted from the Apostles'time of two These preaching, song and meetings for reading the Scriptures, evening meal with which the Lord's prayer;3and A common conjoined. By the time Justin Martyr wrote his Supper was meal had disappeared, (153), the common Apology in Rome and the Supper was joinedwith the assembly for preaching, the occasion for The Supper was as a concludingsacrament.4 forms offeringsfor the needy.5 The beginnings of liturgical Services
to
are
held
were
on
Sunday,
and
be found
before the close of the first century.6 life was ascetic and legalistic. Wednesday
Christian
Friday
fasts,which
were
called
were
and
"stations,"as of soldiers
guard.7 The Lord's Prayer was repeated thrice daily.8 "Fasting is better than prayer, but almsgivingthan both."9 Second marriage was discouraged.10Simple repent is not sufficientfor forgiveness, there must be satisfaction.11 ance of Christ
A
on
Christian
can
even
do
than
more
God
demands
"
works
of
supererogation and will receive a corresponding reward.12 Great generositywas exercised toward the poor, widows, and going so far as to sell themselves into slavery orphans, some felt to be rewarded and rich were to supply the needy.13 The helped by the prayers of the poor.14 Wealthy congregations redeemed and sent relief to a distance,and in these prisoners "
works
none
was
more
eminent
other hand, though slaves their manumission fall into evil
was
For
is
3 4 6 7 8 11 13 16
On
evidence, also,that the
higher stationed found maintain in practice.16
the
of heathen
more
the ideal of brotherhood
antecedents
deny the existence of the old gods. They 1
of Rome.
regarded as Christian brethren, discouragedlest,lackingsupport, they
ways.15 There
Christians
that
were
well-to-do and difficult to
than
it
was
were
difficult to very
real to
2 Justin,Apology, 61 ; Ayer, p. 33. Justin,ibid.,67 ; Ayer, p. 35. Justin,ibid.,67 ; see also Pliny,Letters,1096; Ayer, pp. 21, 35. 8 Justin,ibid.,67. 65, 67 ; Ayer, pp. 33-35. 1 Clem., 59-61, see also Teaching, 9, 10; Ayer, pp. 38, 39. Teaching, 8 ; Hermas, Sim., 51 ; Ayer, p. 38. 10 92 Clem., 16. Teaching, 8; Ayer, p. 38. Hermas, Hand.. 44. 12 7. Ibid.,Sim., Ibid.,Sim., 52- 3; Ayer, p. 48. 14 1 Clem., 55. Hermas, Sim., 2. 16 Ignatius to Polycarp,4. Hermas, Sim., 920.
LEADERS
SPIRIT-FILLED
44
them, but
looked
were
their
between of which
own
they
were
in the
of exorcism
use
be
to
as
aware,
influence
of demon
thus
century explainedthe resemblance rites and those of the mystery religions,
of the second
Christians
The
demons, hostile to Christianity.1
as
upon
a
of Christ.3
resurrection of the flesh,and
a
SECTION
led to much all men there is
For final
a
judgment.4
ORGANIZATION
CHRISTIAN
IX.
Fear,
and characteristic,
was
name
demons.2
parody by
darkened by historyhas been more controversy than that of the originand development of church is more difficult, owing to the scantiness of officers,and none It is probable that the de that has survived. the evidence all early diverse in different localities. Not velopment was Christian congregationshad identical institutions at the same reached by the middle time. Yet a substantial similarity was of the second century. Something has already been said of the constitution of the Jewish Christian congregations.5The
questionin
No
present discussion
churches
mention
make
no
could
hardly have
isted.
Their
held office. you
avoided
that
some
in 1
allusion
in the Lord"
epistlesshow
on
Gentile soil. strict
officers in the
no
Those
Thess.
o12 to
Corinthians
such officers
allusion,had
is,at best, very
all ministries
the
to
approach6 is only an as Stephanas,and does
such
The
had
of local officers.
nearest
subjectionto
those
Galatians,Corinthians,and Romans
Paul's letters to the
sense.
over
has to do with
earliest Gentile
The
in
church
exhortation not
imply
to
Paul's
be
that he
those that
obscure.
ex
"are
earlier
church, of whatever
in the
who in the direct giftof the Spirit, looked upon as sort, were spireseach severallyfor the service of the congregation.7 It is fair to conclude that these bearers of the giftsof the Spirit
in the church might be different at different times, and many vehicles of the charismatic inspiration. might equally become three classes of leaders as in particular Paul, however, specifies the giftof the Spirit Apostles,prophets,teachers.8 He him If the Apostles' self regarded his Apostolate as charismatic.9 work was primarilythat of founding Christian churches, those "
1 " 7
Justin,Apology, 5. 2 Clem., 9, 16. 1 Cor. 124-11- 28-30, 1426-33.
J *
8
Ibid.,62. Ante, p. 23. 1 Cor. 1228.
8
Ibid.,Dialogue, 85.
6
1 Cor. 1618- 1S.
OF
RISE
OFFICERS
PERMANENT
45
the proclamation or interpre prophet and teacher were The exact shade of tation of the divinelyinspiredmessage. difference between prophet and teacher is impossibleto dis of charismatic men. The worst All, however, were cover. sins was to refuse to hear the Spiritspeaking through them.1 Yet Paul undoubtedly exercised a real im^sionarysuperinten the churches founded dence over by him, and employed his in the work.2 It is difficult this to distinguish youngerassistants from ordinarysupervisionsuch as any founder might employ. It was that such unlimited confidence inevitable,however, the earliest congregationspossessed in charismatic gifts as should be abused. The Teachingof the Twelve Apostlesshows that self-seeking and fraudulent claimants to divine guidance soon were preying on the churches.3 Tests had to be found to discriminate the true from the false. In the Teaching,and of the
the touchstone
in Herman*
orthodoxy
of
teaching. The
to be found
are
140), to
say
is character.
in Rome
as
prophets long late
Miletus
unmodified. the "elders"
exhortingthem in which
flock
eWcr/eo7rot
"take
the
and
41*4 it is
1 John
continued.
They
of Hermas
of those whom
(115-
the church
his followers
even
later.
of things, not, in the nature Paul called to his farewell message
of the (Trpeo-pvrepoi,)
heed
unto
These
are
church
of
yourselvesand
hath
Holy Ghost
overseers.5
"
matic
to
For
the time
as
nothing of the claims
judged heretical,like Montanus Such uncertain leadershipcould continue
In
made
in
you
certain
a
Ephesus, to
all the
bishops"sense
charis
They have been made bishopsby the Holy Spirit. But they are recipients of a charism which makes them a defi nite group having particularduties to the congregation. In of his latest letters Paul speaksof the one bishopsand deacons of the church in Philippi(I1). Even if this be held to mean the dischargeof functions only "those who oversee and those who serve" the advance beyond the conditions of the Corin men.
"
"
"
"
thian the
is apparent. epistles
The
giftsmay
be charismatic,but holders of a permanent
recipientsare
beginning to be official relation. Why these local officers developed is un known worship, and the ; but the interests of good order and example of the synagogue are probable suggestions. Absence 1
Teaching,11; Ayer,
2
E. g., Timothy in 1 Cor. 11 ; Ayer, p. 40.
3
p. 40.
417,1610. 4 Mand.,
11.
6
Acts 2017-29.
AND
BISHOPS
46
PRESBYTERS
by whom worship could be con ducted and the congregationled was in some certainlya cause places. The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles directs: "Ap point for yourselves,therefore,bishops and deacons worthy of
prophets
of the
Lord,
teachers
and
who
men
meek
are
and
lovers of money,
not
and
and
approved ; for unto you they also perform the service of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise them not; for they are your honorable men along with the prophets and teachers" (15). At Philippi,Ephesus, and in the Teaching, these "bishops" are spoken of in the plural. This is also true true
and
of Rome 93-97.
l
of Corinth
Clement
when
Clement
speaks, also, of
of Rome
in
wrote
those
the against whom rebelled as Corinth church its "appointed presby ters" (54); and of "those who have offered the giftsof the bishop's office" as presbyters (44). Polycarp of Smyrna, writing to Philippiin 110-117, mentions only presbytersand in
deacons
and
imply that Rome.
church."
had
their duties.
as
late
his time there
as
It is "the 2
He
Hernias, 115-140, would
elders
this
was
(presbyters)that
speaks only
of the
"bishops."3 Ancient such interpretation,
as
duties
to
seem
office at collegiate the preside over
of "deacons"
that of Jerome,
saw
and
in these
the names collegiate bishops and presbytersthe same persons, is the opinion of most being used interchangeably. That modern the probable conclusion. The scholars, and seems view of the late Edwin Hatch, as developed by Harnack, the older brethren in the holds,however, that presbyterswere the collegiate taken. congregation,from whom bishops were but a presbyternot necessarily A bishop would be a presbyter, the the more a as bishop. The subjectis one of difficulty, so word "presbyter,"like the English "elder" is used in early Christian literature both as a generaldesignationof the aged, and as a technical expression. Its particular meaning is hard always to distinguish.It is evident, however, that till some time
after the year the head of each or ers.
4
had
at
congregationa group of collegiate bishops, with number their of deacons a as presbyter-bishops, help chosen the These were church,4 or at least "with the by
consent 1
Greece, and Macedonia
100, Rome,
of the whole
Clem., 42, 44. Teaching, 15; Ayer,
1
church." 2
5
Vis., 24.
p. 41.
3 5
Sim., 926. 1
27.
Clem., 44; Ayer,
p. 37.
APOSTOLICAL
48
the monarchical
How
that
Reasons
ture.
SUCCESSION is a matter
arose bishopric
have
been
leadershipin worship
advanced
conjec scholars
modern
financial
the
and
by
of
oversightof the in the care of the poor and other obligations of congregation charity.These are probable,the first-named perhaps the more probable. It is sufficient to observe,however, that leadership for of a congregation by a committee of equals is unworkable protractedtime. Some one is sure to be given headship. any One further observation of great importance is to be made.
are
(93-97), writingwhen
of Rome
Clement
monarchical
the
bishop,traces
It is
succession.1 apostolical
Rome
had
as
existence of church
impeachment
no
yet
no
officers to
of the firmness
conviction,though it militates againstthe historic ac of his view, that he apparentlybases it on a misunder
of his curacy
in 1 Cor. 1615" 16. On the other standing of Paul's statement hand, Ignatius,though urgingin the strongest terms the value of the monarchical episcopateas the bond of unity, knows the union of these succession. It was nothing of an apostolical monarchical bishop in apostolical two succession, a principles, occurred
which
before
the middle
of the
century, that
second
immensely enhanced the dignityand power of the bishopric^ bishops By the sixth decade of the second century monarchical universal. The institution was had become to gain well-nigh further strengthin the Gnostic and Montanist struggles;but whether be doubted it may anything less rigidcould have car ried the church through the crises of the second century. X.
SECTION
a
of
branch
ROMAN
GOVERNMENT
Judaism, which
of hostility
The
OF
CHRISTIANITY
TO
THE
at first regardedby the Roman
was Christianity as
RELATIONS
the Jews
stood
themselves
under
authorities
legalprotection.2 have
must
made
a
dis
evident,and by the time of the Neronian persecu victims tion in Rome The Roman (64) it was plainlydrawn. then charged,however, primarilywith Christianity, not were
tinction
soon
with
but made
1 Peter
them was
sion had 1
arson
1 Cor.
with though their unpopularity ready objects of suspicion. By
the multitude
"
written become
(c.90), the a
42, 44; Ayer,
for
cause
pp.
36,
37.
mere
fact of
punishment
a
the
time
Christian
(416). How 2
Acts
that
profes much
1814-18.
49
PERSECUTIONS earlier "the
had
name"
become
sufficient criminal
a
charge it
of impossibleto say. Trajan'sreply to Pliny,the governor that was already Christianity Bithynia (111-113), presupposes the viewed as criminal. That recognized, already Emperor mild procedure from his point of orders what must be deemed view. Christians are not to be hunted out, and, if willingto of per to be acquitted. Only in case are abjure by sacrifice, the standpointof a sistence are they to be punished.1 From could only be this was faithful Christian profession a test which Hadrian immediate met by martyrdom. Trajan's successors, Pius (138-161) pursued the same (117-138), and Antoninus Marcus mob accusations. generalpolicy,though discouraging Aurelius (161-180) gave renewed force to the law againststrange religions(176), and initiated a sharper periodof persecution which extended into the beginningof the reign of Commodus the on however, treated Christianity, (180-192). Commodus, and with indifference. the toleration of whole, Always illegal, with extreme Christian the it, penaltieshanging over profession of involved constant perilfor its adherents; yet the number actual martyrs in this period appears been relatively to have .small compared with those of the third and fourth centuries. No generalpersecutionoccurred before 250. atheism The charges brought against the Christians were and anarchy.2 Their rejection of the old gods seemed atheism ; their refusal to joinin emperor-wrorship appeared treasonable.3 made Popular credulity, possibleby the degree to which the Christians held aloof from ordinary civil society, charged them with crimes as revoltingas they were preposterous. A mis is
V
understandingof in the
Supper
accusation
of
the
must
Christian be
doctrine
of Christ's presence the occasion of the common
deemed
cannibalism; and
its celebration
secretlyin the
of the govern evening of that of gross licentiousness.4 Much mental persecutionof Christianity in this period had its incite ment
in mob
attacks
when
Smyrna boycott,on
upon
Polycarp
Christians.
suffered
That
was
the
in 156
at
case
; wThile
a martyrdom the charges of immoral actions,was immediate occasion of the fierce persecution in Lyons and Vienne in 177. 5 It is not surprising, that the majortherefore,
Pliny's 3 6
the basis of
Letters 1097;
Martyrdom
Ayer,
p. 22.
of Polycarp, 3, 8-10. Eusebius, Church History, 51.
2
Justin,Apology, 5, 6; 11,
4
Justin, Dialogue, 10.
12.
y
APOLOGISTS
THE
50
proceedingsagainst Christians in this period ity of judicial been under the generalpolicepower rather to have of seem disturbance than formal trial the on magistratesto repress by criminal charge of Christianity.Both procedures are specific be found.
to
Christians their
about
all these
To
their heroic constancy
was
superiormorality as
answer
of the
in
loyaltyto Christ,and judged by the standards of society
them. XI.
SECTION
These
THE
APOLOGISTS
charges againstChristians,and the hostile attitude
the Roman who
the best
accusations
are
government, aroused known
as
a
number
Apologists. Their
the
of
of
defenders, literary appearance
shows
in making some conquest of the more tellectual elements of society. Their appeal is distinctly to first was Quadratus, intelligence.Of these Apologists the probably of Athens, who about 125 presenteda defense of Chris tianity,now preserved only in fragments, to the Emperor Hadrian. Aristides,an Athenian Christian philosopher,made similar appeal,about 140, to Antoninus Pius. Justin wrote a of these defenses,probably in Home, about famous the most the four Gospels His disciple, combined 153. Tatian, who into his famous Diatessaron,also belonged to the Apologists. With them to be reckoned Melito, bishop of Sardis, who are little between wrote 169 and 180 ; and Athenagoras, of whom that
Christianitywas
is known
whose personally,
defense,which
survives,was
made
belongsthe Epistleto Diognetus, the writingsof the ApostolicFathers. among evidence that any of these Apologistsgreatly There is no influenced heathen seriously opinion,or that their appeal was it was their desire to persuade. considered by the rulers whom Their work was however, deservedlyvalued in Christian circles, of the and undoubtedly strengthened Christian conviction Several of the so nobilityof the cause earnestlydefended. and their from the ranks of the philosophers, Apologistswere aided in the development of the philosophical interpretation Justin,and he may well stand was ology. The most significant about
the year often reckoned
as
typicalof
177.
Here
the whole
also
movement.
Justin,called the Martyr, from his heroic witness unto death born in in Rome under the prefect Rusticus, about 165, was
Shechem,
in the
ancient
Samaria,
of heathen
ancestry.
He
v
JUSTIN
lived,for
a
time
probablythat
MARTYR
51
least,in Ephesus,and it was
at
the conversion of which
in its vicinity
he
givesa vivid account philosophy,he acceptedsuc
place.1 An eager student of and Stoicism,Aristotelianism, cessively Pythagoreanism, took
While
tonism.
Platonist
a
his attention
was
Pla-
directed to the all those who are
ancient than prophets,"men more esteemed philosophers." Theirs is the oldest and truest ex planation"of the beginningand end of things and of those which the philosopher matters ought to know," since they were "filled with the holy Spirit." "They glorified the Creator, the God and Father of all things, and proclaimedHis Son, the Christ." By his newly acquired conviction of the truth of their ancient propheticmessage, Justin says : straightwaya flame was kindled in my soul ; and a love of the prophetsand Hebrew
"
of those
who
men
philosophyalone
are
friends of Christ.
I found
this
...
be safe and
profitable."These quotations show the character of Justin's religious experience. It was not a profound and mystical union with a risen Lord, as with Paul. It was of forgiveness of sin. It was not a sense a con in viction that Christianityis the oldest,truest, and most to
divine of
continued
as
his home
a
wrote,
Justin philosophies. philosopher.He made about
Antoninus
look upon himself in Rome and there
to
153, his Apology, addressed
Pius
and
to
the
that
Emperor
sovereign's adopted sons, defend from governmental antagonism and heathen ing Christianity criticisms. A littlelater,perhaps on visit to Ephesus, he a composed his Dialogue with Trypho, similarlypresentingthe Christian case againstJewish objections.A second sojourn in Rome broughthim to a martyr'sdeath. Justin's Apology (often called two Apologies,though the second is only an appendix)is a manly, dignified, and effec tive defense. Christians, if condemned at all,should be pun ished for definite proved crimes,not for the mere without name of their real character. They are atheists only investigation in that they count the popular gods demons unworthy of worship,not in respect to the true God. They are anarchists only to those who do not understand the nature of the kingdom that they seek. Justin then argues the truth of Christianity, from the fulfilment of Old Testament especially prophecy,and "
"
Christian sacraments briefly explains 1
Dialogue,2-8.
and
worship.
As
theologian, Justin's
a
His
own
the the .
MARTYR
JUSTIN
52
.
.
convictions
central
the
were
belief
and
ham,
became
conviction
that
in
of
that
those
to
of
great
advance
Christ,
best
that
so
in
is less Justin
knowledge
"
ascetic
somewhat
divine His
and
agent,
definite, of Jesus
instance
on
vealed.
He
those
was,
who
Stoi
on
Logos is the
Him
in terms
heathen
common
law, teaching is
Father, the
really at
as
save
the
Son, in
rather
the
of
expense
identified, the
for Justin
the
on
His
yet
true, though
some
are
non-
emphasis
incarnation
believe
on
of
Him"
the
the
life
earthly
great
historic
and
;3 but
such
was
thoughts
faithful
of
Justin, theology essentially rationalizing, with
Hence
primary.
same
therefore the Logos, the which divine most fully re philosophy was Christ's of does, indeed, speak "cleansing by His
the
of
occasion
the
is
both
little interest
has
in
emphasis
Jesus, for though
historic
blood
This
sense.
Him
with
one
Justin's
God
to
the
phi hope of immortality,
life.
subordinate
Logos,
Abra
as
conceives
contemporary
God,
moral
cites
distinctly seen.
morality, the and future and rewards Like punishments. Pauline Christianity, he views the Gospel as a new
losophy
of
such
all-illuminating divine
message
the
he
obeyed
elsewhere
Christian
of the
similar
which
everywhere
as
whom
time
any
His
this
definitely incarnate
content
very
at
really Christians.2
full revelation The
all who
these, and
were
is his
cism
fashion,
teaching the Greeks, of Heraclitus, and the "barbarians,"
that
guidance
Stoic
true
work,
at
and
so
conceives, in
he
Logos always
Socrates
he
of his
experience. was Christianity was because of truest philosophies, taught by the prophets of and Old Teacher Testament, by the divine Logos "our * is both Son and who the Father." This Apostle of God
divine
a
result
that
in
martyr
little of
not
are
though the
pro
Johannine
the
Paul, conspicuous foundly religiouscontent so in It ^literature, or even marks, however, a conscious Ignatius. \union of Christian thought with the Gentile philosophy, and
Itherefore 1
Apology,
the 12.
beginnings 2
of
75^
a
"scientific" 46 ;
Ayer,
p.
theology. 72.
3
Ibid.,32.
PERIOD,
FROM
II.
SECTION
later New
in
Asia
had
He
conception It is
of
between than
ence,
was
glory,
problem
may
the
with
seemed
earthly life altogether. taught His disciples; but all of flesh and
one
160, though
It threatened
since the
height
Pauline
Gnostic
the
Christ
Docetic
teaching.
the
Christologicai
denial
of the
did, indeed,
Christ the
of experi
That
of the
time
as
a
reality appear.
heavenly being,
upon
battle
force
a
the the
something
was
its influence
of
overwhelm
doing brought
this
blood.
it continued
to
that
as
earthly life pre-existent and post-
His
some
properly speaking, The
regarded
early teachings were explain a seeming contra
solution
to
death.
ghost-like, Docetic
speculations.
simplest
century.
actual
these to
His
far-reaching.
so
that
in
of history and
contrasted
of the
one
second His
of much
that
Gnostic
so
and
is true
It
attempt
an
the
generally been
feature
a
Jesus
well have
Gnosticism,
to
on
purely
on
existent
not
was
the
of humiliation
He
have
Gnosticism.
of Christ
of
flesh," but
opinions
These
largely based
diction
the
probable, however,
more
more
of
"in
beginnings
been
least
at
conceptions of Christ widely prevalent, especially
opening years real humanity
His
come
appearance.1 the
the
denied
not
combat
have
must
in
Minor, views
These
literature, and
strongly
it is evident
which
GNOSTICISM
I.
Testament
Fathers,
Apostolic
CRISIS
CONSTANTINE
TO
THE
GNOSTIC
THE
long
historic
Christian
for freedom
from
was
the
after
Christian
Church from
much
more
about
latter date.
faith, and
its gravest
law.
135
by
crisis
Its
spread and relativelyweakly
made peril were possible by the of the church organized, and doctrinally .undefined state at its The church the danger ; but at the cost beginning. overcame
consequent
of
the
development
government 1
1 John
which I1-3,222,
of
a
rigidity of organization, creed, and
rendered 42-
the
condition
of
3; Ignatius, Trallians, 9-11; 53
the
church
Smyrn.,
1-6.
at
GNOSTICISM
54
the close of the second
century
to that of
contrast striking
a
its beginning.1 Gnosticism
professedto
be based
"knowledge" (yvwans)
on
,
is now
that word
Its knowl commonly understood. edge was always a mystical,supernaturalwisdom, by which the initiates were brought to a true understandingof the universe,
but not
and
as
saved
were
doctrine of salvation.
damental the
to
mystery
however, from
this evil world
from
Its religions.
its syncretism.
was
sources,
many
and
of matter.
In these respects it
was
a
fun
akin
prominent characteristic,
most
It took unto
assumed
It had
many
itselfmany
forms.
It
elements
is,therefore,
It was impossibleto speak of a singletype of Gnosticism. mystical,magical,or philosophicalaccordingto prevailingly
in its syncretism. Gnosticism was in its origin, and was in existence before Chris pre-Christian the
dominant
tianitycame types.
It is
admixture
into the world.
representedin
It had astral elements
which
There
were
the Hermetic may
Jewish
and
heathen
literature of Egypt.
be traced back
Babylonian the universe,Per to
religiousconceptions,a dualistic view of from God in the sian in origin,and a doctrine of emanations which was probably Egyptian. "pleroma" or realm of spirit, fundamental its most conception, the wholly evil Perhaps due to a combination character of the phenomenal world, was the real spiritual of the Platonic theory of the contrast between sphere of ideas," and this visible world of phenomena, inter the one good and that to preted in terms of Persian dualism which man strives to return, the other wholly bad and the place of his imprisonment. The world of matter is evil. Its creator and ruler is not, therefore,the high,good God, but an inferior and imperfectbeing,the demiurge. Man, to be saved, be freed from this bondage to the visible world, and its must of his freedom is the means rulers,the planetary spirits ; and a mystical, spiritual enlightenment for "knowledge" (7i"a"oY?), with the true the initiated which brings him into communion realities. realm of spiritual in Strongly syncretistic already, Gnosticism found much In particular, the figureof Christianitywhich it could use. Christ was adapted to givea definite and concrete cen especially the retre to its theory of a higher savingknowledge. He was "
"
1
Useful
76-102.
selections
regarding Gnosticism
may
be
found
in
Ayer,
pp.
MARCION
56
Gnosticism
to
be Simon More
little is known.
Antioch, who
of
labored
about
Alexandria
in Rome
active
garded
as
130 ; and, above from about 135 to
all,Valentinus, who 165, and
who
was
be
must
re
of the most
one
Gnosticism
giftedthinkers of the age. immense an perilfor the church. foundations of Christianity.Its God
was
out
the
historic
the
God
of the
ferior
Magus,1 but of his real relations to it clearlydefined leaders are Satornilus before 150; Basilides,who taught in
Old
Testament, which
is the
work
It cut is not
of
in
an
evil being. Its Christ had no real incarnation, resurrection. Its salvation is for the few capable of
or
even
death, or
spiritualenlightenment. The perilwas Gnosticism of was representedby some of the
the church
second
the
greater because
the keenest
The
minds
in
syncretistic, and in some respects Gnosticism was but the fullest accomplish of that amalgamation of Hellenic and Oriental philosophi ment cal speculationwith primitiveChristian beliefs which was in greater or less degree in process in all Christian thinking. century.
SECTION
specialinterest
A
first church
reformer.2
Born
was
MARCION
II.
attaches
age
to
Marcion
in
Sinope, in
as
who
one
Asia
the
was
Minor, where
about 139, and to Rome wealthy ship-owner,he came joinedthe Roman congregation, making it a giftfor its benevo lent work came equivalentto ten thousand dollars. He soon of under the to feel that Christianity was bondage legalism, the under of the Gnostic of and, light teaching Cerdo, he saw he
was
a
of this evil in acceptance of the Old Testament and than partially Never more Gnostic, his prime in a
the root its God. terest
in church
was
faith rather
than
only Apostle who fallen into the ment
is
tooth
for
a
ish law.
a
in the He
Christ, who
law 1 2
unknown
done
of "an
created was
a
good away,
God
Docetic God
the
was
of the Old for
eye
the world
by right
all the rest had
Gospel ;
The
sense
opposed Him; was
the
of Judaism.
errors
tooth."
Testament
the Jewish
had understood
just God,
the heretofore Old
Salvation,with him, was by knowledge. To Marcion, Paul reform.
and
an
eye,
gave
Testa and
a
the Jew
manifestation,revealed
of mercy. but in Christ
The the
God
of the
authorityof
and the "justGod"
Acts 89-24;Irenseus,Heresies,I23; Ayer, p. 79. See selections, Ayer, pp. 102-105.
became
un-
MARCION
MONTANISM
AND
57
to the revealer of the hostility justbecause of this unwarranted and its God are therefore to The Old Testament "good God." Christ proclaimeda Gospel of love be rejectedby Christians. and of righteousness by faith,though,curiouslyenough, Marcion was extremely ascetic in his conception of the Christian life. *
Marcion's
endeavor the
deemed
he
to
of Christ
Gospel
Church
call the Roman
of Paul
and
back
to
what in his
resulted
gathered followers he compiled a canon For their use into a separated church. of Paul (omittingthe of sacred books, composed of the epistles which and the Gospel of Luke, shorn of all passages "Pastorals), implied that Christ regarded the God of the Old Testament excommunication
own
His
Father, or is known, this was as
collection of New Marcion's those from
about
in any way As far as related to Him. the first attempt to form an authoritative Testament writings.
condemned
the
more
Gnosticism.
background
speculativeGnostic and
probably the
was
with
its historic
now
was
movement
associated
He
144.
He
theories.
He
denied
the Old Testament
and
done
plausible because
sundered
completely as
as
its
the
in
dangerous of Christianity
most
had
real
a
Crocf
the
more
incarnation, Atl this of
name
a
againstgrowing legalism. For such a protest there was His churches justification. spread extensively,in the and survived into the fifth century. His own especially, historyis wholly unknown.
was
protest much Orient later
\s^ SECTION
III.
MONTANISM
of Gnosticism, Montanism was a movement distinctly of the second cen Christian origin. In mostfof the churches
Unlike
tury the earlyhope of the speedy dim.
The
consciousness
return
of the
of Christ
constant
growing of the inspiration was
characteristic of the ApostolicChurches, had also largely Spirit, faded. of the immediacy of the Spirit's With this declining sense an increasingemphasis on His significance present work came the agent of revelation. Paul had identified the Spiritand as half a century later. Christ.1 That was not the generalfeeling The Spirithad been the inspiration of prophecy in the Old Testament.2 1
2 Cor. 317.
2
E. g., 1 Clem. 1 Clem., 47.
3
He
guided
the
8, 13, 16; "the
New
Testament
writers.3
propheticSpirit,"Justin,Apology,
To
13.
MONTANISM
58
Christian thought at the beginning of the second differentiated
Holy Spiritwas
This
with God.
like
Him, formula,1which
from
Christ, but
century the
appears
displacingthe
classed,
was
in the Trinitarian
baptismal
baptism in the name formula of Christ.2 Trinitarian were frequentlyin use by the close of the first and beginning of the second century.3 Johannine The Gospel represented Christ as promising the the Com "When coming of the Holy Spiritto the disciples: was
whom I will send forter is come, the Spiritof Truth, which even
shall bear
He
of
Witness
Me,"
older
unto
from
you
proceedeth from (1526).
The
the Father, the
second
Father, century
convinced, therefore,not only that the Holy Spiritwas
was
association with God the Father and Christ peculiar Christ had promised the Spirit's coming in more
;
in
but that
abundant
in the future.
measure
of the Holy this thought of the specialdispensation Spirit,combined with a fresh outburst of the earlyprophetic It
was
enthusiasm, and a belief that the end of the world-age was To close at hand, that were a representedin Montanism. considerable extent Montanism also,a reaction from the was, secular tendencies already at work in the church. Montanus, of Ardabau, near the movement from whom named, was was
long noted for A tradition, recorded by Jerome, its ecstatic type of religion.4 affirmed that, before conversion, he had been a priestof CyAbout bele. 156 Montanus proclaimed himself the passive the Holy Spiritspoke. In this new instrument through whom declared the promise of Christ fulfilled, revelation Montanus and the dispensationof the Holy Spiritbegun. To him were They soon joined two prophetesses,Prisca and Maximilla. that the end of the affirmed,as mouthpieces of the Spirit, now about world was at hand, and that the heavenly Jerusalem was believers should betake to be established in Phrygia, whither In preparationfor the fast-approaching consum themselves.
the
region of
mation
the
Minor
Asia
most
ness
won
response
abstinence
of the church
feature
at
as
a
as
Phrygia "
asceticism
strenuous
and celibacy,fastings, attitude
known
from
should meat.
be
practised,
This
vigorous
protest againstthe growing worldli-
large,and
to many
was
the most
attractive
of Montanism. 2
Acts
238.
1
Matt.
4
See selections, Ayer, pp.
2819.
3
E. g., 1 Clem.
106-109.
46, 58
;
Ignatius,Eph., 9.
MONTANISM The
bishopsof
ened, one
more
or
the distinction of
in which
considerable
speedilyattained
movement
the
By
59
Minor, who
Asia
held soon after 160, which have synods were and beingthe earliest synods of church history,
Montanism
condemned.
was
and for years the Roman by it. In Carthage it
Rome,
authoritythreat
felt their
Its progress not was of the last of its original
by the death easilycheckefl,even prophets,Maximilla, in 179. Soon after 17Q in
proportions.
it was
church
was
represented more
less
or
Tertullian,about 207, attracted chieflyby its ascetic demands, who thenceforth was
turmoiled
won
gradually driven out continued to be represented of the dominant church, Montanism in the Orient tilllong after the acceptance of Christianity by In Carthage the followers of Ter the imperialgovernment. tullian persistedtill the time of Augustine. In its ascetic de mands Montanism an a wide-spreadtendency,and represented asceticism as strict as anything Montanism taught was later to find a place in the great church in monasticism. the
eminent
most
Montanist.
SECTION
Neither ous,
IV.
Gnosticism
THE
remained
large church
by
CatHoTic^ChurcEI
the church technical
The
of
Church
Polycarp (156),where tive
or
word
church
tanist crises is
Christians.
The
is first used
"Catholic"
in the
employed it It is next
to
wholly
be found
it is difficultto decide whether
employment
graduallybecame adjective
consolidated
majorityof
of un-
in the
Smyrna, describingthe martyrdom
Its
not.
though extremelyperil
historic Christianity.By callingitselfthe century it was
of "universal."
letter of the
is technical
a
who by Ignatius,1
sense
CHURCH
faithful to
the latter third of the second "
CATHOLIC
Montanism,
nor
embraced
ever
were
Though
that
as
a
common, out
came
of the
the
of use
technically descrip that the so strongly Gnostic
and
Mon
usuallydescribed as the "Old Catholic." Church This Old Catholic char developed its distinguishing The acteristics between 160 and 190. hitherto relatively in knit into an effective union. now dependent congregationswere The power of the bishopswas a collection greatlystrengthened, of authoritative New Testament Scripturerecognized,and a creed formulated. Comparativelyloosely organizedChristianity now
1
Smyrn., 8
;
Ayer,
p. 42.
CATHOLIC
THE
60
rigidcorporate body, having recognizedofficial capable not merely of definingits faith,but of
became
now
a
and
leaders
its communion
from
shutting out creed
its officers. As
or
CHURCH
a
all who German
recent
did
accept its
not
writer has
epitomized
"
change : About 50, he was of the church who had received baptism and the Holy Spiritand called Jesus,Lord ; about 180, he who acknowledged the rule of faith (creed),the New Testa and the authorityof the bishops."1 ment canon, the beginnings of this great change may In a measure, be the
before the Gnostic
seen
and
Montanist
crises ; but
into being. that brought it effectively struggles istic answer
of the Catholic
in the argument
Church
it was
The
to the Gnostics
those
character be
may
seen
of Irenseus of
Lyons.2 Against Gnostic claims Irenseus,writing about 185, held that the Apostles did not preach before they had "perfect knowledge" of the Gospel. in the Gospels Matthew and That preaching they recorded written by Apostles themselves; while Mark re John, were of and of Paul. Luke that Peter produced the message Nothing "
But the Gnostic, Irenseus declares,is found in any of them. Gnostic may objectthat, besides this publicapostolicteaching in the Gospels, there was viva wee a instruction,a speaking "wisdom
heir.
This
perfect,"3
the
among
Irenseus
of which
Gnosticism
the
was
He
denied.
argued that, had there been have such private teaching,the Apostles would intrusted it all others, whom to those, above they selected as their suc in the government of the churches. In these churches of apostolicfoundation the apostolicteaching had been fully cessors
preserved,and its transmission had been guaranteed by the orderly succession of their bishops. Go therefore to Rome, is there taught,and to Smyrna, or Ephesus, and learn what or nothing Gnostic will be found. Every church must agree with that of Rome, for there apostolical tradition has been faithfully preservedas in other ApostolicChurches. It is difficult to could
advanced
have
fronted
him
; but
of significance
foundation, and further. 1 2
see
The
of
church
more
in the
it was
the
what
effective
argument
peculiarsituation
Irenseus
which
con
greatlyincreased the churches of real or reputed apostolical their heads, the bishops. Irenseus went itselfis the depositoryof Christian teachan
answer
which
der Kirchengeschichte,p. Heussi, Kompendium Heresies,3:1-4; Ayer, pp. 112-114.
44. 3
1 Cor. 2".
APOSTOLICAL
ing: "Since
the
like a Apostles,
CREED
AND
TRADITION rich
in
man
a
61
bank, lodged in
copiouslyall thingspertainingto the truth." those who, togetherwith This depositis especially intrusted to the succession of the episcopate, have received the certain gift her hands
most
"
To agree with of truth,"2 i.e. to the heads of the churches. the bishopsis therefore a necessity. This argument was not peculiarto Irenaeus,it was that of the leaders of Old Catholic
teachinggenerally. While
the
churches
of the
power
of the significance
episcopateand
foundation thus greatlyenhanced, was apostolical /the Gnostic crisis saw a correspondingdevelopment of creed, ^ Some form of instruction before baptism at least in the West. was common by the middle of the second century.3 At Rome this developed,apparently,between 150 and 175, and probably of in oppositionto Marcionite Gnosticism, into an explication form the baptismal formula of Matt. 2819 the earliest known of the so-called Apostles'Creed. in Asia antecedents What Minor, if any, it may have had is stilla question in scholarly dispute. Without symbolic authority in the Orient, all the of
"
churches
Western
received this creed
Rome, and it was least,as having apostolic from
regarded,by the time of Tertullian at of apostolic authority,that is as a summary teaching.4In its form it read : original I believe in God the Father Almighty ; and in Christ Jesus, His only begotten Son, our born of the Holy Lord, who was Spiritand the VirginMary, crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried ; the third day He rose into the from the dead, ascended heavens, being seated at the righthand of the Father, whence He shall come and the dead ; and in the Holy to judge the living Spirit,holy church, forgivenessof sins, resurrection of the "
flesh."
sj
The
development of
also,the work
ning the pels and they did Rome
of this
Old Testament
of
the
canon
of New
period. By the was
reckoned
books
Testament church
from
the
was,
begin
Scripture. The Gos Pdujrwere highly valued, but ha^e "Scriptural not, at first, authority. Clement of (93-97), though constantlyquoting the Old Testament the letters of
the utterance
as
a
as
doubtless
of the words God, was very free in his use divine. Testament, and nowhere styled them
New
1
Heresies,3
8
Justin,Apology,
:
of
41.
2
61.
4
7^., 4 26*. Prescription,13, 36. .
THE
62
The
earliest
designationof
"Scripture" was a quotation from time
of Justin
CANON
TESTAMENT
NEW
about
a
131, by
Paul
about
from
passage
the so-called
the
Gospels
Barnabas,1
and
as
of
110-117, by Polycarp.2 By the
(153),the Gospels were
read
services in
in the
Rome, togetherwith the Old Testament
prophets.3 The proc to Scriptural ess writingscame by which the New Testament of analogy. The Old Testa to have been one authorityseems ment was everywhere regarded as divinely authoritative. Christians could think
less of their
no
The
an questionwas open canonical writings. Works
read
An
in churches.
one,
fundamental
own
however,
like Hernias
which
to
as
and
authoritative list was
books. the
were
Barnabas
were
desirable.
for his followers.
Mar-
similar a canon prepared in was Rome, by the graduallyformed, probably the first to gain Catholic party. Apparently the Gospels were then the letters of Paul. complete recognition, By about 200, accordingto the witness of the Muratorian fragment,Western had a New Christendom Testament canon embracing Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, 1 and 2 Corinthians,Ephesians,Philippians,Colossians,Galatians,1 and 2 Thessalonians,Romans, Philemon, Titus,1 and 2 Timothy,Jude, 1 and 2 John, Revela tion,and the so-called Apocalypseof Peter.4 In the Orient the not quiteso rapid. Certain books, was development of a canon like Hebrews and Revelation were disputed. The whole process into its of canonical development precisepresent form was not later. completed in the West till400, and in the East tilleven portion of the By the year 200 the church of the western empire had, therefore, an authoritative collection of New Testament books, in the main like our own, to which to appeal. cion had
such
A
enumeration
The
East
was
a essentially
Christian
was
accepted were resent
Thus
The
formation
of selection from
process
by originally
opinion the "
no
criterion
the
of the whole
to
canon
of
mass
council,but by the the books
being that
of eitta^ie^work HStlejand thus discipleof^fl
believed
of the immediate
or
behind.
made literature,
force of Christian
be
an
apostolicteaching. of the strugglewith Gnosticism out
and
Apostle to
rep
Montanism
itsferong Church, episcopalorganAuthoritative It differed and ization^redal canon. standard, came
V
much
not
1 8
the Old
Catholic
Barn., 4. Apology, 66, 67.
with
Phil.
12.
4Ayer,
pp.
2
117-120.
THE
64
EASTER door
the wide-spread,
for
open
late in
Rather
authority.
was
CONTROVERSY
largerassertion of
a
developingthe
Roman
monarchical
episco
pate, since Anicetus
the first to have been (154-165) seems of the Roman Church, the prominence of its bishop
singlehead rapidly in grew
the
Gnostic
struggle,and with this growth the firstextensive assertion of the authorityof the Roman \Jcame bishop in the affairs of the church at large. thus gaining in strengthAsia Minor While Rome was was At the of the second relatively declining. beginning century and the adjacent portion of Syria had been the Asia Minor most extensivelyChristianized sections of the empire. That was probably,also,true at the century'sclose. Ephesus and had
Antioch
Asia Minor
had
Montanism
and
tanists had
been
that
still,great Christian resisted Gnosticism, but it had been
been, and
of controversy, though the Monsources to think, however, rejected. There is reason
disputeshad borne hard on its Christianity.The quarrelbetween is
the time
over
to
reason
of the observance
that Easter had
suppose
in Christian
the united Asia
with
a
visit of
to Anicetus, bishop of
strengthof
Minor
and
of Easter. been
fourteenth
with
of the
the month
Polycarp,bishop
of
Smyrna,
At that time
Supper
day
of the week
Roman
and
that of
custom,
the Easter
on
evening
the
Nisan, like the Jewish
gardlessof the feast
on
early
of its celebration
in 154
Lord's
there
from
155. Rome, or of Asia the Minor, probably more ancient,was practice Easter
Rome
While
honored
history,the first definite record
is in connection
serve
by
torn
other
these
arose
centres.
were
which
it
the
to ob
of the
Passover,
might
fall.
re
The
to hold some parts of the East, was Sunday. The questionwas, there
always on be the day of the week or that of the month norm. Polycarp and Anicetus could not agree, but parted with mutual good-will,each adhering to his own practice.1 The problem was further complicatedby a dispute,about 167, fore,should the
in
Laodicea, in Asia Minor
of the cele to the nature itself, as bration on the fourteenth of Nisan, some holding that Christ the fourteenth, as the fourth Gospel intimates, and died on others placingHis death, as do the other Gospels,on the fif
teenth. teenth
Hebrew
The of
latter treated
commemoration
the
Nisan, therefore, as
a
of the
Christian continuation
Passover. 1
Eusebius, Church
History, 5
:
2416-
17
;
Ayer,
p. 164.
four of the
EASTER
THE
About held in
the
190
Rome,
problem
CONTROVERSY became
65
that synods were elsewhere which decided in favor
Palestine,and
so
acute
practice. The churches of Asia Minor, led by Polycrates,bishop of Ephesus, refused conformity. There the Victor, bishop of Rome (189-198), excommunicated upon recalcitrant congregations. This high-handed action met with much a protest, notably from Irenseus of Lyons, but it was assertion of Roman marked authority.1 These embittered controversies were costly to Asia Minor, and any possiblerivalryon equal terms of Ephesus and Rome out of the question. The was collapseof Jewish Christian of the Roman
the apparent leadership,
lack at Antioch
of
men
of eminence
in the second
century, and the decline of the influence of Asia left Rome, by 200, the most and influential eminent
Minor
of
Christianity a positionof which the Roman bishops had the will and the abilityto make full use. The rise of and of Carthage to importance in the Christian Alexandria of thought and life of the third century could not rob Rome its leadership. Their attainment of Christian significance was of the empire. far younger than that of the capital centre
"
SECTION
VI.
IREN^US
The Old
earliest theologicalleader of distinction in the rising Catholic Church His argument in defense Irenseus. was
of traditional outlined.2 where
he
Christianity againstGnosticism has alreadybeen Born in Asia Minor, he was brought up in Smyrna,
saw
been
most
able
mission
and
heard
Polycarp.
The
date
of his birth has
scholars from about variouslyplaced by modern 115 to about 142, chieflyin the lightof its possiblebearing on traditions as to the authorship of the fourth Gospel. The later part of the periodindicated has more probabilitythan the earlier. From Asia Minor he removed is to Lyons in what now France, where he became a presbyter. The great perse cution of 177, at Lyons, found him, fortunately, honor on an
bishop
of
to
Rome;
and,
in
succession
Lyons,
That
post he continued
from
185
he
wrote
to hold
his return, he was chosen the martyred Pothinus. to
on
tillhis death
(c.200). Not far his chief work, Against Heresies,primarily
1
Eusebius, Church
2
Ante, p. 60.
History, 5
:
23,
24 ;
Ayer,
pp.
161-165.
IREN^EUS
66
refute the various Gnostic
to
ing his own Brought
reveal schools,but incidentally
theology. in the tradition of Asia Minor
and
spending his later life in Gaul, Irenseus was not merely a connecting-link distant the but between the older between portionsof empire, and theology of the Johannine Ignatian literature and the which the Apologistsand the "Catholic'' newer 'presentations of his own of deeply movement day were introducing. A man in salvation. his interest was In its explica spirit, religious tion he developed the Pauline and Ignatian conceptionsof of humanity, the second the renewer Christ as the new man, Adam. God created the first Adam, He made him good and lost by immortal; but both goodness and immortality were up
disobedience.
Adam's
What
Christ,the incarnate Logos, who "
work.
[i.e. at beginning; but man,
He
us, in
that what
so
the
image
Jesus."
l
we
and
The
acterizes in
a
that the Son
Jesus'
birth],being
with
when
He
a
He
now
became
the Father and
incarnate
brief,comprehensive manner, had
lost in Adam
likeness of God
"
Christ, thus
of
noble
phrase. We
through His transcendent might bring us to be even
of
God,
is also the full revelation of God.3
made
beings,and
with
salvation ;
described, Irenseus char
follow "the Lord
our
love become
what
the
namely to be accordingto in Christ we might recover
"
that
work
from was
afresh the long line of human
steadfast Teacher, the Word did
in
shown
commenced
furnished
is restored
completesthe interrupted of God did not then begin
I have
to exist
lost in Adam
man
He
only
and
Christ,who
Jesus what
true
we
is Himself."
are, 2
that
Christ
with Him, fol of Justin,Irenseus views
Our
union
lowing the teachingof Asia Minor and in some as sense physical,through the Supper.4 Irenseus's theory of Christ's new headship of humanity had added to it "The knot a suggestionof His mother as the second Eve. of Eve's disobedience was of Mary. loosened by the obedience For what the Virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the Virgin Mary set free through faith." 5 In this is one of the earliestevidences of that exalta curious ascription tion of the Virginwhich was to play so largea part in Christian for his time, Irenseus was an even history. In some ways, old-fashioned man. The belief in Christ's speedy second com1 3
Heresies,3
181 ; Ayer, pp. 137, 138. 4 4 207. Ibid.,4 : 185 ; Ayer, p. 138. : Ibid., :
2 5
Heresies,5 ; Preface. Ibid.,3 : 224.
ing had
WRITINGS
AND
LIFE
TERTULLIAN'S
67
the contest with Montanism entirely With Irenseus it still
growing faint,and
been
extinguishit almost and he looked eagerlyfor the time when the burned brightly, For Irenseus the New earth would be marvellouslyrenewed.1 is as fullysacred Scriptureas the Old. Testament to
was
1 VII.
SECTION
Tertullian
was
well-to-do
the
ancient
CYPRIAN
AND
individual and
of the most
one
of personalities
TERTULLIAN
church.
Born
remarkable
(c. 150-155) of
parentage in Carthage, he studied law and
heathen
He was exceedinglywell practisedhis professionin Rome. he had thoroughly read in philosophyand history. Greek
mastered.
About
190 to 195, he
converted
was
to
Christianity,
devoted himself with equaleager probably in Rome, and now orthodox and heretical. to the study of Christian literature, ness a Shortly after he returned to Carthage where he became presbyter,and remained till his death (c.222-225). At first of persecution in fellowship with the Roman Church, a wave North Africa in 202 under the Emperor Septhat broke over timius Severus (193-211), strengthenedhis native Puritanism and brought him into sympathy with Montanism. Its ascetic and unworldly aspects most About 207 he appealedto him.
Church, which he thenceforth bit died in continuing protest,apparently,as
with the "Catholic"
broke
and terlycriticised, the founder In
a
little sect of his
197 Tertullian
and
fense He
of
was
began
the first ecclesiasticalwriter of His
frequentlyunfair
sistent with himself.
to
But
an
advocate
opponents. he
prominence to
Church
wrote
use
Latin.
in Greek
was
of
a
in the court-room. He
de
lasted till 220.
readable. vivid, satirical,
stylewas
often that of
was
that makes
activityin literary
of Christianitywhich explication
after his time.
method
of
career
the leaders of the Roman
Even
was
a
own-
till HisHe
always con fieryearnestness of spirit was
not
what
he wrote always impressive.He well deserves the title of father of Latin theology. Tertullian own
to
and
was,
based
thoughtwas some
extent
quite as
no primarily,
on
that
speculativetheologian.His of the Apologists, and Irenseus,
other bearers of the tradition of Asia Minor, much Stoic teachingand legalconceptions. on on
*.,5: 33'; Ayer,
p. 26.
TERTULLIAN'S
68
had the Roman
He
THEOLOGY and
of order
sense
authority. All that he
touched, however, he formulated with the clearness of defini tion of a trained judicialmind, and hence he gave precision, had before him, to many as none theological conceptionsthat heretofore
had
been
vaguely apprehended. a Christianitywas great divine foolishness, wisdom wiser than the highestphilosophical of men, and in to be squared with no existingphilosophicalsystems.1 way it largelythrough Stoic spectacles. In realityhe looked upon It is based on Christianityis primarilyknowledge of God. soul by nature Christian" 2 and "the reason authority. That authorityis seated in the church, and only in the ortho dox church, which alone has the truth, expressedin the creed, and alone has a rightto use the Scriptures.3As with Irenseus, Tertullian
For
"
"
those that agree in faith with those founded by the Apostles,wherein the apostolictradition has been maintained by the succession of bishops.4 These are these
valid churches
of the still "Catholic"
utterances
and
are
Gentile
common
Christianityof
Christianityfor Tertullian is law and the preached the new heaven."5
Admission
previous sins are that by washing
Tertullian.
to
removed.
a
free into eternal life."
with Justin
second
"Jesus
century,
Christ .
.
.
promises of the kingdom of the church is by baptism, by which new
It is "our
Those
6
law.
new
the sins of
away
the
As
of water, in
earlyblindness
our
who
sacrament
we
have received it are
are
set
thence
forth "competitorsfor salvation in earning the favor of God."7 of sin than Tertullian had a deeper sense Christian any writer since Paul, and
his
teachingsgreatlyaided the developconceptionsof sin and grace. Though not
,/ment of the Latin clearlyworked out, and inconsistent sions,Tertullian possesseda doctrine is,then, besides the evil which
with of
supervenes
occasional expres
originalsin.
"There
the soul from
on
the
intervention of the evil spirit, an antecedent, and in a certain 8 But natural evil,which arises from its corrupt origin." sense "the
power
nature." It
9
of the grace of God The of grace nature
evidentlyincluded,however, not 1 4
7 10
Prescription,7. Ibid.,32. Repentance, 6.
Baptism,
10.
2
Apology, 17. 5Ibid., 13. 8 Anima, 41.
is he
more
potent indeed
than
nowhere
fully explains. of sins,"10 only "forgiveness 3 6 9
Prescription,13-19. Baptism, 1. Ibid.,21.
TERTULLIAN'S but also "the
of divine
grace
shown
has
this latter
that
origin.2But much
has
man
to
feeble,but
to
power
free,will.1
conception,of the
utmost
Christendom, is of theology though salvation is thus based on grace, do. Though God forgivesprevioussins at
baptism, satisfaction must
for those committed
be made
The
voluntary sacrifices, chieflyascetic.
after
which
of Western
for the significance
Stoic
69
by inspiration/'
give force to man's
do rightis infused to
Loofs
CHRISTOLOGY
by punisheshimself,the less God Tertullian's most
will
more
a
man
him.3
punish
influential work
there
the definition of the
was
Logos Christology,though he preferredto use the designa tion Son lit rather than Logos. If he advanced its content tle beyond what had already been presented by the theolo his legal gians of Asia Minor, and especially by the Apologists, mind gave a clearness to its explanationsuch as had not be fore existed. tanist
Here
his chief work
was
written in his Mon-
one
He defines the Godhead in period Against Praxeas. which almost anticipatethe Nicene result of more than terms of one, by unity of substance; a century later. "All are while the mystery of the dispensationis still guarded which distributes the unity into a Trinity,placing in their order the three, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; three, "
however .
.
not
in
in appearance,
but
and
essence
whom der
.
these the
one
for
they
degrees and
forms
in
of
are
inasmuch
power,
of the
name
but
substance
form
not
substance
one
is
He
as
;
in power and
God
one
one
from
and
Father, and
aspects are reckoned un of the Son, and of the Holy
Spirit."4 He describes these distinctions of the Godhead as the in word not the our "persons,"5meaning by sense usage of personalities, but forms of manifestation. This unity of ^ubstancein Tertullian's thought is material,for he was suffi for spirit has cientlya Stoic to hold that God is a body 6 of its own kind." With similar precision, a bodilysubstance a Tertullian and divine in distinguishedbetween the human "
...
Christ.
joinedin and 1 2 3 6
"We one
Spirit
are
see
His
person,
derived
Patience, 1. Studium Leitfaden zum Repentance, 2, 9. Ibid.,7.
double
Jesus, God from
der
state, not and
the Father
intermixed
man."
7
con
Since both Son
by emanation, both
Dogrnengeschichte,p. 164. * Praxeas, 2. Ibid.,27. '
but
5
are
Ibid.,12.
DOCTRINE
CYPRIAN'S
70
subordinate
to
Him.1
OF
This
far
the
more
work
CHURCH
doctrine of subordination,already
taught in the Apologists,was Logos Christologytillthe time were
THE
of
remain
to
characteristic
of the
of
Augustine. These definitions lawyer-like, judicialinterpreta
a
As the first, also, philosophicalconsideration. subto such expressionsas to give technical usage trinitas, meritum, Tertullian left his stantia,sacramentwn, satisfacere, permanent impress on Latin theology. the intellectual heir of Tertul Cyprian was, in many ways, he called master. Born lian, whom probably in Carthage, of wealth about 200, he spent all his life in that city. A man
tion, than
of
education, he
and
246 he
About
distinction
won
converted
was
later
of rhetoric.
teacher
a
Christian
to the
chosen
as
faith,and
two
or
the
bishopricof Carthage. and much Here he showed high executive ability, practical good without the touch of genius that and kindliness of spirit sense characterized Tertullian. The persecutionof 250 he escaped by flight ; but in that of 258 he stood boldly forth and suffered as a martyr by beheading. Few leaders of the ancient church have been more highlyregarded by subsequent ages. In Cyprian'steaching the tendencies illustrated in the de velopment of the "Catholic" Church received their full expres church is the one visible orthodox community of sion. The
three
years
Christians. is
by
not
who
a
has not
vation out of its
3
"
He
the
and
2
is not no
5
ye
the church
ought
there the
upon
he may be and in the church of Christ is
longerhave
The
and
"Whoever
for his mother."
the church
bishops,"whence
with
can
of the church."
in the church not
Christ is one, chair (episcopate) founded
be, he who
he may
Christian."
God, and
one
one
to
of the Lord."
the word
whatever
is
"There
church, and
one
rock
was
church to
in the
for his
God
4
"There
is based
know
bishop;
on
is
Father, sal
no
the unity
the bishop is
that and
if any
one 6
he is not in the church." part of which is held by each
bishop,that
be
"The
in one episcopateis one, each 7 its entirety." This last quotation has its bearing on a con troversy stillalive as to whether Cyprian regarded all bishops as equal sharers in a common episcopalauthority,the posses of the bishop sion of each and of all; or held to the superiority 1 4
7
2 Praxeas, 7, 9. Letters,39-435. 5 Unity of the Church, 6. Letters,72-7321. Unity of the Church,5 ; Ayer, p. 242.
3 6
Ibid.,51-5524. Ibid.,G8-668.
its
from and
MONARCHIANS
DYNAMIC
THE
72
teachings,went
its doctrine of the
far
so
rejectthe fourth Gospel these "Alogoi," as Epiph-
to
as
Of
Logos.
later,nicknamed them, little is (?-403), writing much but some of the criticsof the Logos Christology in detail,
anius known
into
prominence were apparentlyinfluenced by To these opponents in generalthe name Monarchians them. is usuallygiven a title coined by Tertullian1 since they as fell into two very The Monarchians serted the unity of God. who
came
now
"
unlike
"
classes,those who so-called
by adoption,the who
held that Christ
tion of the
was
that Jesus
held
Dynamic but
the Son
was
Monarchians;
temporary form
a
of God
and
those
of manifesta
the Modalistic Mo God, the party known as Thus, with the supporters of the Logos view, three
one
narchians.
contestingin
were Christologies
third century. The first Dynamic Monarchian
Rome of
at
the
beginningof
prominencewas
called the currier, or tanner, from and is said to have been learning,
the
Theodotus,
wa's a man of Byzantium. of the Alogoi,though, a disciple the fourth Gospel. unlike them, he accepted in some sense About there taught that Jesus was 190 he came to Rome, and born of the Virgin,of holy life, whom the divine a man, upon Christ (or the Holy Spirit)descended at His baptism. Some followers denied to Jesus any title to divinity of Theodotus's ; but
others held that He
resurrection.2
He
in
became
is reminded
One
some
divine at His
sense
of the
Christologyof Hermas excommunicated was (Ante, p. 39). Theodotus by Bishop Vic continued by tor of Rome (189-198) ; but his work there was like their Theodotus, "the money-changer," and Asclepiodorus, master, probably from the Orient ; but their effort to found a rival communion
little. The was
that
outside the "Catholic"
Church
amounted
to
last attempt to present a similar theology in Rome of a certain Artemon (230-40-270), but Dynamic
Monarchianism
in the
West
undoubtedly representeda
already moribund. type of Christologythat
Yet
was
was
it one
of the oldest in the Christian Church. The
Monarchian
Dynamic
in the East. persistent
tative in Paul
bishop of
of
Antioch
party
There
it had
was
its most
Samosata, the able from
c.
260
to
stronger and
272.
famous
and
more
represen
politically gifted He representedthe
1
Praxeas, 3,
2
Hippolytus, Refutation,723,1019; Ayer,
10. p. 172.
THE
MONARCHIANS
MODALISTIC
Logos, which
he also described
sonal attribute of the Father.
of
the Son
as
This
the prophets. Jesus was a man, of the Virgin,who was filled with and
73
God,
as
an
imper
Logos had inspiredMoses unique in that He was born of God, i. e., by the power
God's
united Jesus was Logos. By this indwelling inspiration in in will by lovte to God, but did not become substance one with God. That union is moral, but inseparable.By reason of it Christ was raised from the dead, and given a kind of dele gated divinity. Between 264 and 269 three synods considered Paul of Samosata's views, by the last of which he was excom municated ; but he kept his place tilldriven out by the Em peror Aurelian (p. 106). Much than the Dynamic Monarchians more numerous were the Modalistic Monarchians, who made an appeal to the many for the reason alreadyquoted from Tertullian (ante,p. 71), that in the presence of heathen polytheism,the unity of God seemed a prime article of the Christian faith,and any Logos concep tion or Dynamic Monarchianism seemed denial of to them a that unity. Cyprian coined for these Modalistic Monarchians the nickname Patripassians.1The leader of Modalistic Mo like that of Dynamic narchianism Monarchianism, an was, Oriental Christian,Noetus, probably of Smyrna. The same controversies in Asia Minor
may
called forth both in
well have
that he taught terpretations.Of N-oetus littleis known save in his native regionin the period-180 to 200, "that Christ was
the Father
Himself, and that the Father
suffered and about
190, by
opponent a
died."
said
"
:
a
always
did two
a
born and
follower of Noetus
defender
works
was
transplantedto Rome,
were
of the
and
an
Tertullian,then
Montanists, regardingwhom
and
Praxeas
views
certain Praxeas,
a
of the
Montanist
These
Himself
Logos Christology,
of the devil in Rome.
He drove
prophecy and introduced heresy. He put to flightthe Holy Spiritand crucified the Father." 3 A littlelater two other of Noetus, Epigonus and Cleomenes, came to Rome disciples and won, in largemeasure, the sympathy of Bishop Zephyrinus (198-217) for the Modalistic Monarchian position. out
The became
noted
most
leader of the Modalistic
permanently associated with 1 2
3
Letters,72-7S4. Hippolytus, Against Noetus, Praxeas, 1 ; Ayer, p. 179.
this
1 ;
Ay
school,whose was Christology,
or, p.
177.
name
Sa-
74
AND
SABELLIUS
HIPPOLYTUS
of whose bellius,
earlylifelittleis known, but who was teaching about 215. His theologywas that of Noein Rome essentially in that more carefullywrought out, especially tus, but much it gave a definite place to the Holy Spiritas well as to the Son. Father, Son, and Holy Spiritare all one and the same. is a prosopon Each TrpdswTrov(a word of largelater ortho "
"
use),that is a character or form of manifestation,of the God, who showed Himself in His character of creator as one the Father, in that of redeemer as the Son, and now the as at Rome, Holy Spirit. Sabellius, though soon excommunicated found for in the his views East, especiallyin largefollowing dox
and
Libya. Nor was the development of what
Egypt
he without
considerable influence
became
the orthodox
of the Logos
at Christology
Christology. His absolute identification of Father, Son, and Holy Spiritwas rejected;but it implied an equalitywhich ultimately,as in Augustine,triumphed over the subordination of Son and Spirit characteristic of the Logos Christologyboth of Tertullian and on
Athanasius. The
in Rome
great advocate
this
juncture
Hippolytus (160-170 c. 235), the most learned Christian writer then in the city,and the last considerable theologianthere to use Greek rather than Latin as his vehicle of expression. As a commentator, chronicler,calculator of Easter
was
"
and dates,Apologist,
opponent
of
heretics,he
was
held
in such
high repute that his followers erected after his death the earliest Christian portrait statue known. He opposed of both schools. The vigorously the Monarchians fight in waxed Rome hot. Bishop Zephyrinus (198-217) hardly knew side. what to do, though he leaned toward the Monarchian On his death he was succeeded 217-222), by Kallistos (Calixtus, had yet and that the most assertive Rome energetic bishop who had been born a slave,had engaged unsuc man seen a in banking, and had, for a time, been a sufferer for his cessfully Christian faith in the mines of Sardinia. Over Zephyrinus he of the attainment acquired great influence,and on his own issued in his own certain regulations to the as bishopric, name "
readmission
to the
church
of those
repentant of sins of licen
tiousness,which show higherecclesiasticalclaims than any here tofore advanced by a Roman bishop (seep. 101). Kallistos saw He there that these disputeswere Church. hurtingthe Roman Sabellius (c.217),and charged Hippolytus fore excommunicated
OF
VICTORY
LOGOS
THE
with
beinga worshipperof
with
Kallistos,on
and cipline,
this
became
g" ds.1
two
ground
the head
CHRISTOLOGY
and of
on a
75
Hippolytusnow broke questionsregardingdis
rival communion
in Rome
"counter-pope" a positionwhich he maintained tillhis banishment in the persecutionof 235. Kallistos tried to find a compromise formula in this Chrisconfusion. Father, Son and Logos, he held, are all tological ;of "one indivisible spirit."Yet Son is also the proper names Jesus ; while the Father designationof that which was visible, the spirit in Him. This presence of the Father in Jesus was is"the Logos. Kallistos was positivethat the Father did not suffer on the cross, but suffered with the sufferings of the Son, "the
first
"
Jesus; yet the Father "after He had taken unto Himself our flesh,raised it to the nature of deity,by bringingit into union with Himself, and made it one, so that Father and Son must be styledone This is,indeed, far from logical God."5 clear. or One
blame
Hippolytus or Sabellius for not likingit. Yet it was a compromise which recognizeda pre-existent Logos if it identified that Logos with the Father; in Christ, even it insisted on the identityof that which indwelt Jesus with God ; and it claimed a human Jesus, raised to divinity by the Father, and made one with Him, thus reallyshowing a distinc cannot
tion between that
the Father
and
the
Son, while denying in words exists. This compromise won the majority in Rome,
one
and
opened the door for the full victoryof the Logos Chris determined tology there. That victory was by the able ex positionof that Christologywhich came at the turning-point in this conflict
(213-218) from the pen of Tertullian of Car Against Praxeas (see ante, p. 69), with its clear defini
thage "
tions of
a
Trinityin three
the divine and
human
persons
and of
a
distinction between
in Christ.
How
its way in Western completely this Christologywon Christendom is shown by the treatise on the Trinity, written by the Roman presbyter,Novatian, between 240 and 250. That eminent to
scholar
Latin
was
the first in the local Roman
rather than Greek.
His
communion
quarrelwith the dominant party in the church will be described later (p. 102). Novatian did littlemore than reproduceand expand Tertullian's views. But it is important that he treated this exposition the only as normal and legitimate of the "rule of truth"" the interpretation use
1
Hippolytus,Refutation,96.
VICTORY
76
OF
THE
CHRISTOLOGY
/LOGOS
That syubol had been silent regardingthe "Apostles'Creed." the Logos Christologyis its Logos Christology. To No^atian Father and Son a "communion only proper meaning. Between of substance" exists.1 The Latin equivalentof the later famous
Homoousion
Nicene before
o^oovcriov
"
has
Novatian
250.
social
a
even
in Rome
therefore current
was
"
Trinity.
Comment
1030,"I and the Father are one," he declares that Christ "said one thing (unum). Let the heretics understand John
ing on
did not
that He
the
intimates
valuable
most
say
social
one
placed in the neuter the personalunity." The is that he emphasized what
For
person.
concord,
thing in
not
Novatian
one
in all this involved
the heart of the conviction of the church
was
and fully God Christological controversy, that Christ was bishop, Finally,about 262, the Roman equally fullyman.3 Dionysius (259-268), writingagainstthe Sabellians,expressed the Logos Christologyin terms more nearly approximatingto what
other third-
decision of 325 than any theologian.4Thus the West had reached to be the Nicene
was
century with the result readily harmonizable sixtyyears before that great council. such uniformity. no SECTION
Alexandria
was,
of the ancient
IX.
for
THE
Nicsea,
The
ALEXANDRIAN
had
East
than
more
attained
SCHOOL
six centuries,the second
than
more
at
conclusions
world, surpassedonly by Rome,
and
later
by
city Con
in importance. Founded by Alexander the Great stantinople, in B. C. 332, it was primarilya trading community, and as
such, attracted numbers life was
less remarkable.
no
and
of Greeks Its
Its intellectual
Jews.
librarywas
famous
the most
There Greek empire. In its streets East and West met. philosophy entered into association,or competed in rivalry, in the
with Judaism
and
many
cults,while the influence
other Oriental
Egyptian thought persisted. It There cosmopolitancityof the ancient world. ancient
of
ment
was
Judaism to
was
translated in terms
into
Greek, and
of Hellenic
our
1
Trinity,31. Ibid.,11, 24.
2 4
era.
into
Ibid.,27. Athanasius,
In
most
Testa
reinterpreted
Neo-Platonism
philosophy. There
arise in the third century of
the
the Old
there Philo
tion of Christianity into Alexandria, or 3
was
Of the introduc
Egypt generally, De
Decretis,26.
ALEXANDRIAN
THE
nothing is known, veil of silence rooted there.
77
early,since when the lifted Christianity was evidentlystrongly Gnostic, Basilides,taught in Alexandria in
hut
was
The
reignof Hadrian
the
SCHOOL
it must
have
been
(117-138). There
the various
philosoph
ical systems had their "schools/'where instruction could be and it was but natural that Christian obtained by all inquirers, teachers
imitate this
should
good example, though
appear that the beginningsof this work authorities. the Alexandrian Church
By about
185
andria, then
a
famous
under
the
independentof
were
catechetical school of leadership
existed in Alex
converted
a
it would
Stoic
phi
Whether it originatedwith him, or what losopher,Pantsenus. his own have been, it is impossible theologicalpositionmay to
determine.
With
Clement
of Alexandria
it pupil and successor, of religious development
tsenus's course
differed from
regions the
that in Asia Minor with
contest
philosophysuch
(?-c. 215), Pan-
into the
comes
in Alexandria and
Gnosticism
light. The had evidently
the West. had
In the latter
bred
distrust of
a
that Tertullian could declare that there
was
it and Christianity.That possibleconnection between contest had, also,immensely strengthenedthe appeal to apos tolical tradition and consolidated organization. In Alexandria no
these characteristics of the "Old
while [developed, jfully
philosophywas
"/sistent but with Christianity, of what
was
best in ancient
as
of Alexandria
Church
had
regarded not
its handmaid.
not
incon-
as
Here
so
a
union
philosophy,chieflyPlatonism and else realized in degree nowhere
effected to a Stoicism, was orthodox circles,and the result Clement
Catholic"
was
a
Christian
Gnosticism.
At the typicalof this movement. time he was same a presbyterin the Alexandrian Church, thus between the church and the school. servingas a connecting-link The more important of the works of Clement which have survived are three : his Exhortation to the Heathen, an apologetic treatise,giving incidentallyno little information as to the mystery religions;his Instructor,the first treatise on Chris tian
conduct, and
customs
tion of
an
was
invaluable mine
of the age ; and
his
of information
as
to
the
Stromata, or Miscellanies, a collec
profound thoughts on religionand theology,arranged without much regard to system. Throughout he shows the mind of a highly trained and widely read thinker. Clement would interpretChristianityas Philo did Judaism, by phi-
losophy,into
ALEXANDRIA
OF
CLEMENT
78
scientificdogmatics. To
him, as
Justin,whom
to
surpassed in clearness of intellectual grasp, the divine and of all the intelligence Logos has always been the source the teacher of mankind race morality of the human every who where. Our instructor is the holy God, Jesus, the Word l of all true He was the source is the guide of all humanity." of all good things; but of some philosophy. God is the cause he
far
"
"
"
of the Old
as primarily,
and
the New
Testament
of others
; and
of
philosophy. Perchance, too, philosophy directlyand primarily,tillthe Lord was given For this was should call the Greeks. schoolmaster to bring a by
as
consequence,
to the
Greeks
the Hellenic mind, as the law the Hebrews, to Christ." This trainingof humanity by the Logos has been, therefore, education. So it is,also,in the church. Faith," a progressive "
is enough simple,traditional Christianity,
that is the
but
who
man
possession.3He hath and
shall be to
for salvation ;
his faith "knowledge," has a higher is the true, Christian Gnostic. him that "To adds
given ;
to
to
love, the inheritance."
knowledge leads a good it necessarilyinvolves "
knowledge, love highest good to which
faith,knowledge ; 4
The
to
;
greater than the salvation which
even
"Could knowledge of God. then suppose proposing to the Gnostic whether he we any one would choose the knowledge of God or everlasting salvation; and if these, which are entirelyidentical,were separable,he would without the least hesitation choose the knowledge of God." 5 That highest good brings with it an almost Stoic absence of feeling, either of pleasureor of pain a condition of "
is the
"
in which
blessedness
believes
Clement
Christ
stood, and
to
Apostles attained through His teaching.6 One can readilycomprehend that Clement, like Justin, had no real The interest in the earthlylifeof Jesus. Logos then became
which
the
incarnate,indeed, but Clement's view of Christ's life is almost than that of any teacher of orthodox Docetic, certainly more so
standing in the church of Clement wrought out That and
to
was successor
school
"
be
the
task
in the
Origen.
no
own
day. complete theologicalsystem.
of his
headship of
Born
Alexandria, between
his
of
1
Instructor,I7.
2
4
Ibid.,710.
5
celebrated
the Alexandrian
Christian
182 and
more
even
parentage,
185, Origen grew
Stromata, I5; Ayer, Ibid.,422.
p. 190.
up
pupil
catechetical
probably
in
there into 3
6
Ibid.,I6. Ibid.,69.
a
ORIGEN'S
80
THEOLOGY
Tyre, probably in 251 (254?) as a consequence of purer spirit of the cruelties he had undergone. No man or the historyof the ancient church. nobler aims ornaments of many-sided scholarship.The field to man a Origen was in Csesarea
which
or
devoted
he
most
attention
that
was
of Biblical text-
his exegesis. Here his chief productions were and four parallel monumental Hexapla, giving the Hebrew Greek translations of the Old Testament; and a long series of and briefer notes commentaries treating nearly the entire the most valuable work that had of Scripture. It was range yet been done by any Christian scholar. In the field of thewritten before 231, was not merely the \/)logyhis De Principiis, but its first great systematic presentationof Christianity, thenceforth controlled Greek dogmatic thoughts and methods 246 and development. His Against Celsus, written between that heathen 248, in replyto the ablest criticism of Christianity ism had produced that of the Platonist Celsus (c.177) was the keenest and most convincingdefense of the Christian faith that the ancient world brought forth,and one fullyworthy of
criticism and
"
"
the
v
greatness of the controversy.
Besides
these
monumental
undertakings he found time for the discussion of practical Christian themes, such as prayer and martyrdom, and for the His was indeed a life of un sermons. preparationof many wearied industry. In Origen the process was complete which had long been of Hellenic thinking. interpretingChristian truths in terms He gave to the Christian system the fullest scientific standing, almost entirely tested by the science of that age, which was as comprised in philosophy and ethics. His philosophicstand Platonic and Stoic,with a decided leaning pointwas essentially toward positionssimilar to those of the risingNeo-Platonism, the lectures of whose founder, Ammonius Saccas, he is said to he sought to bring have heard.1 These philosophicprinciples fellow into harmony with the Scriptures, his great Hebrew as of Philo, had done, by allegorical interpretation townsman, All normal the Bible. Scripture,he held, has a threefold be edified by the 'flesh' as meaning. "The simple man may of the Scriptures, the obvious sense it were for so we name' ; edified while he who be has ascended certain way a by may the soul as it were receive edifithe man perfect ; may '
'
.
iEusebius, Church
.
.
History, 6: 196.
THEOLOGY
OUIGEX'S
the spiritual law, which
cation from
things to so spirit,
For
come.
in the
same
way
system enabled
Origen to Scriptures.
the
As
a
"which
posited that
for his
differs in
tradition." apostolical
and
tional
of
Lord
our
ecclesiastical
respect from
no
These
"in
tradi
of
fundamentals
the
God
one
.
Christ, [who] Himself
Jesus
good
soul and
and
theological system, Origen
Christianityinclude belief (1)
Father
of
shadow
a
body does Scripture."1 This allegorical read practically what he wished into
foundation
necessary
has
consists of
man
as
81
.
.
the
gave
law
of the the prophets and the Gospels,being also the God Apostlesand of the Old and New Testaments" ; (2) "that Jesus and
Christ Himself .
.
became .
a
.
while made born of
a
.
a
.
wards and
and and
incarnate
was
remained
man
.
Father
and
man,
Virgin did trulydie the Holy Spiritwas .
born of the Father
was
.
.
.
.
.
which
truly born and did trulyrise from
associated in honor
the Son"
although God, and He
did
was
.
.
the God
before all creatures
was
.
.
truly suffer
the dead"
and
.
;
was
and
(3) "that
dignitywith the
(4) in the resurrection and in future re punishments ; (5) in free will ; (6) in the existence
of opposition
;
angels; (7) that the world in time and will "be destroyed on made of its account was wickedness" written by the Spirit were ; (8) "that the Scriptures of God that there are certain angels of God, and cer ; (9) tain good influences which are His servants in accomplishingthe "
the devil and
his
"
salvation
of men."
tians,learned
3
These
essential beliefs for all Chris
are
unlearned, as taught by the church; and
and
on
them
Origen proceeded to erect his mighty fabric of systematic for him who would theology that explanationof Christianity add to his faith knowledge. Origen'sconception of the universe was strongly Platonic. The real world is the spiritual realitybehind this temporary, In that world great transactions phenomenal, visible world. have had their place. There, as with Plato, our existed. spirits "
There
sin firstentered.
will return. all. From
Him
the sun."
1
De
3
All ibid.
we
and thither the redeemed fell,
is the God, the uncreated,perfectSpirit,
the Son is eternally generated.
is as eternal and from
There
as everlasting 4
Principiis,4 4
Yet
Christ
the
111 ;
His
which brilliancy
is "a
Ayer, pp. 200, 201. De Principiis,1 : 24.
:
"
second
God."
2
De
5
Celsus,539.
source
of
generation is
produced
5
a
"crea-
Principiis,Preface.
ORIGEN'S
82
ture."
Christ's
Loofs has
as position,
the
by Origen as
THEOLOGY
same
the Neo-Platonic
that of the
as
"
"
is the "mediator''
He
system.
pointed out, was viewed nous mind, thought in between
God
His world
and
of creatures, the being through whom they were of these is the creatures Highest Holy Spirit,whom
made.
reckons
Origen
the
to
tion,but for whom
Godhead, by
he has
of
reason
churchly tradi
necessityin his system. All spiritual of men, made beings,includingthe spirits were world. "He by God, through the Son, in the true spiritual than had no other reason for creatingthem of account on 1 Himself, i. e. His own goodness." All were good,though their "an accidental and perisha goodness,unlike that of God, was ble quality."2 All had free will. Hence fell by sin in some the invisible spiritual It was world. as a placeof punishment and of reform that God created this visible universe,placing fallen spirits therein in proportionto the heinousness of their sins. The least sinful are angelsand have as bodies the stars. of greater sinfulness
Those
animal
souls,also,and
kind.
The
worst
Salvation
unitingwith existence and
a
at the
was
given
the
but
divine.3
resurrection and
glory of His
sinned in
here
Christ
divinity,and
there
Him
not
by its previous man,
God
was
and
ascension Christ's
transformation
That
"From
3. disciple
Logos-Son becoming
While
body.
pure
; but
man
the
soul that had
human
a
on
demons, led by the devil himself.
wrought by
was
the face of the earth, with bodies. They constitute man
are
mortal the
are
real
no
Christ
began the
is
no
humanity longer human
effects for all His union
of the divine
with the human
nature, in order that the human, by commu nion with the divine,might rise to be divine,not in Jesus alone, but in all those who which since
very
good ple.5 He a
4
6
with
of the human was
He
sacrificialcharacter
it in interpreted
consistent
ransom
demons.7 1
only believe but enter upon the life than Origen, more theologian any
taught." Paul, emphasized the
the
was
4
Jesus
death ; but he not
not
many
ways,
of which
Christ suffered what
others.
were "
was
for
and an exam representative in some He to God. sense a propitiatory offering paid to the powers of evil.6 He conquered the frustrated their expectation that they could hold race"
as
a
2 Ibid.,1 : 62. Principtis,2 : 96. 5 Ibid,,717 ; Ayer, Ibid.,32". Com. on Matt., 1228,168; Ayer, p. 197,
De
some
Christ's
of
3
Celsus, 341.
p. 197. 7
Com.
on
John,
637.
THEOLOGY
ORIGEN'S
by the bonds
Him end.1
Those
death
into
and
of death
of mankind
who
with
brought their kingdom His
are
to
an
received
are disciples
at
Paradise; the evil find their place in hell. Yet,
not only all men, ultimately,
him
83
will be
saved.2
but
the devil and
even
all
spirits
will be the restoration of all
This
will be all in all.
things,when God r structure Origen's theological of the
achievement
ante-Nicene
Church.
in the Orient. foundly all after-thinking how he could be quoted on either side in and controversies,
thodoxy, how
he
to came
greatest intellectual
is the
It influenced
pro
it is easy to see the later Christological Yet
understand, in the lightof a later rigid or whose views to be regarded as a heretic,
by a synod in his native Alexandria in 399 or 400, by the Emperor Justinian in 443, and by the Fifth General His work was Council in 553. professedlyfor the learned,not condemned
were
for the
it
ence
Christian.
common
strange to
seems
scientific
Clement
its science is not
Because
it gave
But
us.
as
Christianityfull the particular,
In standingin that age. and Origen greatlyadvanced
as
sci
to
the
in the Orient, though Sabell Logos Christology there,and an adoptionistChristoload wide-spread in the bishopof Antioch,Paul nent representative
late
our
an
of
emi
Samosata,
272.
Yet
Origen was
which
he lived.
without
not
Of
serious criticsin the century in
these the
important, theologically, in Lycia, who died about
most
Methodius, bishop of CMfcws, 311. of Asia Minor, Metho Taking his stand on t^padition dius denied Origen'sdoctrines of the soul's pre-existence and imprisonment in this world, and affirmed the resurrection of
was
the
body.
In
SECTION
The
X.
the death
back
much
1
AND
STATE
army
and
empire,and Com.
on
180
FROM
Empire
with
TO
Origen.
260
is usuallyreckoned
Aurelius (180),though its causes Population was diminishing. Trade
fettered
was
compared
of Marcus
further.
industry were passed more the
CHURCH
to be
not
was
visible decline of the Roman
from
The
he ability
more
by heavy
from the hands
largelyrecruited even
Matt., 139.
taxation.
from
The
De
classes.
outlyingprovincesof
from tribes beyond its borders. 2
leadership
of the cultivated the
go
and
Principiis,1
:
From
6l-";Ayer,
p.
the 198.
DECLINE
84
death
OF
GROWTH
OF
CHURCH
(192),it dictated the choice of Emperors,
of Commodus
who, in general,were type of Grseco-Roman whole
EMPIRE,
administrative
very
far from
had
culture,as
machinery
representingthe higher the
Antonines.
The
of the
empire was increasingly and the defense of its borders inadequate. From inefficient, tillthe a military point of view, conditions grew steadilyworse time of Aurelian (270-275), and were hardly securelybettered
tillthat of Diocletian erable pause
(284-305). In other respects no
achieved
in the decline.
Yet
consid
this
periodwas of increasingfeelingof popular unity in the empire. also one the races The lines of distinction between were breakingdown. extended In 212 the Roman was citizenship by Caracalla,not wholly from disinterested motives, to all free inhabitants of the all,from a religious point of view, the close empire. Above of the second
was
and
the whole
of the third centuries
were
an
age
in which syncretism,a period of deepening religious feeling, of the Orient and the mystery religions Christianityalso of their adrapid increase in the number ma^^^xceedingly of
"
the church ^(PPgro^Mpf To
near
beyond
the^KTseof those whose
was
"
extensive
as
well
as
intensive.
the second
century it had penetrated little ordinarytongue was Greek. By the dawn
of the third century the church was rapidlyadvancing in Latinslowly,in Spain and speaking North Africa and, though more
reaching toward, if it had not already arrived in, Britain. In Egypt Christiai^k was now penetrating the while by 19(JBBas well represented native population, in SyriacThe church also reaching more exten was speaking Edessa. into the higher classes of society. It was sivelythan earlier being better understood ; and though Tertullian shows that and gross immorality the old popular slanders of cannibalism stillprevalentin 197,1as the third century went on were they much doubtless have to decreased, seem through growing ac with the real of significance Christianity. quaintance The relations of the state to the church during the period most from 180 to 260 were various,depending on the will of the several Emperors, but, on the whole, such as to aid rather hinder its growth till the last decade of this period. condemned. It had no Christianitywas right to it enjoyed a considerable degree of toleraexiM2 Practically, Gaul, and
Apology,7.
2
Tertullian, Apology, 4.
THE
tion
OF
ATTITUDE
during most
of this
THE
epoch. The
EMPERORS
persecutionwhich
85 had
into the reignof Aurelius continued begun under Marcus Commodus, but he soon neglectedthe church as he did afoul ev pleasures. This rest erythingelse not connected with his own continued tillwell into the reignof SeptimiusSeverus (193-211); of considerable severity, broken in 202 by a persecution but was in Carthage and Egypt. Under Caracalla (211-217), especially persecutionagain raged in North Africa. Elagabalus (218222), though an ardent supporter of sun-worship,was disposed not to a syncretismwhich was openly hostile to Christianity. Alexander favorable. A synSeverus (222-235) was distinctly cretist who would unite many he placed a bust of religions, Christ in his privatechapel along with images of leaders of other faiths; while his mother, Julia Mamsea, under whose in fluence he stood, heard lectures by Origen. He even decided should a dispute as to whether a piece of property in Rome be used by its Christian claimants, doubtless as a place of worship, or by their opponents as a cook-shop, in favor of the Christians. A change of policy came under Maximinus edict against the Christians was is an (235-238), by whom sued, which, though not extensivelyenforced, thrust both the "Catholic" bishop, Pontianus, and his schismatic rival Hipinto the cruel slaveryof the mines, where polytus from Rome they soon lost their lives. In eastern Asia Minor and Palestine this persecutionmade Gordian itself felt. Under (238-244) and till near the end of the reign of Philipthe Arabian (244outbreak 249) the church had rest. For that new Philipwas in no declared rumor responsible.Indeed, an erroneous way him to be secretlya Christian. The number of martyrs in these persecutionswas not large,as Origen testified, writing between and and 246 these outbreaks 248,1 local,if at were times of considerably extent. Though Christians were deprived of all legalprotecting, the average believer must have thought that the conditioi^^f the church was approaching practical safety. This growing feelingof securitywas rudely dispelled.The the celebration of the^thousandth / anniversaryof year 248 saw the founding of Rome. It was time of revival of ancient ^ a traditions and of the memories of former splendors. The em attack or torn threatened by barbarian never pire was more been
1
Celsus,38.
THE
86
PERSECUTION
DECIAN
by internal disputes. The populace attributed these troubles attack broke to the cessation of persecution.1A fierce mob before the death of Philipthe Arabian. To out in Alexandria observant the more heathens the growth of a rigidly organized within the church well that of a state seem might state, the more dangerous that Christians stilllargelyrefused army ser vice or the duties of publicoffice.2 Nearer at hand lay the had grown plausible, though fallacious, argument that as Rome their worshipped by all,so now great when the old gods were their rejectionby a portion of the populationhad cost Rome aid, and This
had
caused
calamities evident
apparently the feelingof the
was
(249-251), and of Decius
whom
the
a
conservative
new
Decius
Emperor, The
result
initiated the first universal and
edict of 250, which
hand.
every
noble,Valerian, with
Roman
intimatelyassociated.
was
on
was
the
systematic
persecutionof Christianity. Decian The persecutionwas by far the worst trial that the because it church as a whole had undergone the more severe had principle and determination behind it. The aim was not and cruel numerous primarilyto take life,though there were martyrdoms, but rather to compel Christians by torture, im prisonment,or fear to sacrifice to the old gods. Bishops Fa and Babylas of Antioch died as martyrs. bian of Rome Origen "
and
hosts of others
tortured.
were
The
number
of these "con
of the the number So, also, was "lapsed" that is,of those who, through fear or torture, sac rificed,burned incense,or procured certificates from friendly
fessors"
was
very
great.
"
they had prescribedby the state.3 Many venal
or
secution mission a
officialsthat
was
over,
returned
to the church.
The
long,enduring schism
(see p. 101). Fierce Valerian
and
what
milder
was
form
as
soon
to
duly worshippedin the form of these lapsed,when the per seek in bitter penitence read-
questionof
caused
their treatment
trouble elsewhere in Rome, and much under Decius it was, the persecution over;
but
only to be renewed
in
some
Gallus
(251-253). In 253 Decius's old associate in persecution, Valerian,obtained possessionof the empire (253-260). Though he at first left the Christians undisturbed, in 257 and 258 he renewed the at tack 1 3
with greater
by
Decius's
successor,
ferocity.Christian assemblies
Origen, Celsus, 316 ; Ayer, p. 206, Ayer, p. 210, for specimens,
2
were
forbid-
Origen, Celsus,873- 76.
a
rather
tradition
Montanism,
which
and
apostolicages, now
POWER
GROWING
88
than
other
among
might a
BISHOPS
THE
OF
possessedby vital reality.The be
causes,
led such
had
any
one,
contest
claims
to
were
with be
re
tradition,however, remained, suspicion. The but it was rapidlychanging into a theory of officialendowment. the official possessionof the clergy, These now "gifts" were the divinelyap of the bishops. The bishops were especially pointed guardians of the deposit of the faith,and therefore the could determine what those who was heresy. They were of constantlyincreasingimpor leaders of worship a matter with the growing conviction,wide-spreadby the beginning tance of the third century, that the ministry is a priesthood. They officers of the congregation though their the disciplinary were authorityin this respect was not firmlyfixed able to say when
garded
with
"
"
"
excommunication
the sinner needed
cient repentance for restoration. Cyprian of Carthage, about 250 of the church
and As
when
given
he showed full
suffi
expressionby
(ante,p. 70), the foundation
is the
unity of the bishops. Christians of a particular The city had been regarded,cer tainlyfrom the beginningof the second century, as constituting a singlecommunity, whether meeting in one congregationor As such they were under the guidance of a single bishop. many. consti civilization was Ancient stronglyurban in its political The tution. adjacent country district looked to its neighbor ing city. Christianityhad been planted in the cities. By in the formed efforts going out from them, congregationswere which came at first into the cityfor their surroundingvillages, have met worship j1but as they grew largermust increasingly Planted by Christians from the cities,they by themselves. immediate under the oversightof the citybishop,whose were thus growing,by the third century, field of superintendence was rural portionsof the East, notably into a diocese. In some weak, Syria and Asia Minor, where cityinfluence was relatively of congregationsdeveloped before the end of country groups the third century, headed by a rural bishop,a chorepiskopos but this system was not of largegrowth,nor XwpeTrio-KOTros the equalsin dignityof their these country bishopsdeemed were The system did not spread to the West at this citybrethren. time, though introduced there in the Middle Ages,only to prove unsatisfactory. "
"
1
Justin,Apology, 67
;
Ayer,
p.
35.
LAITY
AND
CLERGY
89
Cyprian, the episcopatewas a unit, and each bishop a of all its powers, an on equalitywith all other representative in his time this theory was becoming im bishops. Yet even influential practicable.The bishops of the great, politically in dignityover citiesof the epipire were attaininga superiority To
others,which
those of Rome
than
more
even
the rest
were
striv
superiorityof jurisdiction.Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and Ephesus, with Jerusalem of religious sentiment, had an outstandingeminence, by reason ing
to
translate into
a
Besides these greater posts, the bishop of the capitalcityof each province was beginningto be looked Rome
and
most
of all.
in certain superiority to those of lesser towns his region; but the full development of the metropolitandig tillthe fourth century, and earlier in the nity was not to come upon
as
having a
East than in the West.
sharply By the beginning of the third century clergy were the of words Imikis from laity.The technical use distinguished and Ider^s "X%""9 X**/ct5 a gradual development,as was the distinction which they implied. The earliest Christian was employment of the former was by Clement of Rome.1 The lat But /c\i)pos in 1 Peter 53,in wholly untechnical usage. ter occurs for the common and its Latin equivalent, expressions ordo,were of the Roman Em the "orders" of magistratesand dignitaries pire. It is probably from such popular usage that they come letter of the churches of into Christian employment. The Lyons and Vienne, giving a descriptionof the persecutionof Tertullian tc\r)pov.2 177, spoke of the "order" of the martyrs and of "clerical order" "ecclesiastical orders." 3 wrote By if fixed ; even his time the distinction had become practically "
"
"
"
"
Tertullian
himself could
recall,for
earlydoctrine of the priesthoodof laics priests ? 5 we
purposes
all
of argument,
"are believers,4
not
the even
"
by ordination,a rite which certainlygoes back to the earliest days of the church, at least of charismatic gifts, as or a sign of the bestowal separationfor a specialduty.6 The ordinary process of the choice of a nomination a bishop by the middle of the third century was Admission
1
93-97
to
; in 1
3
Monogamy,
5
Compare
6
Acts
clerical office was
Clem., 40. 12.
1 Peter
66, 133; also
25; Rev. 1 Tim.
2
Eusebius, Church
4
Chastity,7.
lfi.
414,522;
2 Tim.
I6.
History, 5
:
I10.
AND
MAJOR
90
MINOR
ORDERS
the presbyters,of the city; by the other clergy,especially the approval of neighboringbishops,and ratification or elec followed at the hands tion by the congregation.1Ordination of episcopalordainof at least one alreadya bishop a number fixed at a normal minimum which had become of three by ers "
of the third century. The control of the choice of the deacons, and lower clergylay in the hand of their presbyters, the end
local
bishop,by
whom
ordained.2
The
Bishop
Fabian
presbyters the bishop'sadvisers. With his consent were they adminis tered the sacraments.3 They preached. As congregations in a city,a presbyterwould be placed in more numerous grew immediate charge of each, and their importance thereby en hanced, from its relative depression, immediately after the rise of the monarchical fixed limit to no episcopate. There was their number. The deacons were immediately responsibleto the bishop,and were of the poor and his assistants in the care other financial concerns, in aidingin the worshipand discipline. They often stood in closer practicalrelations to him than the presbyters. At Rome, the number of the deacons was seven, in remembrance
adopted
the
they
of Acts
65.
were
When
civil division of the
city as
he appointed seven sub-deacons districts, deacons, that the primitivenumber seven Sub-deacons
also existed in
passed. Cyprian, and quitegenerallyat parts of the church there
was
a
no
its fourteen
charity
in addition
might
Carthage
littlelater fixed rule
(236-250)
sur
in the time
period.
as
be
not
the
to
of
In many
to the number
of
deacons.
Bishops, presbyters,and orders.
Below
them
century, the minor
deacons
there stood
constituted
the
major
in the first half of the third
generalabsence of all sta tistical information as to the early church, a letter of Bishop Cornelius of Rome, written about 251, is of high value as Under the single showingconditions in that important church. there were bishop in Rome forty-sixpresbyters and seven deacons. Below to be were soon them, constitutingwhat known the minor orders,were as sub-deacons, forty-two seven and More acolytes, exorcists, readers,and janitors.4 fifty-two orders.
In the
1
Cyprian, Letters,51-558, 66-6S2, 67*.
2
Ibid.,23-29, 33-S95, 34-40, Tertullian,Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Eusebius, Church History, 6 : 4311.
3 4
5.
THE
LESSER
CLERGY
91
than fifteenhundred dependentswere supportedby the church, have included thirtythousand which adherents. Some may of these offices
continued
Exorcists
be
to
so
viewed
officers. By prc/perly
there
er's office was
byter.*
ancient
origin. Those of readers originallybeen regarded as charismatic.
exorcists had
and not
of very
were
The
thought
a
in the
the time
of
Orient, and
were
Cyprian the
read
preparatory step toward
exorcist's task
to
was
that of pres evil spirits, in
drive out firmly believed.
Of the prevalent working the age duties of acolyteslittleis known that they were assistants save in service and aid. They were not to be found in the Orient. The janitorswere the important when it became especially but the baptized to the more sacred custom to admit none parts of the service. In the East, though not in the West,
whose
deaconesses sense
and
as was
women,
to be found
were
of the
reckoned
were
clergy. Their originwas
in
certain
a
probably charismatic
those of care high antiquity.2 Their tasks were the ill. Besides these deaconesses there especially of
to be found
in the
churches, both East and West,
"widows," whose
as
who
and
originwas
likewise ancient.3
a
for were
class known Their duties
aid to the
of their own sick,especially sex. held in high honor, though hardly to be reckoned They were properlyas of the clergy." All these were supported,in whole in part, by the gifts of the congregation, which were of large or both of eatables and of money.4 These amount, giftswere looked upon, by the time of Cyprian, as "tithes,"and were all of the bishop.5By the middle of the third cen at the disposal expected to give their whole time tury the higher clergywere of the ministry;6 to the work bishopssometimes shared yet even in secular business,not always of a commendable character. in trades. It is evident, The lower clergy could still engage however, that though the ancient doctrine of the priesthood of all believers might stilloccasionally be remembered, it had a Christian lifethe clergy, purely theoretical value. In practical a distinct,close-knit by the middle of the third century were the laitywere rank, on whom spiritual religiously dependent, and who were in turn supported by laymen's gifts. were
prayer
"
1 4
2 Romans 3 161. 1 Tim. 59- 10. Letters,335. 13 67 Justin,Apology, Teaching, Apology, 39 ; Tertullian, ;
;
Ayer,
35, 41. 6
Letters,65-11.
6
Cyprian, Lapsed,
6.
pp.
WORSHIP
PUBLIC
92
PUBLIC
XII.
SECTION
WORSHIP
AND
SACRED
SEASONS
Already,by the time of Justin (153),the primitivedivision for prayer and instruction of worship into two assemblies,one and the other for the Lord's Supper in connection with a com The Lord's Supper was meal had ceased. the crown now mon ing act of the service of worship and edification.1 Its separa meal was tion from the common of now complete. The course determined development during the succeeding century was by the prevalenceof ideas drawn from the mystery religions. is no There adequate ground to believe that there was inten Christians
tional imitation.
lived in
the third centuries influences
they
this direction church
atmosphere highlycharged with
an
these
and
faiths.
It
but
was
natural
that
look upon their own It is probable that
should
of view.
the
from
sprung
of the last half of the second
were
by
worship from the same point already existingtendencies in stronglyreinforced by the great growth of
conversion
the third century. The church came
to be
from
heathenism
and
in the first half of
regarded as possessed of life-giving mysteries,under the superintendenceand dis prepared for initiation pensationof the clergy. Inquirerswere Such preparation,in some by instruction the catechumens. now degree,had existed from the apostolicdays. It was sys in school in tematized. celebrated an Origen taught already in 203. Alexandria Cyprian shows that in Carthage,by about in charge of an officer designatedby 250, such instruction was followed by the great initiatory the bishop.2 Instruction was rite of baptism (seeSection XIII), which granted admission to sacrifice of the life-giving the propitiatory mystery of the Lord's Supper (seeSection XIV). As in the time of Justin,the other of worship consisted of Scripturereading,preaching, elements and hymns. These to all honest were inquirers. open prayers, all of the barred but those The analogy mystery religions initiate or about to be initiate from presence at baptism or the Lord's augmentation of the Supper, and led to a constant sacred elements of valuation placed on these rites as the most the custom had arisen by the third century worship. Whether in which of regardingthese sacraments secret as a discipline, more
more
"
the exact 1
words
of the Creed
Justin,Apology, 67
;
Ay
and
or, p. 35.
of the Lord's
Prayer 2
were
Letters,23-29.
for
93
SEASONS
SACRED
of which
the first time imparted to the baptized,and tion were
was
to
be made
wide-spread in
the third
the forces
the fourth and were
work
at
fifth centuries. which
were
no
Such
to the profane,is uncertain.
men
usages
Already
in
lead to the
to
practices. Sunday was the chief occasion of worship,yet services were beginning to be held on week-days as well. Wednesday and Friday,as earlier (ante,p. 43), were days of fasting. The great the Easter season. The period immedi of the year was event of Christ's of fastingin commemoration one ately before was differed in various parts of the empire. sufferings.Customs held in remembrance fast and vigilwas In Rome a fortyhours' This was of Christ's rest in the grave. extended, by the time All fasting of the Council of Nicsea (325) to a fortydays Lent. of Easter morning, and the Pentecostal ended with the dawn no period of rejoicingthen began. In that time there was fasting,or kneelingin prayer in public worship.1 Easter eve for baptism, that the newly initiate the favorite season was in the Easter joy. Beside these fixed seasons, might participate the martyrs
were
with
commemorated
celebration
of the Lord's
Prayers for the Supper annually on the days of their deaths.2 in general,and their remembrance dead by offeringson the in use anniversaries of their decease, were by the earlypart of the third century.3 Relics of martyrs had been held in high full of the second century.4 The since the middle veneration but the development of saint-worshiphad not yet come; of church was honoring with peculiardevotion the memory the
athletes of the Christian
lives dear unto
race
who
had
not
counted
their
themselves.
SECTION
XIII.
BAPTISM
Christianity.The rite gave to John, He the "Forerunner," his name. baptized Jesus. His dis ciplesand those of Jesus baptized,though Jesus Himself did not.5 The originof the rite is uncertain ; but it was probably Baptism is older
than
1
Tertullian,Corona, 3. Letter of the Church of Smyrna on Martyrdom Letters,33-393; 36-122. 3 10. Tertullian,Corona, 3 ; Monogamy, 4 Letter of Smyrna, as cited,18. 5 John 322,41- 2. -
of Polycarp,
18 ;
"
Cyprian,
REGARDING
DOCTRINE
94 .
BAPTISM
washings. Jewish teaching, traceable probably to a period as early as the time of Christ, faith not merely to be cir requiredproselytesto the Hebrew cumcised, but to be baptized.1It seems probable that John did not invent the rite, and simply used contemporary practice. It was that fol a fittingsymbol of the spiritual purification lowed the repentance that he preached. The mystery religions had equivalentrites (ante,p. 10) ; but so purely Jewish was that primitiveChristianity to which baptism belongs,that it is inconceivable that they should have had any effect on the originof the practice, though they were profoundlyto influence its development on Gentile soil. Peter represents baptism as the rite of admission to the church, and to the receptionof the of admission Holy Spirit.2 As the sacrament baptism al stood till the religiousdivisions of post-Reformation ways days. It so stands for the vast majority of Christians at a
of the spiritualization
old Levitical
present. With
Paul, baptism from sin,3it involved a tion in His did not that
death
think
of the
and
was
not
merely the symbol of cleansing
relation to Christ,4and resurrection.5 Though Paul new
baptism essential
to
a
participa apparently
salvation6 his view
approached
and his con religions almost magical conception
initiations of the mystery
in
Corinth, at least,held an of the rite,being baptized in behalf of their dead friends, that the departed might be benefited thereby.7 Baptism soon be regarded as to came indispensable.The writer of the fourth Gospel representedChrist as declaring : Verily,I say he and the Spirit, unto be born of water thee, except a man 8 The appendix to Mark cannot enter the Kingdom of God." picturedthe risen Christ as saying: He that believeth and is baptizedshall be saved."9 This conviction but deepened. To of the Hernias the very foundation (115-140), baptism was church, which "is builded upon waters." 10 Even to the phil osophicalJustin (153) baptism effected "regeneration" and verts
"
"
"illumination."
n
In Tertullian's estimate it conveyed eternal
lifeitself.12 1 2
See Schiirer,Geschichte des Judischen Acts 23" ; see also 2" ; 1 Cor. 1213.
6
Romans
8
John
11
64 ; Col. 212. 35.
Apology,
61 ;
Ayer,
p. 33.
Volkes,2569-573. 3
1 Cor. 611.
4
Gal
6
1 Cor. I14-17.
7
1 Cor. 1529.
9
Mark
12
1616.
Baptism,
1.
10
32". 27.
Vis., 33.
OF
MODE
96 ents
would
not
BAPTISM
their children fail of
have
enteringthe Kingdom
universal baptism did not, however, become tillthe sixth century, largelythrough the feeling alreadynoted should be in Tertullian,that so cleansinga sacrament not lightlyused. of baptism, it is probable that the original As to the method form was by immersion, complete or partial. That is implied Infant
of God.
in Romans would
seem
64 and to
The
Colossians
indicate fullest
that
212.
Pictures submersion
the
early evidence
"
in
cold, then
pour
water
of the Son
of the
recognizedform
a
Immersion
warm.
the head
upon
and
in
of
continued
But
always Teaching:
not
was
of the Son
and
; and
if thou
hast
of the
hast not
if thou
But
if thou
thrice in the
catacombs
is that of the
complete. of the Father and Baptize in the name Holy Spiritin living[running]water. livingwater, then baptize in other water able
in the
art
neither,then
of the Father
name
not
and
Holy Spirit."1 Affusion was, therefore, baptism. Cyprian cordiallyupheld it.2 late the prevailingpractice till the
The Ages in the West; in the East it so remains. Teaching and Justin show that fastingand an expressionof belief,together with an agreement to live the Christian life prerequisites.By the time of Tertullian an were necessary elaborate ritual had developed. The ceremony began with the formal renunciation by the candidate of the devil and all his On followed the threefold immersion. works. Then coming mixture of milk from the fount the newly baptized tasted a babe and honey, in symbolism of his condition as a new-born succeeded that in Christ. To anointing with oil and the layingon of the hands of the baptizerin token of the reception later known of the Holy Spirit.3Baptism and what as was Middle
confirmation earliest
now
were
thus
known
Tertullian
combined.
existence of Christian of
also shows
the
i. e.,
god
sponsors,
charac
fastingand
customs parents.4 The same sponsors terized the worship of Isis. administered doubtless In the apostolicage baptism was, not only by Apostles and other leaders,but widely by those eminent in the church. By 110-117 Ignatius, charismatically in the interest of unity, was urging, "it is not lawful apart /
1 3
2
7 ;
Ayer, p. 38. Tertullian,Baptism,
6-8
;
Corona,
3.
4
Letters,75-6912. Baptism, 18.
VALID from
the
bishop either
BAPTISM
97
baptize or to hold a love-feast."1 In Tertullian's time, of giving it,the chief priest, who is the bishop, has the right; in the next place the presbytersand deacons besides these even laymen have the right,for what is equallyreceived can be equallygiven."2 In the Greek and Roman Cfeurches baptism stillcontinues the only sacrament which any Christian,or indeed intendingperson, any seriously in administer of can case necessity. to
"
.
The
.
.
middle
of the third century saw discussion over a heated the validityof heretical baptism. Tertullian had regarded it
worthless;3and
as
of his time.
his
was
undoubtedlythe prevalentopinion
After the Novatian
schism
(see p. 102) Bishop Stephen of Rome (254-257) advanced the claim that baptism, effectual if done in even by heretics, was form. His proper motives seem to have been partly the growing feelingthat of value in themselves,irrespective sacraments are of the char of the administrant, and partly a desire to facilitatethe acter of the followers of Novatian.
return
resisted by Cyprian energetically
Stephen
Cappadocia,4and led authorityof the Roman
and
Cyprian
was interpretation Carthage,and Firmilian
of
of Caesarea in
tions of the
This
to
certain
important asser
bishop.
The
deaths
of
the dispute; but the Roman view grew into generalacceptance in the West. The East reached no such unanimity of judgment.
SECTION
Some the
XIV.
has been
account
doctrine of the Lord's
been mon
gave
seen
a
THE
to
pause
LORD'S
SUPPER
given of the early development of Supper (ante,pp. 23, 40). It has
that "breaking of bread," in connection
meal,
was
a
Christian
practicefrom
the
with
a
beginning.
com
From
the time of Paul, certainly, it was believed to be by command of Christ Himself, and in peculiarremembrance of Him and of His death. Outside the New Testament three writers refer to the Lord's Supper before the Of these the age of Irenseus. account
in the
conditions.
It
"didst bestow 1 3 5
Teaching? reflectsthe most primitiveChristian provides a simple liturgyof gratitude. Thou
upon
Smyrna,,8 ; Ayer, Baptism, 15. 9-11; Ayer,
p. 38.
us
food spiritual
p. 42.
and 2
"
drink
and
eternal life
Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Cyprian, Letters,09-76.
CHRIST'S
98
PRESENCE
IN
THE
SUPPER
From "life and knowledge." Christ come through Thy Son." A more mystical explanationof the Supper, however, began early. John 647'58teaches the necessityof eatingthe flesh and drinkingthe blood of Christ to have "life." To Ignatiusthe Supper "is the medicine of immortality,and the antidote that we
should
not
as
not
die but bread
common
l
live forever."
and
common
Christ
Justin
drink do
affirmed, "for
receive these ; Saviour, having been we
but
in like
made
of God, had both flesh and blood for flesh by the Word salvation,so likewise have we been taught that the food
our
which
manner
as
Jesus
our
is blessed
by the prayer of His Word, and from which blood and flesh by transmutation nourished, is the flesh our are made and blood of that Jesus who was flesh." 2 By Justin's time (153) the Lord's Supper was already separated from the meal. Irenseus continued and developed the thought common of the fourth Gospel and of Ignatiusthat the Supper confers "life." "For as the bread, which is produced from the earth, when it receives the invocation of God, is no longer common bread but the Eucharist,consisting of two realities, earthlyand heavenly ; so also our bodies,when they receive the Eucharist, are no longer corruptible, having the hope of the resurrec 3 tion to eternity." In how far these conceptions were due with their teaching that sharing a to the mystery religions, meal with the god is to become a partakerof the divine nature, is difficultto decide; but they undoubtedly grew of the out habit of thought. It may be said that, by the middle same of the second century, the conception of a real presence of Christ in the Supper was wide-spread. It was stronger in the West also there. than in the East, but ultimatelyit won its way In early Christian thought not only were believers them selves "a livingsacrifice, holy, acceptableto God," 4 but all sacrificial. The leaders of the church actions of worship were "offered the giftsof the bishop'soffice."5 All its membership could
good and communicate," "for with such sacrifices God is well pleased."6 In particular, the Lord's Supper was 7 and this feelingwas doubtless strengthenedby a sacrifice," the circumstance that it was the occasion of the giftsof the "do
"
1 3 5 7
Eph., 20. Heresies,4 : 185 ; Ayer, pp. 138, 139. 1 Clem., 44; Ayer, p. 37. Teaching, 14 ; Ayer, p. 41.
2
Apology,
4
Romans
6
Heb.
66 ; 121.
1316.
Ayer,
p. 34.
THE
A
SUPPER
congregation for those in need.1 while viewing the Lord's Supper all Christian
that
still held
SACRIFICE As
late
99
writer
a
Irenseus, "sacrifice,"
as
pre-eminently a
as
actions
also
are
of
a
sacrificial
in a world where sacri Christianity,however, was familiar definite nature ficialconceptions of a much were more hand. in the religionson Sacrifice demands a priest. every character.2
the
Tertullian
With
sacerdos
term
first
into full use.3
comes
developed doctrine of the Lord's Supper sacrifice offered to God by a priesthas been fullyreached. a as Lord and God, is Himself if Jesus Christ, our "For the chief priestof God the Father, and has first offered Himself a sacri this to be done in com fice to the Father, and has commanded of Himself, certainlythat priesttruly discharges memoration imitates that which Christ did ; and the office of Christ, who With
he then
offers
proceeds "to
a
offer it
to
4
the
serve
full sacrifice in the
and
true
offered."
have
to
the
Cyprian
according and
Already by
Tertullian's
commemoration
of
the
to
he the
Christian
celebrate
the
divine
the
time dead.6
Lord's
Supper shows
Cyprian
when
Christ
sees
of
business
The
altar
what
to
church
he
Himself
priest is
sacrifices."5 held
was
such
"sacri
of the life-giving martyrs.7 The sense quality the infant of the Supper led, also,to custom communion, in the doctrine which Cyprian is a witness.8 Here, as the conception of the Supper as Christ's physical presence,
fices"
for
sacrifice did
(a) that
a
God
was
earlier in the
West
than
in the
East.
of of of a
It
before 300. With general in the Orient much "Catholic" evident as conception of the Supper was in which Christ is reallypresent (the how of sacrament
not
it the
to
in
become
presence
was
not
to
be
much
discussed
till the
Middle
the believer partakes of Christ, being Ages), and in which and built up to the im thereby brought into union with Him life ; and mortal (b) a sacrifice offered to God by a priestand Much incliningGod to be gracious to the livingand the dead. stillleft obscure, but the essentials of the "Catholic" view was already at hand by 253. were 1 3 6 7
Justin, Apology, 67; Ayer, Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Ibid., 671.
Letters,33-S93.
p. 35.
2 * 6 8
Heresies, 4 : 175, Letters,62-6314. Chastity, 11.
Lapsed,
25.
IS3.
SECTION
fess
sins,He
our
sins."
l
there
But
BE
FORGIVEN
FORGIVENESS
XV.
generalview
The
CAN
SINS
WHAT
100
OF
SINS
"
of
if we earlyChristianitywas that is faithful and righteousto forgiveus sins so bad that they could not be were
con our
for
death."2 Just what "unto this "sin unto given,they were It was uncertain. death" one opinion that it might be, was was rejectionof the Holy Spirit. Mark represents Christ as shall blaspheme againstthe Holy Spirit Whosoever saying: but is guiltyof an eternal sin" (329). hath never forgiveness, The Teaching held that "any prophet speaking in the Spirit, "
given,but this sin ing was, however, denial
first-named
in the New
be found
can
of Hebrews
writer
sins"
were
No
severer
denunciations
those directed
than
of Hermas
tism.5
was
This
was
modification
some
world, one
tice
was
re
as
toward
the
the
after it, cleansingall previoussins,those committed class just described,were "deadly." But the tendency
garded was
by
as
fornication,false-witness and fraud." 4 While, by the time of Hermas (115-140), baptism of the
The
the "crucify to themselves (64'8,1026'31).To Tertullian the "deadly "idolatry,blasphemy, murder, adultery,
seven,
such
licentiousness.
gross
Testament
toward
afresh"
of God
Son
that
be
speciallyhopeless.
was
for
forgiven."3 The generalfeel the unforgivablesins were idolatryor
shall not
faith, murder, and
the
of
sin shall be
try neither discern; for every
shall not
ye
of this
The strictffc^s.
that, by exception,in view further
extended
elsewhere
repentance had to
even
been
end
near
of
granted after bap
adultery.6 Yet
milder, in the second
church
century, than
prac
church
of the
reclaiming of an whole time in the exercise of public adulteress,who confession." 7 In Tertullian's time the feelingwas that there was one repentance possiblefor deadly sins after baptism of aid against hell""now for all, "a second reserve once theory.
Irenaeus
of the
burden
gives an "spent her
account
"
-
because tion
was
sion,an to weep 1 4
6
1 John
now
to
for the second
time, but
be, if at all,only after
"exomologesis,""to and
make
I9.
Against Marcion, Ibid.,41.
feed
outcries unto 2
7
Heresies,1
:
135.
8
Restora
humiliatingpublicconfes to groan, on fastings, prayers
the Lord
5
49.
more."
a
3
Ibid.,516.
never
8
your
God
;
to
bow
Ayer, p. 40. Man., 43 ; Ayer, pp. 43, 44. Repentance, 7, 12. 11 ;
PEXAXCE
RESTORATION
AND
101
presbyters,and kneel to God's dear ones." l Yet practicewas far from universally as rigorousas would Tertullian imply. The questioninevitablyarose sinner had done to when as a enough to be restored. The feelingappeared early that the divinely lodged in the congregation.2 absolving pdwer was also regarded as directlycommitted This authority was to when such devel to church and, by implication, Peter,; officers, a double practiceprevailed. About to oped.3 But, curiously, the
before
be
feet of the
and
confessors,i. e,, those who deemed imprisonment for their faith,were martyrs
or
solve
because
filled with
the
Spirit.4This
endured
tortures
also able to ab twofold
authority were Many Cyprian, in had trouble on this score.5 Naturallybishopstried particular, to repress this rightof confessors ; but it remained a popular till cessation of Absolution the persecution. opinion ultimately the of scale of standard raised to when a as question a penance, but that develop enough had been done to justifyforgiveness, of is beyond the limits the present period. It is not to ment of the confessors
led to abuse.
be found
till about
These
lax.
300.
which restorations,
of the licentious,6 particularly
were
deemed
it came however common as exceptional, ; and ascetic like Tertullian, shock, at least to a rigidMontanist a when the aggressiveRoman bishop,Kallistos (217-222), (ante, were
75), who
p.
in his
own
had
himself been which
name,
is
papal authority,that he repentance.7 This proper list of "sins unto
tice may In
have
a
confessor,issued
a
landmark
would was
absolve
development
sins of the
breach official
an
death," whatever
actual
flesh
in the
breach
of
on
a
popular
earlier prac
made.
judgment, denial
common
in the
declaration
a
these offenses, and
of the faith
Kallistos
the worst
was
of
had
promised pardon raised on a tremendous scale by question was the Decian persecution. Thousands lapsed and sought res toration after the storm In Rome, was over. Bishop Fabian for that.
died
a
not
even
The
martyr
in 250.
The
Roman
Church
rent
was
on
the
A disputebeginning in personal questionof their treatment. not at first involvingthe lapsed,resulted in the antipathies, 1 4
6
Repentance, 9. Tertullian,Modesty, Tertullian,Modesty,
2
22. 22.
6 '
Matt. 1815-1S.
3
Ibid.,1G1*. Letters,17-20, 20-21, 21-22, 22-27. Tertullian,Modesty, 1.
19.
SINS
ALL
102
MAY
BE
FORGIVEN
by the majority of Cornelius,a comparative nobody, as Novatian, the most distinguishedtheologianin bishop over Rome The (ante,p. 75). The minoritysupported Novatian. of the lapsed, advocated the milder treatment majority soon advanced while Novatian to the rigorist position. Novatian that lasted till the seventh began a schism century, and founded protestingchurches wide-spread in the empire. He renewed the older practiceand denied restoration to all guilty of "sins unto death." His was a lost cause. Synods in Rome and Carthage in 251 and 253, representative of the majority, permitted the restoration of the lapsed,under strict conditions of penance. to arise again in the Though the questionwas persecutionunder Diocletian,which began in 303,1 and though varied practicelong continued in different parts of the church, in 251 was the decision in Rome ultimatelyregulative.All sins were therebyforgivable.The old distinction continued in name, but it was henceforth only between great sins and small. choice
SECTION
XVI.
THE
COMPOSITION
THE
HIGHER
AND
LOWER
the church
THE
AND
CHURCH
MORALITY
undoubtedly conceived composed exclusivelyof experientialChristians.2 There as who needed discipline in it,3 but Paul could paint bad men were ideal pictureof the church as "not having spot or wrinkle an such thing."4 It was natural that this should be so. or any faith. Those who embraced it as a new Christianitycame did so as a result of personalconviction,and at the cost of no little sacrifice. It was long the feelingthat the church is a and women. Even true then, it was community of saved men that many were unworthy. This is Hermas's complaint. The In
oldest "
apostolictimes
OF
outside the New
sermon
was
Testament
has
a
modern
sound.
they hear from our mouth the oracles of God, marvel at them for their beauty and greatness ; then, when they discover that our works are not worthy of the words which we speak,forthwith they betake themselves to blasphemy, saying that it is an idle story and a delusion." 5 Yet, in spite of the recognition But the of these facts the theory continued. For
the Gentiles
1
The
2
Romans
Melitian
3
E. g., I Cor. 51-13.
I7;
when
schism, Donatists. 1*; 2 Cor. I1; Col.
1 Cor.
4
Eph.
I2.
527.
6
2
Clem., 13.
MORALITY
LOWER
AND
HIGHER
104
kingdom of heaven's sake," and that, "in the resurrection they neither nor are given in marriage, but are as angels."1 Paul marry and to widows, it is good for them said "to the unmarried I." if they abide even as Voluntary poverty and voluntary advice impossibleof fulfil celibacywere, therefore,deemed ment by all Christians,indeed, but conferringspecialmerit About these two those who conceptions practisedthem. on to be the all earlyChristian asceticism centred, and they were that
also declared
He
foundation
some
"eunuchs
are
of monasticism
stones
when
for the
that system
arose
at
clergy should set a second marriage discour specially good example, not only was age;3but, by the beginning of the aged from the sub-apostolic deemed office was third century, marriage after entering on life of celibacy,poverty, and contempla The unallowable.4 third century.
close of the
the
tive retirement
from
As
the
the activities of the world
admired
was
though as yet widely practised, without separationfrom society. The road to full monasticism had been fairlyentered. as Probably the most unfortunate the that it tended to discourage pect of this double ideal was efforts of the ordinary Christian. the Christian
as
ideal,and
XVII.
SECTION
was
REST
AND
GROWTH,
260-303
affected by the edict of end of the period of persecution than forty years of followed by more Gallienus,in 260, was The
protection Legally,the church had no more than before,and the able Emperor Aurelian (270-275) is said renewal of persecutionwhen intended prevented by to have a it apparently did not to the death. Even with him come
practical peace.
proclamationof
a
new
hostile edict.
The
chief feature
of this
rapid growth of Christianity.By 300 Christirepresentedin all parts of the empire. effectively influential in the Its distribution was very unequal,but it was central provincesof political importance,in Asia Minor, Mace donia, Syria,Egypt, northern Africa, central Italy,southern in the social its upward progress Gaul and Spain. Nor was
epoch was anity was
1 3
Matt., 1912,2230. 1 Tim. 32, see also Hermas, in general. Hippolytus, Refutation,97.
Christians 4
the
2
Man.,
44, against second
1 Cor. 78.
marriage of
scale less significant. During this of
government and
^it began As
late
as
now
periodit won
246-248
the best that
on
Origen
a
105 many
considerable
could
thingby prayingfor the
success
of the
scale.
in
reply to their duty to the say
Celsus's criticism that Christians failed of that Christians state service,was by refusal of army better
officers
important of all,
Most
imperialservants.
penetrate the army
to
CHURCH
THE
OE
GROWTH
RAPID
did
a
Emperor.1 Origen
and defends Christian unwillingness also expresses to assume then Christians had the burdens of governmentaloffice.2 P"en
armies;3 but Origen undoubt long been found in the Roman edly voiced prevalent Christian feelingin the middle of the third century. By its end both Christian feelingand practice had largelychanged. of greatlyincreasing This period of rapid growth was one conformityto worldly influences also. How far this sometimes The Council of Elvira, show. went a singleillustration may Granada, in Spain (c.313), provided that Christians who now the garments of heathen priesthoodcould as magistrateswore be restored after two provided they had not years'penance, actuallysacrificed or paid for sacrifice.4 As compared with the first half of the third century, its latter portion was a period of little literaryproductivityor in Christian of the circles. No names theologicoriginality eminent was that of Dionysius, firstrank appeared. The most who held the bishopric of Alexandria (247-264),a pupilof Origen like him
and
for
a
time
head of the famous
catechetical
school.
extended, Through his writingsthe influence of Origen was in generaldominant and the great theologian's thoughts were the wide in that period in the East. Dionysius combated spread Eastern Sabellianism. He also began the practiceof sending letters to his clergy,notifyingthem of the date of Easter custom a soon largelydeveloped by the greater bish oprics,and made the vehicle of admonition, doctrinal defini "
tion, and controversy. Beside the Sabellianism,which Dio was vigorouslyrep nysius combated, Dynamic Monarchianism of Samosata resented in Antioch till272 (ante,p. 72). by Paul
administratively giftedbishop held a high executive posi Antioch be tion under Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to whom by the Emperor longed for a period before her overthrow
This
1
Celsus, S73.
3
E.g., Tertullian,Corona,
2
1.
7"4/.,875.
v/ NEO-PLATONISM
106
Paul's opponents, being unable
Aurelian.
to
deprive him
of
the church
building, appealed to Aurelian,who those to whom decided that it rightfully the belonged to should adjudge it." 1 bishopsof Italyand of the cityof Rome moved Doubtless Aurelian was considerations in by political but this Christian reference to imperialau this adjudication, and the Emperor's deference to the judgment of Rome thority, were significant. With Antioch of this periodis to be associated the foundation littleis known of of a school of theologyby Lucian, of whom that he was detail,save a biographical presbyter,held aloof Paul from the party in Antioch which opposed and overcame of Samosata, taught there from c. 275 to c. 303, and died a martyr'sdeath in 312. Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia were his pupils, and the supposition is probablethat his views were Like Origen,he busied himself largelyreproduced in them. with textual and exegetical labors on the Scriptures, but had little likingfor the allegorizing of the great Alexan methods drian. A simpler,more grammatical and historical method possessionof
"
of treatment
both of text and doctrine characterized his teach
ing. SECTION
XVIII.
RELIGIOUS
KIVAL
FORCES
latter half of the third century was the periodof the in the empire. As the Sol greatest influence of Mithraism Inoictus,Mithras was widely worshipped,and this cult was popular in the army and favored by the Emperors who rose The
its ranks.
from
other forces of
Two
world. The religious exandria by Ammonius
first was
in the
importance arose Founded
Neo-Platonism.
in Al
(?-c. 245),its real developerwas settled in Rome about 244. From him, Porphyry (233-304). Neo-Platonism
Saccas
/Plotinus (205-270),who the leadership passed to
of Platonic thoughts. pantheistic, mysticalinterpretation all perfect, from whom the God is simple,absolute existence, Him From lower existences come. the Nous (wO?) emanates like the Logos in the theologyof Origen. From the Nous the world-soul derives being,and from that individual souls. From was
a
the world-soul
inferiorin the
the realm amount 1
of
of matter
Yet
comes.
being it possesses
Eusebius,Church History,7
:
to 3019.
the
each one
stage is above
"
MANICH^EISM less of reality reaching in
has
"
to all-perfect,
morals
The
tive.
matter
107
gradations from God, who compared with Him, is nega
which, as of Neo-Platonism,
like those
ascetic, and philosophy generally,were that of a risingof the soul vation was
templation,the
end
Platonism
much
was
of which to
influence
to
with
that ;of
Far
otherwise Its
chseism.
began
his
276
277.
or
chseism
it with
was
second
a
founder, Mani,
born
was
in
not way
war.
the divine.
Neo-
theology, notably conspicuously or of thinking for the
association
of the many. that of Mani-
movement, in Persia in 215
in 242, and
or
216,
Babylon was preaching old based the Persian on Strongly dualism, Manialso exceedingly syncretistic. It received ele was
from
Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, tianity. Light and darkness, good and ments
conception of sal in mystic con God
Christian
Augustine. Its founders were a ganizers,however, and it remained relativelyfew rather than an inclusive
of later Greek
its
union
was
is
Its conception of the relations of
crucified in
and
Judaism, evil
are
spiritand
Chris
eternally at matter,
and
those of Gnosticism. resembled salvation,in many ways Man material prison house of the realm of evil, is essentially a in which Hence some portion of the realm of lightis confined. of this salvation is based on rightknowledge as to the nature bondage, and desire to return to the realm of light,coupled of all that belongs to the sphere with extreme ascetic rejection Its the physical appetites and desires. of darkness, especially strict. Its member worship was as simple as its asceticism was in two classes,the perfect,always relativelyfew, who ship was practised its full austerities ; and the hearers, who accepted its less strictness of practice a distinc teachings,but with much monks and tion not unlike that between ordinary Christians in the church. Its organizationwas fairlycentralized and rigid. In Manichseism Christianityhad a real rival. It^^rfead was in and the it the absorbed not empire, rapid ""nly^fl|w fol of
"
lowers
of Mithraism,
but
the
remnants
of 1
Ktian-Gnostic
gr^o^Hfwas
Its great to be in sects, and other early heresies. the fourth and fifth centuries, and its influencejwas to be felt till the
late Middle
Ages through
teachings,like the Cathari.
sects
which
were
heirs of its
V
STRENGTHENS
DIOCLETIAN
108
XIX.
SECTION
THE
In 284 Diocletian became
THE
FINAL
Roman
EMPIRE
STRUGGLE
A
Emperor.
of the
man
origin,probably of slave parentage, he had a dis in the army, and was raised to the imperial tinguishedcareer he dignityby his fellow soldiers. Though a soldier-emperor, was possessedof great abilitiesas a civil administrator,and to reorganizethe empire so to provide more determined as aiming at adequate militarydefense,prevent army conspiracies internal the of and render administration a change Emperors, efficient. To these ends he appointedan old companionmore humblest
in-arms,Maximian,
regent of the West, in 285, with
Augustus,which Diocletian himself bore. in 293, two he designated, militaryefficiency of
Constantius
Chlorus,
Galerius,on
that
Rhine
the
on
of the
Danube.
In further aid of
"Csesars"
frontier,and Each
the title
"
to succeed
was
one,
the other, ulti
mately to the higherpost of "Augustus." All was held in har monious working by the firm hand of Diocletian. less In internal affairs the changes of Diocletian were no sweeping. The survivingrelics of the old republicanempire, and of senatorial influence, set aside. The now were Emperor A new in the later Byzantine sense. divi became autocrat an aban sion of provinceswas effected;and Rome was practically Diocletian making the more doned as the capital, conveniently situated Nicomedia, in Asia In character Diocletian was of the cruder
heathenism such
To
a
man
ordered archically have
It must
Minor, his customary
camp
rude
a
but
firm
residence.
supporter of
type.
the closely knit,hier organizingabilities, church presenteda serious political problem.
of
seemed
state
a
within
the state
which
over
he
been a Christian up Though there had never had held aloof from risingagainstthe empire,and Christianity to a remarkable politics degree,the church was rapidlygrowing in numbers Two courses lay open for a vigorous anxLs.trength. had
control.
no
it into submission and break its power, ruler,either tjfforce to
enter
of the
into alliance with
growing organism.
Constantine course
The
could Eastern
it and The
thus
latter
secure
was
to
or
control political be the method
of
the attempt of Diocletian. No other be expected from a man outlook. of his religious
; the former
Caesar,Galerius,was
and had tianity,
much
influence
even over
more
hostile to Chris
Diocletian.
To
him
the
PERSECUTION
DIOCLETIAN
UNDER
of persecutionmay suggestions
been clue.
have
109 The
growth
of
was unitingall the forces of threatened Christianity, moreover, heathenism against it; while Diocletian and Galerius were disposedto emphasize emperor-worship and the service of the old gods. A cautious effort to rid Diocletian 'moved slowly,however. and the imperialpalace service of Christians was the army followed,beginning in February, 303, by three great edicts of de ordered Churches were persecutionin rapid succession. stroyed,sacred books confiscated,clergyimprisoned and forced In 304 sacrifice by torture. fourth edict requiredall to a
It
Christians to offer sacrifices. tion.
As
many
who
in the days of Decius
with
there
were
however,
far less
Christians had
be
severityof the persecutionvaried its penalties the magistratesby whom were Italy,North Africa,and the Orient, the
the attitude of Cruel
martyrs, and
many
The
better known.
enforced.
time of fearful persecu
a
"lapsed." Popular feelingwas, in previouspersecutions.The
hostile than come
was
in
friendly"Csesar," Constantius Chlorus, made apparent com pliance in Gaul and Britain by destroying church edifices, He but left the Christians themselves unharmed. thereby with those that redound thus to was gained a popularity spared of the his to son. advantage A The voluntary retirement of Diocletian,and the enforced abdication of his colleague,Maximian, in 305, removed the able to master the complex gov strong hand of the only man ernmental
Chlorus
Constantius situation.)?
and
Galerius
now
became, "Augusti," but in the appointment of "Caesars," the of the
claims
Daia.
Maximinus West.
Constantius claimed
his
this army
of Constantius
in favor
passed over the
sons
of two
Chlorus
and
Maximian
were
proteges of Galerius,Severus
Persecution
had
and
ceased in practically in increased severityin the East. It continued Chlorus died in 306, and the garrisonin York ac the On Constantine as Emperor. son strengthof
support, Constantine
now
forced
from
Galerius his
own
and Britain. "Caesar,"with charge of Gaul,_Spain, as recognition Soon after Maximian's "defeated Severus and son, Maxentiusr, of Italy and North himself master made Africa. The next trial of strengthin the strugglefor the empireTtcTvhich Con
stantine had come
would
set
himself must
determine
be with
the mastery oHhe
Maxentius. whole
West.
Its out Licin-
CHRISTIAN
A
CONSTANTINE
110
succeeded ius,a protege of Galerius,
possessionsof Before
to
a
portionof
the former
Severus.
the decisive contest
for the West
Galerius,in conjunctionwith Constantine
took
place,however,
and
Licinius,issued
April,311, an edict of toleration to Christians "on condi 1 tion that nothing is done by them contrary to discipline." This was, at best, a grudging concession,though why it was its main granted at all by the persecutingGalerius,who was is not wholly evident. con Perhaps he had become source, vinced of the futility of persecution. Perhaps the long and illness which to cost him his life a few days later severe was have led him to believe that some from help might come may the Christians' God. The latter suppositionis given added probabilitybecause the edict exhorts Christians to pray for in
its authors.
death of Galerius in May, 311, left four contestants the empire. Constantine and Licinius drew togetherby The
for mu
tual
Daia and Maxentius were interest;while Maximinus united by similar bonds. Daia promptly renewed persecution in Asia and Egypt. Maxentius, while not a persecutor, was a of Christian heathenism. pronounced partisan sympathy naturallyflowed toward Constantine and Licinius. Constan tine availed himself to the full of its advantages. To what to say. extent he was now a personalChristian it is impossible He had inherited a kindly feelingtoward Christians. He had joinedin the edict of 311. His forces seemed scarcelyadequate for the great strugglewith Maxentius. He doubtless desired the aid of the Christians' God
in the
none
equalcgpflict
too
"
though it is quiteprobable that he may not then have thought of Him Constan tine's later affirmation that the only God. as he saw "in this sign with the inscription, a vision of the cross conquer,"was a conscious or unconscious legend. But that he is a fact. A brilliant invaded Italy, as in some sense a Christian, march and several successful battles in northern Italybrought him
face to face with Maxentius at Saxa Rubra, a little to the north of Rome, with the Mulvian the Tiber be bridgeacross tween one
his foes and the city. There, on of the decisive
the battle and Christian
of history, in struggles
his life. The
West
God, he believed,had 1
October 28, 312, occurred
Eusebius, Church
was
given
History, 8
:
179 ;
which
Maxentius
Constantine's. him
the
Ayer, p.
lost The
victory,and
262.
III.
PERIOD
SECTION
^[thecompletion and
the
in the
ligion. Constantine Christians
were
the
one
It
men.
which
had
long
Emperor,
one
law,
should
slowly, however. unequally distributed
The
in the
than
East
the
when
population
equal rights.
them
unification
It had
all free
Christianity was
have
moved
in the
of
fraction
CHURCH
SITUATION
of
empire.
very
numerous
more
CHANGED
process
citizenship for
one
STATE
essentiallypoliticalmind
of
in progress
been
THE
I.
Constantine's
To
IMPERIAL
THE
church
had
and
the much
were
they of
but
were
a
Milan
granted great rapidity
with
grown
re
Though
West,
Edict
one
tinder in the last half of the third century, during the peace bounds. That by leaps and imperial favor its increase was showed. favor Constantine promptly By a law of 319 the exempted from the public obligations that weighed clergy were the well-to-do portion of the population.1 In heavily on so 321 the right to receive legacies was granted, and thereby the The corporation acknowledged.2 as a privilegesof the church same
In
cities.3 Gifts
made
but
which
was
of
t
the
sacrifices
were
elsewhere
and
world
Byzantium, has
formal which
named
motives,
its
its official
the
left the
its
in
the
erected
under
called
in
imperial
New
of the
Rome,
honor, Constantinople,
politicaland defensive far-reaching. were
religiousconsequences
foundation,
of
prohibited.4
transference he
in his
people
churches
great
high significance. Undoubtedly
empire in
rebuilt
the
and
clergy,
to
all,Constantine's
Above the
heathen
Bethlehem,
Jerusalem,
auspices. capital to
From
to
forbidden
was
private
319
were
Rome,
in
work
Sunday
year
330, it established
the
seat
of
traditions or influences, situated city of few heathen It most portion of the world. strongly Christianized the most conspicuous man bishop of Rome, moreover,
in
1
a
Codex
*Ibid.,
Theodosianus,
16
16
8
Codex
:24; Ayer, Justinianus,
4
Codex
Theodosianus,
p.
3
:
9
:
22 ;
Ayer, Source
283. 123 ; :
Ayer,
162 ; 112
p.
Ayer,
284. p.
286.
Book,
p.
283.
POLICY
CONSTANTINE'S in the ancient
with
looked
reverence
possibleof future
only for they were ized portion that "
be
threatened. had
led to
called
to
itself the
more
be
schism, somewhat
causes,
but resemblingthat of
earlier
(ante,p. 102). The
The
"Catholic." could
unitingfactor
a
Africa
than
stillmany,
were
Constantine
one.
In North a
was
political.Great which Constantine showed to the church, that strong, close-knit, hierarchically organ
was Christianity
must
still
the
wholly unintended
it was
rather spiritual
was
sects, and they boijntyfrom his hands..
church
West Latin-speaking
conspicuitywhich
a
heretical"
If
the
importance because
the favors
were
in
"
by Constantine, and as
which
to capital,
113
found
various
look for
no
in the
that
empire, the unity seriously
persecutionunder Diocletian complicated and personalin its Novatian in Rome, half a century the
church
there
was
divided.
The
strict
had re bishop of Carthage,Caecilian, party charged that the new ceived ordination in 311, from the hands of one in mortal sin, who
had
surrendered
secution.
That
copiesof
ordination
bishop,Majorinus. the Great, from whom atists.
In
313
the
Scripturesin the invalid,and chose
it held
recent a
per
counter-
His successor, in 316, was the able Donatus the schismatics received the name, Don
Constantine
made
grants of money
to
the
"Catholic"
v
clergyof North Africa.1 In these the Donatists did not share,and appealed to the Emperor. A synod held in Rome the same only year decided againstthem, but the quarrelwas the more Constantine embittered. what out thereupon mapped the imperialpolicyin ecclesiasticalquesto be henceforth was /tions. He summoned a synod of his portion of the empire to The church meet, at publicexpense, in Aries,in southern Gaul. itself should decide the controversy, but under imperialcon trol. Here a large council assembled in 314. The Donatist
I
contentions
condemned.
were
at the hands
of
Ordination
was
declared
valid
personallyunworthy cleric. Heretical date of Easter baptism was recognized,and the Roman ap proved.2 The Donatists appealed to the Emperor, who once decided againstthem, in 316; and as they refused to yield, more now proceeded to close their churches and banish their bishops. The unenviable spectacleof the persecutionof Christians by
even
Christians
was
a
exhibited.
North
Africa
was
^usebius, Church History, 10: 6; Ayer, 2 See Ay or, p. 291.
in turmoil. p. 281.
Con-
_,
ARIANISM
114
and in 321 however, dissatisfied with the results,
stantine was,
againstthese schismatics. They claimingto be the only true church possessedof grew rapidly, a clergyfree from "deadly sins" and of the only valid sacra abandoned
the
of force
tillthe Mohammedan
Not
ments.
use
conquest did the Donatists
disappear. SECTION
II.
THE
OF
A much
great Arian
TO
THE
DEATH
CONSTANTINE
serious danger to the unity of the church than which the Constantine encountered was
more
the Donatist
CONTROVERSY
ARIAN
schism
It has
controversy.
that while the
West, thanks
already been
pointed
of Tertullian
to the work
and
out
No-
^vatian,had
reached
practicalunanimity regardingthe unity
of substance
between
Christ and
the Father
(ante,pp. 69-76),
Origen,stillits most dominating the If he ologicalinfluence,could be quoted in opposing senses. had taught the eternal generationof the Son, he had also held Him God and a creature to be a second (ante,p. 81). Adoptionist tendencies persisted, also,about Antioch; while Sabellianism was in Egypt. The East, moreover, to be found was interested in speculative vastlymore theologythan the West,
the East
and
was
therefore
doubt
divided.
more
prone
discussion ; century, much
to
that, in the fourth
nor
can
more
there be any of intellectual
in the Greek-speaking than in the to be found abilitywas Latin-speakingportionof the empire. The real cause of the struggle these varyinginterpreta was tions;but the actual controversy began in Alexandria, about Arius and his bishop, Alexander 320, in a dispute between (312?-328). Arius,a pupilof Lucian of Antioch (ante,p. 106), Baucalis. was as presbyter in charge of the church known He was advanced in years and held in high repute as a preacher of learning,ability, and influences impiety. Monarchian in Antioch ^bibed led him selfto emphasize the unity and
contained existence of God.
In
so
far
as
he
was
a
follower of
Origen,he representedthe great Alexandrian's teachingthat created being. As such He was Christ was not of the sub a of God, but was of "nothing." stance made like other creatures Though the first-born of creatures, and the agent in fashion ingthe world,He was not eternal. "The Son has a beginning,
ARIANISM
115
indeed, beginning."x Christ was, God in a certain sense to Arius, but a lower God, in no way in Father In the with the essence or one incarnation, eternity. human the of entered this Logos a body, taking place the human reasoningspirit.To Arius's thinking,Christ was neither fully This is what God nor fullyman, but a tertium quid between. his view wholly unsatisfactory. makes Bishop Alexander was influenced by the other side of Origen's to the eternal,like in essence teaching.'To him the Son was His view was, perhaps, not Father, and wholly uncreated.2 perfectlyclear,but its unlikeness to that of Arius is apparent. between Arius and Alexander, apparently Controversy arose Arius's initiative. It soon bitter,and about 320 or on grew 321 Alexander held a synod in Alexandria by which Arius and of his sympathizerswere condemned. Arius appealed a number for help to his fellow pupil of the school of Lucian, the powerful bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and soon found a refuge with him. Alexander wrote widely to fellow bishops,and Arius defended his own aided by Eusebius. The Eastern position, ecclesiasticalworld was widely turmoiled. Such the situation when Constantine's was victory over but
.
.
.
God
is without
,
"
Licinius made The
him
master
quarrel threatened
deemed
essential.
of the East the
unity
Constantine
of
as
well
the
as
of the West.
church
which
he
therefore sent his chief ecclesi
astical
adviser,Bishop Hosius of Cordova, in Spain, to Alex andria with an imperialletter, counselling peace and describing the issue involved
"an
unprofitablequestion."3 The wellvain. meant, but bungling effort was Constantine,therefore, the device he had already made same proceeded to employ of at Aries in the Donatist use dispute. He called a council of the entire church. That of Aries had been representative of all the portion of the empire then ruled by Constantine. of all the empire, and therefore Constantine was master now summoned. The principle bishops of all the empire were was the same, but the extent of Constantine's enlargedjurisdiction made the gatheringin Nicsea the First General Council of the as
church. The
council,which
assembled
in Nicsea in May,
325, has
V 1 2
3
Arius to Eusebius, Theodoret, Church History,I4; Ayer, p. 302. Letter of Alexander, in Socrates, Church History, I6. Letter
in Eusebius,
264-72. Life of Constantine,
NIC/EA
OF
COUNCIL
THE
116
always lived in Christian tradition as the most importantin Tii it the bishopswere^-summo"ed the historyof the church. at government expense, accompanied by lower clerg}^who did not, however, have
nnly
sfy
from
wprp
in its decisions.
It included
theJWest.
small section, led by EusebTus Another
going Arians.
small
East
had
the
bishops present three
of Nicomedja.
parlies. A
werej:horough-
equally strenuous the large majority, of whpm
group
supporters of Alexander.^ The
were
church
historian t^Eusebius^Cgesarea,was
deeply
versed
in the
The
OLalxaiLthlgcJiundred
preponderance
vast
'*
votes
question at
a^eader, were Indeed, the majority,
issue.
by an unsympathetic writer as "simpletons."1 As far as they had any opinion,they stood the generalbasis of the teachingsof Origen. Conspicuous on in jJTp_a.sspTnhly the .EiDj^Tcu'_JiiiTisplfJ who, though not was of the baptized,and therefore not technicallya full member as
a
whole,
church,
described
were
far too
was
eminent
a
not
personage
to
be welcomed
enthusiastically. Almost
at.
of the thf^beginnijig
council
Fjispbiij^of tlia.Aj:iajnji_wa^rejected. of his
indefinite rean
of
the
offered
the
own
to
as
creed
prpqpnfpdby
Cflpsarea, then
cKufch. dating fromnBeTore the controversy, and creed
s\. crppH
was
the now
was,
therefore,wholly
particularproblems involved. amended most significantly by
not made," expressions, ""hfigoltfin,
"
of
This the one
Csesa-
insertion essence
"
(homoousion,opoovaLov)with^ JheJFather ; and by the specific He when was rejectionof Arian formulae such as "there was not." The later made of thingsthat were not" and "He was and hyposunlike words essence, substance (oiKr/a), technically here used tasis (uTToo-rao-t?) as were equivalent expressions. Loofs has shown that the influences which secured conclusively2 these changes were Western, doubtless above all that of Hosius the test of Cordova, supportedby the Emperor. In particular, word, homoousion, had long been orthodox in its Latin equiva lent,and had been in philosophicusage in the second century, in the proceedings though rejectedby a synod in Antioch used against Paul of Samosata (ante,p. 73). Indeed, it was himself in his earlier defense of sparinglyby Athanasius very the Nicene 1
2
faith.
Tj i^ ^asy
to
understand Constantine's
Socrates,Church
History, I8. Realencyklopcidiv fur prot. Theol
u.
Kirche, 214- 15.
atti-
OF
COUNCIL
THE
NIC.EA
117
t^ight .tilde. Essentially a politi44fHvJ^-Tmtwft41y
a.
forrrjuja,
oppositionin theJWestern half of the empirc,and would receive the support of a portion of the 44*^t, more acceptablethan one which, while having only a part of the East in its favb7"woulor be rejected by that would Jind _no
'
influence To. Cons_taaitin".'s tion is more faith he
thp
n^Qpfinn nf
the
Nirene
its shades
defini-
of
meaning of the than doubtful ; but he wanted a united expression of the church on the questionin dispute,and believed that
was
That
due.
found
had
it.
he
understood
ever
all but UiideF-his-supervisieft,
two
of the
bishopspresent signed4t. These, and Arius. Constantine sent 'Flic imperial politicshad into banishment. apparently se.-. had gtven-4twhat it had cured-tEe unity-ef^fee-eht^ebj^aRd before possessed,a^sJiatppient. whirh might,be assumed never to be a universally recognizedcreed. Besides this action in thus formulatingthe creed, the Coun issued a pnmh^r of important ran on s rpgmlfl.t.jn cilj)f_Nicgea church discipline^ paved the way for the return of thosejn Egypt who
had
joinedthe
lapsed,made a
uniform
date
the readmission
in the observation
strange, in view
It is not creed
easy
adopted, that
was
its
pppositiojn to
schism
Melitian
of
Novatians, and
it
were
in which
manner
after the
fewr. To
of the ordered
the Nicene
council ended
manifested was testjvojT[1Jtmy^7/.9?!onf if, w"-"j
They
the treatment
of Easter.
of the soon
over
the largemiddle
nf
party of
,great in the
ftbnoxnns. of Ongen disciples
coufs^f
for to them it seemed Sabelscarcelyless satisfactory, lian. Though Eusebius of Nicomedia and his Arian sympa thizer,Theognis of Nicsea, had signed,their evident hostility such that Constantine both bishops into exile. By sent was home 328, however, they were again, possiblythrough the favor of the Emperor's sister, Constantia. Eusebius. soon ac influence than other Constantine quired a greater over any was
ecclesiasticof the East, and used it to favor the cause of Arius. With such elements of oppositionto the Nicene result,the real battle was than half a cen not in the council but in the more
tury which followed its conclusion. Meanwhile the great defend^ nf thn Nirenp fa^^ had come born in Alexandria about Athanasiiis was fullyon the scene. 295.
In
the
deacon, and
the Arian rnntrnvprsy: hft wns n early stafgs^of served asfmTvjLte Alexander. secretaryto Bishop
ATHANASIUS
118
As such he
accompaniedhis bishop to Nicsea,and
death, in 328,
chosen
was
to hold, in
he was a post which ishments, till his own "
demise
theologian,Athanasius when
court
in turn
favor counted
for
Not
a
great speculative In
great character.
a
he stood
much,
like
a
an
age
rock for his
theologyultimatelyconquered Nicene West to him, possessedno of one theologian. Tp_Jiiiii"_JJie.._questioij._ at_jssuewas for the
primarilydue
was
five ban
and
that the Nicene
convictions,and able
bishopric
spiteof attack
in 373.
was
Alexander's
on
to the Alexandrian
salvation,and source
been,
that he made
main feel it to be so was a conception of salvation had
men
of his power. The Greek since the beginningsof the tradition
of Asia
Minor, the
mortalityinto divine and blessed im mortality the impartation of "life" (ante,p. 40). Only by in Christ real Godhead coming into union with full manhood transformation
of sinful
"
could the transformation
complishedin
Him
mediated
be
ac
to His
disciples. by made that we : man [Christ]was of might be made divine."1 Tojiis thinkingthe__gi"at. error, mTbasis for a real salvation. Well Ariam'.sm was that-Jt-gaYe. it for the Nicene party that~so ^ moderately eTttetefmined, was a champion stood for it, since the two other prominent de fenders of the Nicene faith,Bishops Marcellus of Ancyra and Eustathius of Antioch, were certainlyfar from theologically of opinions accused, not wholly rightly, impeccable,and were decidedlySabellian. Athanasius
As
/
Him,
into the divine be
of the human
Eusebius
"
He
of Nicomedia
soon
Constahtine would
emy.
the
by
or
said
same
strikingits defenders. cleverlyused
were
330.
to
Eusebians
The
Athanasius returned
not
practicalresult could
and
from
secure
in Athanasius
saw
desert be
the
secure
of Eustathius the discomfiture
in of
latter,who had before Eusebius, now presented
the restoration of Arius. even
thought,
differences and'theological
the condemnation to
en
decision,but
achieved, Eusebius
Political
determined
banishment
Nicene
the real
The
indefinite on the questionat is carefully mind this seemed sue.2 To Constantine's untheological a satis his and an expressionof willingness to make factoryretraction, He directed Athanasius to restore Arius to his place peace. in Alexandria. Athanasius refused. Charges of overbearing to
Constantine
a
creed
1
Incarnation, 543.
2
Socrates,Church
History,I26 ; Ayer, p. 307.
REACTION
ARIAN
THE
120
questionsthan their father had partisanin religious A joint edict of 346 ordered temples closed, and for been. law was, however, but The bade sacrifice on pain of death.1 Donatist The Africa slightlyenforced. controversy in North had greatlyextended, and that land, in consequence, the was of much scene agrarian and social agitation. The Donatists therefore,attacked in force by Constans, and though were, not wholly crushed, were largelyrooted out. of the sons The most of Constantine important relationship to the continuing to the religious questions of the age was first,more
Nicene
controversy.
Under
their
rule it extended
from
a
involvingonly the East, as under Constan-i disputepractically At the beginning of their1' tine, to an empire-wide contest. jointreignsthe Emperors permitted the exiled bishops to re Athanasius
turn.
was,
fore the close of 337.
therefore,once Eusebius
more
in Alexandria
however, still the
was,
be most
influential party leader in the East, and his authoritywas but strengthenedwhen he was promoted, in 339, from the bishopric where he died about of Nicomedia to that of Constantinople,
Through
341.
the influence of Eusebius
bly driven from bishop,Gregory
Athanasius
power. soon
was
forci
in the
springof 339, and an Arian Cappadocia, put in his place by military fled to Rome, where Marcellus of Ancyra
Alexandria of
Athanasius
joined him.
East
and
West
were
now
under
different
held to the Nicene
Emperors, and subjects. Not
sympathies of his the empire divided, but Bishop Julius of Rome merely was interfere from could now beyond the reach of Constantius. the fugitives and summoned their opponents to He welcomed in 340, though tfyeEusebians did not appear. a synod in Rome, The synod declared Athanasius and Marcellus unjustlydeposed. leaders repliednot merely with protests against The Eastern Constans
with the action,but with an attempt to do away Nicene formula in wrhich they had the support of Con itself, stantius. Two synods in Antioch, in 341, adopted creeds, Arian in \expression, but from which far,indeed,from positively
the Roman
all that
Nicene (knitted. In some was definitely respects death of Eu The they representeda pre-Nicene orthoooxy. of Constantinople, at thi^ sebius,now juncturecost the oppo decision his able leadership.The of the Nicene two nents was
1
Codex
Theodosianus,
16
:
104 ;
Ayer,
p. 323.
COUNCIL
THE
SARDICA
OF'
121
Emperors thought that the bitter quarrelcould best General Council, and accordinglysuch a be adjustedby a new of Sofia,in the autumn body gatheredin Sardica, the modern 343.'General Council it was not to be. The Eastern bishops, by those of the West, and findingthemselves outnumbered with them, with seeingAthanasius and Marcellus in company Athanasius and Marcellus drew. were By the Westerners once more approved,though the latter was a considerable bur of his dubious orthodoxy. East den to their cause by reason brother
and
Council
The of
pointof ecclesiasticalseparation.^ of Sardica had completelyfailed in its object there assembled quarrel,but the Westerners
seemed
West
healing the
on
the
leadershipof Hosius of Cor dova, that are of great importance in the development of the What they did was authorityof the bishop of Rome. judicial
passedseveral
to
Athanasius that in
actual
the
enact
under
canons,
proceedingsregarding decided rule. It was a general deposed,as these had been, he might
recent
Marcellus
and
the
into
bishop was appealto Bishop Julius of Rome, be retried by new judges,and no case
a
till the
decision of Rome
Western
rules and
in
Rome, The
to
seem
time, but
at the
who
could
successor
was
known.1
have
aroused
cause
were
the
should be
They
to
case
appointed,/
were
purely
little attention,even
important for
were
imperialbrothers
two
of
course
convinced
the future.
that the contro
serious aspects. At all events, Constans favored Athanasius, and the rival bishop,Gregory, having died,Constantius permittedAthanasius to return to Alexandria versy
was
assuming
too
in October, 347, where
he
was
most
welcomed cordially
by the always
which had overwhelming majority of the population, The situation seemed favorable for heartilysupported him. events than Athanasius, but political suddenly made it worse been. A rival Emperor arose it had ever in the West in the of Magnentius, and in 350 Constans murdered. was person Three the usurper to years of strugglebrought victoryover Constantius, and left him sole ruler of the empire (353).
Constantius,
at
last in full
control,determined
to
end
the
thinkingAthanasius was the chief enemy. The in the hands of leadershipagainst Athanasius was now At Bishops Ursacius of Singidunum, and Valens of Mursa. synods held in Aries in 353, and in Milan in 355, Constantius controversy.
To
his
1
See Ayer, pp.
364-366.
bishops to abandon
forced the Western
Athanasius, and For
opponents.
to
resis
Liberius,bishop of Rome, Hilary of Poi learned bishop of Gaul, and the aged Hosius of sent into banishment. Athanasius, driven from
these demands
to
tance
his Eastern
with
communion
resume
FORMULA
HOMOION
THE
122
the tiers, Cordova
most were
by militaryforce in February, 356, began his third the exile,findingrefugefor the next six years largelyamong At a synod held in Sirmium, the Emperor's Egyptian monks. Alexandria
residence,in 357, ousia (substance)in any of its combinations forbidden as unscriptural.1 This, so far as the influence of was
synod went, was an abolition of the Nicene formula. Hosius Athanasius. signedit,though he absolutelyrefused to condemn The declaration of Sirmium was strengthenedby an agreement of Nice, in secured by Constantius at the little Thracian town the
359, in which
it
call the Son
"we
affirmed
was
the holy scripturescall Him
as
and
teach."
like the Father, 2
The
Emperor
episcopalfavorites,notably Valens of Mursa,
and
his
cured
its acceptance by synods purporting to represent East West, held in Rimini, Seleucia,and Constantinople.The
and
Old-Nicene
formula
set
was
accepted the theoretically, only
new
result.
the whole The
"
as
church
proper
se
had,
term, the is like the
in court circles, "the Son was hence those who homoios supported its use were the Homoion ("like")party. Apparently colorless,
allowed
one
Father" known
aside,and
now
"
historyof its adoption made it a rejectionof the Nicene faith,and opened the door to Arian assertions. The Arians had was largelyaided triumphed for the time being,and that success who formula appealedto many by the fact that its Homoion were heartilytired of the long controversy. Really, however, the Arian victory had prepared the way immedi not for the ruin of Arianism,though that result was ately apparent. The oppositionto the Nicene formula had always been composed of two elements: a small Arian sec tion,arid a much largerconservative body, which stood mainly ob was on positionsreached by Origen, to which Arianism noxious,but which looked upon homoousios,the Nicene phrase, in Antioch, unwarranted as an expressionalready condemned Both elements had worked and of Sabellian ill-repute. together
the
resist the
to
further. 1
Nicene
Extreme
their agreement went no their heads in Alexandria raising
formula, but
Arians
were
De Synodis, Hilary of Poitiers,
11 ;
Ayer, p. 317.
2
Ayer, p. 319.
A
than
them "
"
of
ning "
of
were
party. They would
to "
and
not
say
to
homoousios
"
sense
draw
hostile
more
even
be, but of equalityof attributes.
would
sence
123
but they were willingto say homoiousios of like substance, as the natural translation
substance
in the
not
the Nicene
to
one
conservatives
The
elsewhere.
and
PARTY
MIDDLE
They
distinction between
a
hypostasis now "
subsistence/'instead of
ousia
using the making them
were
also
begin
substance,
"
latter in the
es
sense
in the as equivalent,
symbol. This enabled them to preserve the Origenistic teaching of "three hypostases," while insisting the on middle party community of attributes. The newly formed first into evidence with a synod at Ancyra, in 358, and came its chief early leaders were Bishops Basil of Ancyra, and They have usuallybeen called the SemiGeorge of Laodicea. Arians, but the term is a misnomer. They rejectedArianism He to Athanasius. They reallystood near energetically. recognized this approach, and Hilary of Poitiers furthered union by urgingthat the conservatives meant by homoiousios what the Nicene party understood by homoousios.1 The ulti about through the fusion of to come Nicene victorywas mate Nicene
the Nicene
and
"Semi-Arian"
the
parties.In that union the of Origenwere interpretations
tradition of Asia Minor, and the with those of Alexandria. to combine
slow process, however, and in its development the earlier Nicene views were modified into the New-Nicene to be considerably theology.
SECTION
THE
IV.
Constantius died in 361
cousin,Julian,whom
LATER
It
NICENE
he
was
a
STRUGGLE
preparing to
resist his
the soldiers in Paris had declared
Emperor.
as
was
world to Julian. Spared on account of his youth at the massacre of his father and other relatives the death of Constantine,he looked upon Constantius as on His
death left the Roman
his father's murderer.
Brought up in perilof his life,and forced to strict outward to hate churchly observance, he came which Constantius and was filled with everything represented, admiration Hellenism.
for the He
literature, life,and
philosophyof
"
the older
apostate,"in the sense of a turn concealed from the public, coat. his heath Though necessarily enism had long been real,when his campaign againstConstannot
was
1
De
an
Synodis,88
;
Ayer, p.
319.
ATHANASIUS'S
124
GROWING
STRENGTH
him
publiclyto declare it. It was heathenism of character. On his accession he at mystical,philosophical a revival. Christianitywas tempted a heathen everywhere and Christians removed from office. Bishops discouraged, under Constantius banished recalled,that the quarrelsof were tius enabled
Christians thus
was
in
the
heathen
in Alexandria
more
once
out
was
aid
might
exiled for the fourth
was
reaction.
in 362, but
time
before the year
by Julian, who
in
his
Athanasius
was
heathenism. success making converts angered by In he lost his life in a cam 363 Julian's reignwas soon over. had its last heathen paign againstthe Persians. In him Rome Emperor. The reign of Julian showed the real weakness of the Arianelements which Constantius had izing supported. Athanasians drew Semi-Arians and together. Furthermore, the Nicene debate
from
broadeningout
was
of the v/lations
Holy
to
include
discussion
a
Spiritto the Godhead.
of the
re-
Since the time of
Tertullian,in the
West, Father, Son, and Holy Spirithad been three "persons," of one substance (ante,p. 69).
regarded as The
reached
"a
of God
son
or
sion of the theme.
such
no
uncertain whether
been or
had
East
the
not."
Now
unanimity. Even Origen had created or uncreated," Spiritwas "
l
had
There
that it had
not
been
much
discus
forward, the homoousia
come
Holy Spiritwith the Father, seemed to Athanasius and of the Son. At a his friends a corollaryfrom the homoousia synod held in Alexandria in 362, by the just returned Athana drawn sius,terms of union were up for rival partiesin Antioch. the Arian heresy and It would be sufficient "to anathematize confess the faith confessed by the holy Fathers at Nicsea,and also those who say that the Holy Ghost is a to anathematize of the
and
creature
ployment tasis" the not
was
that
of the terms in the
himself
not
Trinity,but
head
The
in
the
"three
synod regarded
used
of Sabellian
nasius the
separate from
one
essence
death
of
sense
as
and
2
The
"one
hypostases" indifferent,provided in
of "alien
unity. The only for the
of Christ."
essence
door
was
essence," and thus
em
hypos"three"
"one"
opened by
in
Atha
full definition of the doctrine of
orthodoxy, with its God (substance) and three hypostases. Julian was succeeded by the brief reign of
for the New-Nicene
1
De
2
Tomus
Principiis,Preface. 3 admAntiochenos,
;
Ayer,
p. 350.
THE
Jovian.
The
empire who
happily, one Athanasius rule ended
375), who,
CAPPADOCIANS
GREAT had
once
more
promptly returned
ecclesiastical
his fourth
from
in 364, and he was succeeded findingthe imperialdefense
of the
his
giving to
ruler, and
Christian
a
little in
interfered
125
I
(364task, took (364-378)
Valentinian
by too
politics.
exile. Jovian's
great
a
brother, Valens
West, charge Valentian interfered littlewith sovereigntyof the East. under the influence of the churchly affairs. Valens came both and Homoousian Arian clergy of Constantinople,and Homoiousian sympathizersshared his dislike a situation which together. He condemned helped to bring these partiesnearer the
"
Athanasius the
and
Valens as
to
aged bishop however,
was,
had
Constantius
373, full of years At
Basil
the
about
of
to
; but
it
go
brief,
was
far from
the
city.
vigorous supporter of Arianism
Athanasius
died in
Alexandria,in
honors.
of
hands
leadershipin the struggle
the new
the
were
of the
men,
three
New-Nicene
great Cappadocians,
Cappadocia,Gregory of Nazianzus, and Nyssa. Born of a prominent Cappadocian family in
of CaBsarea
Gregory
not
such
no
of these
Chief
party.
have
of Athanasius
the death
passinginto
was
did
been.
and
exile,in 365
final
fifth and
a
received
330, Basil
the
best
trainingthat Constanti
nople and Athens could yield,in student association with his friend Gregory of Nazianzus. About 357 he yielded life-long to
the ascetic Christian tendencies
idea of monk.
a
gave
up
any
as worldly advancement, livingpractically of the risingmonas visited Egypt, then the home
of
career
He
of the age, and
and tic movement, cism in Asia Minor.
became
He
was,
the great propagator
however, made
a
of monasti-
for affairs and
not
in
Origen, and in sympathy with the Homoiousian party, he belonged to the section which into fellowship with Athanasius, and like Athgraduallycame Jknasius of the Holy he supported the full consubstantiality Spirit. To the wing of the Homoiousian party which refused the so-called Macedonians to regard the Spiritas fullyGod he offered strenuous vic a opposition. It was far-reaching when Basil became bishop of the Cappa tory for his cause for the
cloister.
Deeply versed
"
"
docian
Csesarea,in 37(L. The
post gave
him
ecclesiasticalau
large section of eastern Asia Minor, which he used to the full till his early death, in 379, to advance the He sought also to promote a good underNew-Nicene cause. thorityover
a
CAPPADOCIANS
GREAT
THE
126
in the East
the opponents of Arianism
standing between
and
the leaders of the West. An
brother.
Basil's younger
Gregory of Nyssa was and a writer of ability,
orator
greater skill and
theological clearness than not organizingand ad derived from the littleCappaministrative gifts. His title was docian town bishop in 371 or Nyssa of which he became of
Basil, he
"
He
372. Fathers
"
of Nazianzus
of his
friended
Basil's
had
lived till after 394, and of the Oriental Church.
Gregory town
even
birth,where
with Basil from
the monastic
attraction.
ranks
the
bishop. Warmly be student days,like Basil he felt strongly His ability as a preacherwas greater was
but that of either of his associates,
than
his title from
(329?-389?) had his father
the four great
among
in most
exercised
was
priesthe aided his father,from about made was bishop of the villageof Sasima. the Arianism About 378 he went to Constantinopleto oppose the faith of the vast which was majority of its inhabitants. The accession of the zealouslyNicene Emperor, Theodosius, him the needed in 379, gave support, and he preached with such success that he gained the repute of having turned the made he was bishop city to the Nicene faith. By Theodosius But the frictions of party strife of Constantinople in 381. varying stations. 361. By Basil he
and
the
inclination
times before to
he one
As
a
to
driven him
ascetic retirement from
the
which
had him
world, caused
this most exalted ecclesiastical post. relinquish ranked with Gregory of Nyssa. Like him he of the Eastern
than
intellectual victoryof the New-Nicene of that
formula.
age
What
expressedby
a
speedily
As
a
writer
is reckoned
Fathers, and the later Orient has given him
the "Theologian." the title, To the three Cappadocians,more
men
several
faith
to was
any
others,the
due.
To
the
triumph of the Nicene modifications they reallymade have been well their work
recent
German
seemed
the
writer i1
God, leading a (and Marcellus) taught the one The Cappathreefold personallife, who reveals Himself such. as docians think of three divine hypostases,which, as they manifest the same are activity, recognizedas possessingone nature and the for same dignity. The mystery for the former lay in the trinity; Athanasius
1
Seeberg, Text-Book
of the History of Doctrines,Eng. tr.,1
:
232.
TRIUMPH
NEW-NICENE
THE
128
empire, in spiteof a in northern brief toleration of Arianism Italyby Gratian's suc Valentinian II, influenced by his mother, against which cessor, had of Milan Ambrose to strive. Here, too, the authority of Arians
Theodosius in the
several
the
decided
potent
was
empire
was
a
centuries
in the
fate of Arianism
after her
lost cause, the
among
death, about
though
Germanic
it
was
388. to
Arianism
continue
invaders,thanks
to
for the
(see Section V). the synod of 381 met, the Nicene when Yet creed, as even adopted in 325, failed to satisfythe requirements of theologic development in the victorious party. It said nothing regard A instance. of the Holy Spirit,\for ing the[consubstantiality creed more desirable, fullymeeting the state of discussion was into use, and and actually such a creed came by 451 was re It ulti of 381. garded as adopted by the General Council mately took the place of the genuine Nicene creed, and is that Its exact the "Nicene" known to this day. origin is un as certain, but it is closely related to the baptismal creed of from the reconstructible teaching of Cyril, Jerusalem, as afterward bishop of that city,about 348 ; and also to that of missionary
of Ulfila
work
Epiphanius
of Salami
s, about
374.1
be said that it long controversy, it may that a less disputed phrase was misfortune not adopted was a that imperial interference at Nicsea, and doubly a misfortune In the strugplayed so large a part"in the ensuing discussions. into existence,and a policy of im gle the imperial church came perialinterference was fullydeveloped. Departure from official crime. a orthodoxy had become On
this
reviewing
Theodosius's
attitude
was
no
less strenuous
toward
remain
parties. regard to heretical Christian heathen In 392 he forbade worship under penalties similar to the old weapon those for lese-majesty and sacrilege.2It was used of heathenism by Christian against Christianity now toleration had fully Constantine's hands against heathenism. worship persisted,and disappeared. Nevertheless, heathen only slowly died out.
ing
heathenism
than
in
1
Ayer, Source
2
Codex
Book, pp. 354-356. Theodosianus, 16l". 12 ; Ayer,
p. 347.
V.
SECTION
TRIBES
GERMANIC
THE
MISSIONS
A1UAN
THE
AND
129
INVASIONS
GERMANIC
history of the empire the defense of the and the Danube frontiers of the Rhine against the Teutonic important military problem. peoples beyond had been an Under Marcu^ Aurelius a desperate,but ultimatelysuccessful Danube had been waged by the Romans the upper on war (167-180). Considerable shiftingof tribes and formations of fron of the Roman confederacies took place behind the screen tier; but by the beginning of the third century the group the upper had formed across known the Alemans as Rhine, the
Throughout
and
half
century later,that of the Franks
a
side of that
230-240, southern
the Goths Russia.
these
Between
river.
two
on
In 250
251
right
developments, about
completed their settlement and
the lower
the Roman
in what
is
now
hold in the Bal
seriouslythreatened by a Gothic invasion,in which Goths the persecutingEmperor, Decius, lost his life. The effected a settlement in the regionnorth of the lower Danube. They invaded the empire,and the perilwas not stayed tillthe kans
was
(269), from
victories of Claudius
"Gothicus."
The
which
his title,
he derived
stronger Emperors, Aurelian, Diocletian,
Constantine, held the frontiers of the Rhine
and
the danger of invasion effectively ; but present. By the fourth century the Goths north of Danube
who
were
the Germanic
kinsmen
in
most
contact
always
was
the
Danube,
civilization of any of while their the Visigoths,
as
Ostrogoths. The exact is uncertain,though they are generally
Russia
called
were
meaning of these names West and East Goths. regarded as signifying There was, indeed,much interchangebetween Romans from the time of Aurelian onward. Germans, especially numbers, in the Roman served, in increasing
mans
Roman
traders
penetratedfar beyond the borders settled in the
pire. Germans Roman
ways.
the
Roman
known
tribes,were
in southern
with
and
Prisoners of
taken
probably
Ger
armies. of the
border provincesand
war,
and
em
adopted
in the
raid
Cappadocia, had introduced the germs of Chris the Visigothsbefore the close of the third cen tianityamong a tury, and even rudimentarychurch organizationin certain places. The Visigoths,as a nation, had not been converted. of 264, from
4 To
that
work
Ulfila
parentage sprung,
was
to
in part at
contribute.
Born
about
310, of
least,from the captivesjustmen-
WORK
THE
130
tioned,he
of Christian
was
ULFILA
OF
origin,and
became
the services of the littleChristian Gothic
companied
a
Gothic
Eusebius
Arian
of
embassy, Nicomedia,
and
circle.
bishop
of
in Antioch
in the latter
In 341
after the formation
and
reckoned
one
of the Homoiousian
of its adherents.
For
the
ac
bishop by Constantinople, the synod (ante, theology,which anti-Nicene,
party he next
in the
where city,or is uncertain. His then sitting, p. 120) was thenceforth been very simple,was to have seems whether
he
ordained
was
then
"reader"
a
seven
was
to be
years
he
land, tillpersecution compelled him and his fellow Christians to seek refuge on Roman soil,livingand the modern Plevna, in Bulgaria. laboringfor many years near labored
in his native
His great work was the translation of the Scriptures, at least or of the New Testament, into the Gothic tongue. In 383 he died
Constantinople. Unfortunately,the complete oblivion into which these Arian labors fell, owing to their un orthodox character in the view of the followingage, allows no knowledge of Ulfila's associates,nor a judgment as to how far the credit of turning the Visigothsto Christianity belongedto about 370. him, or to the Gothic chieftain Fritigern, in spiteof heathen But, however brought about, the Visigoths, persecution,rapidly accepted Arian Christianity.Not only 'they,but their neighbors the Ostrogoths,the Vandals in part, Germanic and remoter such as the Burgundians and tribes,, on
a
visit to
the Arian faith before invadingthe Lombards, had embraced empire. Indeed, so widely had Christianitypenetrated that
improbablethat,had the invasions been a coupleof generationsdelayed, all might have entered the empire as As it was, the far Christians. those tribes only which were thest removed from the influences going out from the Visigoths those of northwestern the chief were Germany, of whom the Franks and the Saxons remained overwhelmingly heathen Such rapid extension of Chris at the time x"f the invasions. tianityshows that the hold of native paganism must have been and that many, whose have utterlyperished, names slight, shared in the work of conversion. of the utmost It was sig it seems
not
"
"
nificance that when Germans
came,
tianity. Had
the walls of the
empire were
broken
the
for the most part, not as enemies of Chris the Western empire fallen,as well it might, a
might have been vastly century before,the story of Christianity different.
GERMAN
THE
INVASIONS
131
Central Asia, by an invasion of Huns from western the Visigothssought shelter across the frontier of the lower Danube in 376. offi Angered by ill-treatment from Roman cials, they crossed the Balkans and annihilated the Roman army in in in battle which the Emperor Valens a near Adrianople, 378, Pressed
strong hand
lost his life,f The
of Theodosius
(379-395)
re
strained their further attacks; but on his death the empire, divide^ between his son of eighteen,Arcadius, in the East, and his
eleven-year-old son, Honorius,
able
resist the
to
dered
attack.
almost to the walls of
into Greece,
penetratingas
Under
in the
West, was no longer the Alaric, Visigothsplun
and Constantinople, far
as
thence
moved
Sparta. By 401 the Visi resisted for Italy,but were able Vandal Stilicho, general,
pressinginto northern the next few years by Theodosius's he had left as guardian for the young Honorius. whom Stilicho's murder, in 408, opened the road to Rome, and Alaric not till 410, however, that promptly marched thither. It was the Visigothicchieftain actuallycaptured the city. The poppular impressionof this event was profound. The old mistress of the world had fallen before the barbarians. Alaric,desirous of establishing a kingdom for himself and of securingRoman of Italy,marched for southern at once Africa, the granary Italy,and there died before the close of 410. Under Ataulf the Visigothichost marched northward, invading southern in 412. Gaul Here the Goths settled by 419, developing ultimatelya kingdom that included half of modern France, of Spain by conquest during the to which they added most goths were
course
of the century.
The
Roman
inhabitants
were
not
driven
out, but
they were subjected to their Germanic conquerors, who appropriatedmuch of the land, and placed its older occu inferior position. Commerce ham was pants in a distinctly pered,the life of the cities largelybroken down, and civilization
crippled. in progress, the tribes across these events the were their opportunity. The Rhine had seen Arian Vandals and heathen Alans and Suevi invaded Gaul at the close of 406, ultimatelypushing their way into Spain, where they arrived While
before Gaul
the Visigoths. The and
burg, and still bears
Franks
pressed into northern the Burgundians conquered the regionaround Strassthence graduallythe territory of eastern Gaul which their
name.
had
Britain, involved
in this
collapseof
GERMAN
THE
132
increasinglyinvaded by the Saxons, had been attackingits coasts since the
authority,was
Roman
INVASIONS
Angles,and Jutes, who
Roman of the fourth century. There weaker grasp than on the continent, and
civilization had
middle a
quest slowly advanced, it drove
westward, and Vandals
much
made
Spain, having
from
the
con
largely
heathen
The
a
Africa
in full force in 429, under Gaiseric. They of the Germanic the most early powerful
ratical ships speedilydominated the in 455. A Vandal raid sacked Rome
Germanic
Celtic element
of Britain entered
as
land.
by 425, invaded established
soon
it
there
kingdoms, whose pi
western
A
Mediterranean.
fearful
invasion
of
in 451,
checked in battle by the Huns under Attila,was and Visi near Troyes by the combined forces of the Romans goths. The next year Attila carried his devastations into Italy, and was which barely preventedfrom taking Rome by causes
Gaul
are
obscure, but
now
Leo
I, were
Though
believed
which
among to
have
the rule of the
been
the
efforts of its
bishop,
determinative.
Emperors
was
nominally maintained
who established the Germanic West, and even conquerors, professedlytheir de kingdoms in Gaul, Spain,and Africa were in the
pendents, the Emperors army. to
On
the
Valentinian
death III.
became
the tools of the chiefs of the
of Honorius, in 423, the empire passed
His
long reign,till455,
was
marked
by
the
of Africa, and Aetius, the count quarrels of Boniface, count of Italy,which permitted the Vandal conquest of North Africa. Aetius won, indeed, about the last victoryof the empire when, he defeated Attila in 451. Between with the Visigoths, 455 and set up and deposed in the 476 no less than nine Emperors were the head of the army. The real ruler of Italywas From West. held by Ricimer, of Suevic and Visi456 to 472 this post was taken by After his death the command was gothic descent. certain Orestes,who conferred the imperialtitle on his son, a in Italy was Romulus, nicknamed Augustulus. The army them the recruited chiefly from smaller Germanic tribes,among third of the land. demanded a Rugii and Heruli. It now in mutiny in 476 under the Orestes refused,and the army rose Germanic it made King. This date generalOdovakar, whom Em has usuallybeen taken as that of the close of the Roman pire. In realityit was without specialsignificance.Romulus further Emperor in no Augustulus was deposed. There was and his contemthe West till Charlemagne. But Odovakar
INVASIONS
GERMAN
THE
133
at an thought that the Roman Empire was in ruled southern ruled in Italy as' the Visigoths end. He France and Spain, a nominal subjectof the Roman Emperor, in who the throne sat on Constantinople. ended in 493 in the Odovakar's sovereignty in Italy was Germanic invaders of Italy,the Ostro struggleagainst new that successful conqueror Under a goths, led by Theodoric. and Germanic of Remarkable in Roman amalgamation really stitutions was Ravenna, whence attempted. His capitalwas The he ruled till his death in 526. Ostrogothickingdom in under the Em Italywas brought to an end by the long wars fought,from 535 to 555, by Beliperor Justinian,which were sarius and Narses, who restored a ravaged Italyto the empire. Contemporaneously (534) the imperialauthoritywras re-estab lished in North Africa and the Vandal kingdom brought to Between end. 568 and 572 not long at peace. an Italy was
porarieshad
a
no
invasion, that of the Lombards,
Germanic
new
that
kingdom ern Italy,to did
was
to last for two
which
regionthey
not, however, win
Rome
centuries.
gave
and
founded
Masters
a
of north
their name, the Lombards the southern part of the
did
they gain Ravenna, the seat of the imperial remained, therefore, exarch, till the eighth century. Rome connected had its seat in Constanti with the empire which frontier nople, but so distant and so close to the Lombard that effective control from impossible Constantinople was condition extremely favorable for the growth of the political a peninsula,nor
"
of its bishop.
power
Contemporaneously with the earlier of the scribed,changes of the utmost were significance Gaul.
The
Franks, of whom
long been pressinginto inces.
Divided
jFranks,
from
^energy,he He
and
church
into about
his
he
an
Arian.
declared
thousand year.
His
After for
of was
most a
has
just de
in process
been
made,
part of the ancient
tribes, the Clovis.
King
of
the
in had
prov
Salic
A
chieftain of great his sovereigntyas far as the Loire. still heathen, though he treated the
481,
was
respect. In 493
dian, but, unlike not
several
people were
with
the northern
extended
soon
mention
events
he
married
Clotilda,a Burgunof her fellow countrymen, a "Catholic," the Alemans, in 496, great victoryover
Christianity,and
his followers in
was
baptized
with
three
Rheims, on Christmas of that to be contribe,therefore,
the first Germanic
CONVERSION
THE
134 verted
Burgundians, and belief
Lombards
for Clovis
won
but, added
death, in 511,
his
to
take
to
of the
sions north
Visigoths,Ostrogoths,Vandals, Arians.
bishops whom
enabled abilities,
own
from
the
Pyrenees and
to become
stretchingeven
J
was
connections
between
them
and
him
before his
France, his territories
That
beyond ultimately,though
"Catholic"
so
of
Rhine.
the
he, in turn,
of their posses extensive a ruler
Visigothsmost
well be called the founder
that he may
This
in agreement the good-willof the old Roman
were
only
not
FRANKS
THE
the support of the
population and favored
faith.
the orthodox
to
OF
the
Franks
were
immediately,to
not
of
the papacy
most
bring far-reaching
consequences.
conversion
The
of the Franks
the other Germanic
had
also much
influence
on
invaders,though the example of the native
population among powerfully. The
whom
settled worked even more they were Arianism in 517, Burgundians abandoned and in 532 became of Frankish im the The kingdom. part perialconquests of Justinian ended the Arian kingdoms of the Vandals and Ostrogoths. The ter rivalryof the creeds was minated in Spain by the renunciation of Arianism by the VisigothicKing, Recared, in 587, and confirmed at the Third Coun cil of Toledo, in 589. About of 590 the gradual conversion the Lombards to Catholicism began a process not completed tillabout 660. Thus all Arianism ultimatelydisappeared. "
SECTION
THE
VI.
GROWTH
OF
THE
PAPACY
the distinction
To
Church already attachingto the Roman and its bishop the period of the invasions brought new emi Believed to be founded by Peter, situated in the an nence. cient capital, the guardian of apostolical tradition,the largest and
of the West, it had stood orthodox in controversy, and in the ruin of the Germanic vasions it seemed the great survivinginstitution of the ancient most
church
generous
in the Arian world the
which
they
bishops
of Rome
several abilities,
~
\ "
\
unable
were
in this
to
While
overthrow.
period
were
men
most
of
of moderate
the strongest leaders of the West, and to them great advancement in the authorityof the Roman bishop the development of a real papacy" Such a leader due. was were
"
of force
C,Church
was
not
Innocent
I
(402-417). He
claimed
tradition onlycustodyof apostolical
for the Roman and the founda-
136
THE
Italyby the
Eastern
MONASTICISM
OF
RISE
empire, diminished the independenceof the papacy. Outside of Italy the growth of a new Catholic the Franks, and the gradual conversion of Arian Ger power, manic rulers,brought about a harmony between the new sover their in latter and that the extensive to bishops eigns gave claims, though accompanied by great dependence of Roman sovereigns. The full realization dependence on the Germanic of the papal ideal,thus early established,was to be a task of and was vicissitudes. to encounter centuries, many SECTION
*,
MONASTICISM
VII.
?
It has standard
of
before the time of Constantine
church
by the
aided
was
progress
(ante,pp. 103, 104). Their inherent
ascetic tendencies
philosophiesof the ancient
better who
pointed out that ascetic ideals and a double Christian morality had long been growing in the
been
world.
in the
Origen,for
with the Hellenistic
instance, distinguished
spirit, Long before the close of the third century the holy virginswere a conspicuous element in the church, and men and women, without leavingtheir homes, were pracis asceticism. Nor asceticism, or even monasticism, ) tising be found in Its to to are peculiar Christianity. representatives the religions of India and among Jews, Greeks, and Egyptians. led to its increased development contem Certain causes with the recognition of Christianity by the state. The porary low condition of the church, (emphasized by the influx of vast permeated
was
was
for his asceticism.
;
in the peace
numbers sion
of
from
Constantine,\led
life
by serious-minded
doms
left asceticism
The
world
morality,from /
V ble and
A
than
was
practiceof
:~:~
a
to
a
all,the
lavman"s
Christian movement.
a
soon a
ascetic
attain-
breach
worship and
to
more
an-
formalism the
close of
individual
become with
of
estima-
more
extreme
freer and
was was
as
developed by
desire for
Monasticism
conver
Christian
mind
The
contemplation
Above
in its initiation it
tions of conventional
of the
cessation of martyr-
well to flee.
of public worship, as rigidity
approach to enough ; but :
The
Christians.
the active virtues.
God.
after the
enlarged valuation
it seemed
/ the third century, led L
303, and
highestChristian achievement filled with sightsthat offended
which
tiquityregarded the
to
the
.
\1 able.
to
260
the
service.
formal limita-
It_wasW
:,
monasticism,was born in Egypt, about 250, of native (Coptic)stock. of Christian
the founder
in central
Koma,
137
MONASTICISM
EARLY
Impressed with Christ's words and about v/up his possessions,
into the fifteen years later he went lived have is Here he said to solitude,becoming a hermit. till356 (?). He believed himself tormented by demons in every Some vijlage.
his native
practisedthe strictest self-
He
fasted.
He
imaginableform.
prayed constantly. He by overcoming the flesh. Anthony were largest
singlyor their
soon
as
as
) / V
imitators,
many
of which
/
Whether
possiblehermit-
largelyof
their self-denialswere
and
worship
were
far
l
devising.
own
first great improver of monasticism The Born about 292, he became soldier,and was a
heathenism
when Christianity
to
first he
At
near
L
God
to
alone,others absolutely
these monks
in groups,
like. Their
had
in groups, in the deserts of Nitria and Scetis.
lived
of whom
the
draw
would
He
denial.
some
; *
to the rich young man,1 he gave 270 took up the ascetic life in/
adopted
the
hermit
Pachomius.
was
from
converted
perhaps twenty
old.
years
dissatisfiedwith its
life,but
in he established the first Christian monastery irregularities, all the Here Tabennisi,in southern Egypt, about 315-320. into knit inmates were a singlebody, having assigned work, of
regularhours another
in
"
a
worship, similar dress,and
word,
a
life in
under
common
cells close to an
abbot.
one
This
also It was healthful type of monasticism. a vastlymore was for whom established a Pachomius one possiblefor women, At his death,in 346, there were ten of his monasteries convent. in
^/
\/
Egypt. The
types, the hermit form of Anthony and the cenobite
two
side by side in Egypt, that land to the rest of the em considerable developmentearlyin the fourth I
organizationof Pachomius, continued and
both
carried from
were
pire. Syria saw century.
There
sion,of which Simeon
a
an
the
hermit
example, a
who gtvlitgs.
form for
dwelt
took
extravagant
expres-
is that of the famous littlelater,
thirtyyears, till his death
in
situated east of ^ntioph. Mo the top of a pillar, in Asia nasticism Minor, on the other hand, continued the tradition of Pachomius, chieflyowing to the efforts of its great
459,
on
JBasjL(ante,p. 125), who ^l popularizer, from
about
360
to
his death 1
in 379.
Matt.
1921.
labored for its spread The
Rule
which
bears
^
his name, that I more \
his actual
life in
a
emphasized work, should
monks T
whether of
is,in
a
MONASTICISM
compositionor than
common
Bible
and
prayer,
aid those
similar good deeds. / Rule
OF
SPREAD
THE
138
that
reading.
by the discouragedextreme
It
outside
generalway,
/ and Russian Churches weight laid than (^less
a
not,
was
even
of Pachomius. It
of
care
It
taught that orphans, and
asceticism.
basis of the monasticism
Basil's
of the Greek
the present day, though with much and by him on work helpfulnessto to
others. The
/
work
introduction
of monasticism
of Athanasius. the
/tury
By
exhortations and
into the
the
was
closingyears of the fourth cenexamples of Jerome, Ambrose, and favor, though it also encountered
the
) Augustine brought it much its great / no little opposition. In France Tpurs, who established a monastery Soon
West
monasticism, both
advocate
Poitiers
near
in its cenobite
Martin
was
and
about
in its hermit
The earliest throughout the West. but Eusebius, bishop of monks, as East, were laymen ; Vercelli in Italy,who died in 371, began the practiceof requir ingthe clergyof his cathedral to live the monastic life. Through the custom the influence of this example it graduallybecame for monks ordination. Such clerical consecrato receive priestly ;ion became, also,the rule ultimatelyin the East. Western monasticism was long in a chaotic condition. Indi vidual monasteries had their separate rules. Asceticism,always characteristic in high degree of Eastern monasticism, found monasteries were disciples.On the other hand, many many orms,
was
to
be
found
in the
lax. ^of
The
Nursia.
of Western
great reformer Born
about
monasticism
480, he studied for
a
was
Benedict
brief time in
Rome,
hermit but, oppressed by the evils of the city,he became a of the mountains at Subiaco, east of Rome. (c.500) in a cave The fame of his sanctitygathered disciples about him, and led to
the offer of the
he acceptedonly to
unwillingto submit 529, traditionally
neighboringmonastery, which monks leave when he found its ill-regulated At uncertain date, to his discipline. some
headship of
he
a
founded
now
the
mother
monastery
of
Cassino, about and Naples. To it he gave his Rule, half-way between Rome of his life,his meet and in it he died; the last certain event
the
Benedictine
order,
on
the
hill of Monte
ing with the OstrogothicKing, Totila,having taken place in 542.
BENEDICT'S Benedict's of
human
Rule1
famous
exhibited
his
and
nature
RULE
Roman
139
his
profound knowledge genius for organization.
contained At
yet who
was
to consult
in
bound
was
monks:
Christ's_soldiers. self-supporting garri"Dii_,,QL he implicitly abbot, who must, an obeyed,
and
Tts head
in minor
monk wasjto~beconie__
None
a.
common
concern
questionsthe elder without having fried
but, ocuce^admitted,, his, To~Benedict's thinking,wjorshipwas
year; mona^teryfor^a
irrevocable^
vowlPwere
of
matters
grave
all the brethren, and
life of the
self-
nr|"ai
pe
Its daily common undouBtediy the prime dutyLJiL^-Jnojik. ;
observance
least four
occupied at
periods. Almost
much
as
hours, divided laid
was emphasis,
into
work.
on.
seven "
Idle
Hence of the spuTT' Benedict prescribed is the enemy fixed time must manual labor in the fields.and_ceadio".Some ^
ness
"spentin reading eachday, varying with
be
books
seasons
of the
assigned,with provisionto These insure their being read. made injunctions every_Jienedictine monastery, at all true to the founder s ideal,a_centre of a library. The value of these, of lnxlul"^,Iancl "he_possesspr nations and the\ provisionsin the trainingof the Germanic of literature was inestimable. Yet they were but' preservation that of worship. In secondary to Benedict's main purpose, characterized by great modera general,Benedict's Rule was in its requirementsas to food, labor, and tion and good sense year;
and
in Lent
the
It discipline.
was
a
must
be
strict life,but
not
one
at
all
impossible
for the average earnest man. In the Benedictine system early Western monasticism is to be seen at its best. His_Rule spread slowly. Itjwas carried .
by
missionaries
Roman
England
and
It did not Germany. penetrate France till the seventh century; but by the time,of well-nighuniversal. With__the Charlemagne it had become ilule of Benedict the adjustment between monasticism and the missionrc1rwas~TX5mplete.The services of its monks as
afies~anct pioneers
to
were
inestimable
of
value.
In
troubled
times the monastery afforded the_ojily__re"uge for ^peace-loving vSpuls.The highestproof of its adaption to the later Roman
Empire and the Middle Ages was supported the institution;they 1
Extracts
Historical
in Ayer, pp.
Documents
of
631-641 the Middle
;
that were
not to
be
only
the best
found
in it.
men
Its
practicallyin full in Henderson, Select Ages, pp. 274-314.
AMBROSE
140
great faults,from
discredit of the life of the
its emphasis pointof view, were higher and lower morality,and its Christian family; but both were in
heritances
conditions
on
distinction
a
Empire
from
between Christian
antecedent
nasticism
ideals in the Roman
and
the
development of monasticism. their product,not their cause.
was
to
SECTION j
modern
a
VIII.
AMBROSE
AND
Mo-
CHRYSOSTOM
V
"K
The
contrast
trated
by
Ambrose.
and
between
the unlike
East
is in many experiencesof
and
West
and qualities
Ambrose
in
born
was
illus
ways
Chrysostom in western
Trier, now
Germany, where his father held the high civil office of prae Educated in Rome torian prefectof Gaul, about 337-340. for and likableness led to his " civil career, his talents,integrity, / appointment,about 374, as governor of a considerable part of ^ northern Italy,with his residence in Milan, then practically an imperialcapital. The death of the Arian bishop,Auxen'
tius,in 374, left the Milanese were
in bitter
soon
of his
struggleas
The
successor.
young
quietthe throng,when and
he
found
Milan.
To
became to
a
the
church
to
raised,"Ambrose
was
call of God.
a
was
He
the church.
and
talent for
He
gave
up
his
studied
acceptablepreacher. Above
the full the Roman
Vbecame
factions
two
theological complexion entered
governor
the cry
Ambrose, this
most
the
to
The
Bishop I" himself, though unbaptized,elected bishop of
to the poor
wealth
vacant.
see
theology. He all,he possessed
administration,and
he
soon
Strongly attached to the Nicene faith,Ambrose would make no compromise with the Arians, and resisted all their attempts to secure placesof aided by the effort in which they were an worship in Milan Empress Justina,mother of the youthful Valentinian II. In the efforts of the hea the same spirithe opposed successfully the
first ecclesiastic of the
West.
"
then
party in Rome
to
obtain
from
Valentinian
II the
res
Victory in the Senate chamber, and other privileges for the older worship. His greatest triumph That in the case of the Emperor Theodosius. was quick the of of murder the tempered ruler, angered by governor of its inhabThessalonica,in 390, caused a punitivemassacre
J
toration
of the Altar
itants.
Ambrose,
Emperor
to
of
with
his
manifest 1
moral
rare
courage,
called
public repentance.1 It
Ayer,
pp.
390, 391.
on
throws
the a
141
CHRYSOSTOM
AND
AMBROSE
he
that
the character of Theodosius
lighton pleasing
obeyed
the admonition. Ambrose
was
theologicalwriter of such reputationthat
a
Church
the Roman
him
reckons
of its
one
"
Doctors
^
" "
or
work, however, in this field was
His
authoritative teachers.
as
largelya reproductionof the thoughts of Greek theologians, though with a deeper sense of sin and grace than they. "I but I will glory because will not glory because I am righteous, free from sin, I will not glory because I am I #m redeemed. l sins are bent was .but because forgiven." Ambrose's my J practical.He wrote on Christian ethics,in full sympathy with of the time.
the ascetic movement the
development
ful and
sometimes
personalcharacter Such
church.
contributed
He
of Christian
hymnology a overbearing,he was zeal and of indefatigable were
men
needed
much
in the West. man "
a
in the shock
to
Force
of the
highest true princeof the* of the collapsing
He died in 397. empire if the church was to survive in power. the life of Chrysostom. John, to whom Very different was the name was givenlong after Chrysostom, "golden-mouthed,"
his death, tioch about
born
was
of noble
and
^
well-to-do parents in An-
Losing his father shortlyafter his birth, j he was mother, Anthusa, / brought up by his religious-minded and early distinguished himself in scholarshipand eloquence. / About 370, he was baptized and probablyordained a "reader." He now extreme asceticism,and pursued theological \ practised 345-347.
*-
studies
under
Diodorus
later Antiochian became
a
pelledhis
hermit return
of Tarsus,
Antioch, where
to
was
and exegetical
he
was
ordained
a
deacon
the priesthood. Then useful period of his life. For
advanced
the Oriental Church were
of the
Not
followed the happiestand most the great twelve years he was mons
leaders
he satisfiedwith his austerities, (c. 375), and so remained till ill-health com
school.
(c.381). In 386 he
Jthat
of the
one
to
the ablest preacherof Antioch probably ever possessed. His ser eminently practical.The simple, "
/
,
always preferred grammatical understandingof the Scriptures, beloved in Alexan in Antioch to the allegorical interpretation His themes were dria,appealedto him. eminently social the of life. He soon Christian conduct had an enormous following. fame the of Constanti Such was see that, on Chrysostom's he f orced was by Eutropius, v acant, practically noplefalling "
1
De Jacob
et vita
beata,1
:
621.
CHRYSOSTOM
142
the favorite of the Emperor Arcadius, Jof the capitalin 398. Here he soon like that of Antioch. beset
From
the
with
foes.
to won
accept the bishopric a
popular hearing
first, however, his
way
in Con
The
unscrupulous patriarch to bring Constantinople into practicalsubjection. Himself the opponent of Origen's for teaching,he charged Chrysostom with too great partiality that master. for which there Chrysostom's strict discipline, ( was disliked by the loose-living was ample justification, clergy of Worst of he the o all, won / Constantinople. hostilityf the J vigorousEmpress Eudoxia, by reasons of denunciations of femi nine extravagance in dress,which she thought aimed at herself. fearless in de Chrysostom was certainlyas tactlessas he was nouncing offenses in high places. All the forces againsthim In his arose. gathered together. A pretext for attack soon certain monks oppositionto Origen,Theophilus had disciplined of Egypt. Four of these, known the "tall brothers," fled as well received. Theophilus to Chrysostom, by whom they were and Chrysostom's other enemies now secured a synod, at an "The Oak," as imperial estate near Constantinople known and which, under the leadershipof Theophilus, condemned C deposed Chrysostom in 403. The as Empress was supersti/ tious as she was enraged,and an accident in the palace later tradition picturedit probablymistakenlyas an earthquake led left the capital. to Chrysostom's recall shortly after he had of brief duration. A silver statue of the Empress, Peace was erected hard by his cathedral,led to denunciations by Chrys of the ceremonies of its dedication. The ostom Empress saw in him more than ever This time, in spite a personalenemy. of warm the miserable banished to popular support, he was of Cucusus, on the edge of Armenia. town Pope Innocent I protested,but in vain. Yet from this exile Chrysostom con tinued so to influence his friends by letter that his opponents determined to place him in deeper obscurity. In 407 he was ordered reached there, dying on the to Pityus,but he never journey. The fate of this most deserving, ifnot most judicious, preacher side of imperial inter.of righteousnessillustrates the seamy I ference in ecclesiastical affairs,and the risingjealousiesof the I great sees of the East, from whose mutual hostility the church / and the empire were greatlyto suffer. stantinoplewas
of Alexandria, Theophilus, desired
"
"
APOLLINARIS
144
with Athanasius,Apolprimarilyreligious.To both, Christ's
his opponents.
from
even
linaris's interest work
for
same
time
was
the
Moreover,
as
transformation
of
sinful
mortality into divine and blessed immortality. This salvation,Apollinaris thought with Athanasius, could be achieved only if Christ was completely and perfectlydivine. But how, Apollinaris united with argued, could Christ be made up of a perfectman complete God ? Was that not to assert two Sons, one eternal, Nor could Apollinarisexplain and the other by adoption? 1 Christ's sinlessness or the harmony of His wills,if Christ was To him, the best solujoined with full God.2 complete man akin that of seemed he otherwise opposed, to Arius, whom r,tion of the soul in the taken by the Logos, Jesus that was place / That view having been conf and only the body was human. Jdemned,though without mention of his name, by a synod in in 362,3 Apollinaris apparently altered his theory jAlexandria /so as to hold that Jesus had the body and animal soul of a man, in Him the Logos.4 At the but that the reasoningspirit was it
with
was
he
held
sorrows."
our
that it
absorbed
so
"
fered
men
"
5
the
divine
that
"God
These
our
made
so
has
the
in His
opinions seemed
human
own
to
one
flesh suf do
special
and were destined to be widely and Christ's divinity, permanentlyinfluentialin Oriental Christian thinking,but they really^denied Christ's true humanity, and as such speedily honor
i
to
called down
condemnation
against him
in 377
so-called Second
"J pin381. by
their
author.
382, Antioch
Ecumenical
Council
in "
378,
that
of
decided
Rome and
finallythe
Constantinople
6
was Apollinaris
and
on
and
the
school
stronglyoppposed by Gregory of of Antioch.
The
Nazianzus
founoTef of the
latter,in
its later stage, was Diodorus (?-394), long a presbyterof An Its roots, tioch,and from 378 to his death bishop of Tarsus.
indeed, ran back into the earlier teachingof Paul of Samosata posi (ante,p. 72) and Lucian (ante,p. 106) ; but the extreme tions
which
they represented,and
their
were leadership,
re
jected,and the school stood on the basis of the Nicene ortho marked by a degree of literalism in its exegesis doxy. It was of allegory of Scripturequite in contrast to the excessive use 1 8 4
Ayer, p. 495. Athanasius, Tomus Ayer, p. 495.
2
Ibid.
6
Canon, 1.
ad Antiochenos, 7. 8
Ibid.,p.
496.
THE
SCHOOL
influenced
more
and
Adam,"
philosophyshowed the influence of of Plato. Its thought of Christ was
theirs that
as
by
the tradition of Asia
the
by
145
Its
by the Alexandrians. Aristotle
ANTIOCH
OF
ancient
Christ
Minor, of the "second
distinction
between
the
Jesus
of
Alexandria. experiencethan was laid more Antioch, therefore, weight of teachingon the earthly life and'human of Jesus than was the tendency in Alex nature andria. In this attempt to give true value to Christ's human two per ity,Diodorus approached the view that in Christ were in union. moral rather than essential Since the sons Logos is eternal and like can only bear like,that which was born of Mary the human the indwellingof j was only. The incarnation was the Logos in a perfectman, of God in a temple. These views as ; of which reminiscent had the are adoptionistChristology,
the
history and
of
t
'
found
of its latest avowed
one
in Antioch
defenders
century earlier. They
a
in Paul out
were
of Samosata
of touch
with
the
conceptionof salvation the making divine of the human. of Diodorus were Chrysostom (ante,p. Among the disciples of and Theodore Nestorius. Theodore, a 141), Mopsuestia, held the bishopricfor which he is native of Antioch, who named for thirty-six the ablest years, tillhis death in 428, was exegete and theologianof the Antiochian school. Though he
v/ Greek
"
maintained son
"
that
prosopon,
God
and
irpocrwrrov
man
in Christ
he had
"
constituted
one
per
in making that difficulty
con
identical with those real,and held theories practically
tention
of Diodorus.1
of Antioch, held in high Nestorius. a presbyter and monk made patriarchof Constanti repute th*ereas a preacher,was
nople in
428.
of his discoveries, especially
Recent
auto
own
of Heraclides of Damascus, have immensely broadened knowledge of his real theological well as of the facts of his later life. His dogmatic as position, that of the school of Antioch; yet essentially standpointwas work, biographical
he would
not
admit
The
that
the doctrine with which Christ
we
Treatise
designateat
he the
there was same
essential characteristics in the
\vere
in Christ two
charged. time two nature
"With
persons
the
natures.
of the
.
one
"
name
The .
.
divinityand
in
humanity are from all eternitydistinguished." Perhaps his furthest departure from the current Greek conception of in such an expression salvation is to be seen God the Word as : the
2
"
1
Ayer, pp. 498-501.
2
Ibid.,p. 502.
146
THE
ALEXANDRIAN Christ because He
is also named Christ.
And
without
the
INTERPRETATION has alwaysconjunction with
it is impossible for God
the Word
to do
anything
humanity, for all is
planned upon an intimate Nesnot on the deification of the humanity."1 conjunction, torius would emphasize the realityand completenessof the
J human
in the Christian's Lord.
Opposed to Nestorius,and to be his bitterest enemy, was Cyril,the patriarchof Alexandria (412-444),the nephew and of the patriarch who had had so unworthy a part in successor the downfall of Chrysostom. In him unscrupulousambition of Constantinople combined with the jealousy longentertained and it must in Alexandria be admitted, reciprocatedand with the hostility of the rival schools of Alexandria and Antioch. in his Yet it is but justto Cyrilto note that there was more how to Nestorius than mere opposition jealousyand rivalry, ever prominent those unlovelytraits may have been. Cyril, and in consonance the Alexandrian tradition, with the following Greek conceptionof salvation, in Christ the full making saw the view of Apoldivine of the human. Though he rejected linaris and held that Christ's humanity was completein that stood very near it possessed he really to body, soul,and spirit, in Christ the such divine His emphasis on was Apollinaris. Him the that of "two in union as that,though he described in Christ was that of the Logos. natures,"the onlypersonality The Logos "took flesh,"He clothed Himself with humanity. The human element had no personality apart from the Logos. Yet while Cyril held to individual man. Jesus was not an of qualities between the divine and the human, an interchange From two natures, one" ; and that each is a completenature. is the divine. For Cyril it was, therefore, one personality who was God made flesh, we born, who died,of whom partake in the Supper, and whose making divine of humanity is the that we, too, shall be made partakersof the proofand means "
"
"
If the school of Antioch separationof the divine and the human
divine nature.2
came as
near
to
such
a
leave Christ
\ only the Son of God by adoption,that of Cyrilallowed Him littlemore than an impersonalhumanity absorbed in divinity. Mother of of the Mother of Jesus was An ancient designation God"" Theotokos,"eoroW?. It had been used by Alexander of and Gregory of Nazianzus. Alexandria,Athanasius, Apollinaris, "
1
Ayer, p. 502.
2
See
Ayer,pp. 505-507.
THE To
Cyrilit was,
OF
"MOTHER
of course,
GOD"
147
natural
expression. Everywhere be said to have been in good usage, save in the East it may where the school of Antioch had influence, and even Theodore of Mopsuestia of that school was willingto employ the expres coin in sion,if carefullyguarded.1 Nestorius found it current dis Constantinople. To his thinkingit did not sufficiently from the divine in Christ. He therefore tinguishthe human preached againstit,at the beginningof his bishopric, declaring a
form to be "Mother the proper is born of flesh is flesh." Yet
littlelater
as
willingto
say
of Christ""
"for
that
which
he expressed himself a Theotokos,in the guarded way in even
"
It can be endured in con employ it. sideration of the fact that the temple, which is inseparably of her." 3 united with God In preaching the Word, comes against this expressionNestorius had touched popular piety and the rising for the Virgin on the quick. reverence religious his opportunity to humiliate the rival see of Con Cyril saw and the school of Antioch at one blow, while ad stantinople vancing his own Christology. Cyril promptly wrote to the Egyptian monks defending the disputed phrase, and 'there followed an exchange of criticalletters between soon Cyril and Nestorius. It speedily the patri to an came open attack on arch of Constantinople. to his Cyril now brought every influence at his command in aid in one church of the most repulsivecontests history. He appealed to the Emperor and Empress, Theodosius II and Eudocia, and to the Emperor's sister,Pulcheria, representing that Nestorius's doctrines destroyed all basis of salvation. He presented his case to Pope Celestine I (422-432). Nes in his turn, also wrote to the Pope. Celestine promptly torius, found in favor of Cyril,and ordered, through a Roman synod which
Theodore
would
"
in 430, that Nestorius recant be excommunicated. The or action of the Pope is hard to understand. The letter of Nes torius agreed more nearly in its definition of the question at issue with the Western
view
than
did the
theory of Cyril. Nes both natures which by the highest in the one and unmixed union are adored of the Only person 4 Politics were Begotten." probably the determiningfactor. Rome and Alexandria had long worked togetheragainst the torius declared his faith in
1 4
"
2 Ayer, p. 500. Ibid.,p. 501. In Loofs, Nestoriana, p. 171.
a
Ibid.
COUNCIL
THE
148
OF
EPHESUS
Constantinople. Nestorius was less respectful in his address to the Pope than Cyril. Moreover, without being degree of favor to the a Pelagian,Nestorius had given some the Pope opposed (see p. 187). Nestorius's Pelagianswhom also displeasingto attack on the much-prized Theotokos was risingclaims
j
of
Celestine.
widely involved in the dispute,the empire being now two Emperors, Theodosius II of the East, and Valentinian III in Ephesus in in the West, called a generalcouncil to meet 431. Cyril and his followers were early on hand, as was Nes slow in arriving. torius, but the friends of Nestorius were bishop of Ephesus promptly organized Cyril and Memnon, such of the council as were present and they could secure. v Nestorius condemned and deposed in a singleday's ses was sion.1 A few days later Nestorius's friends,led by John, the of Antioch, arrived. They organized and, in turn, patriarch v condemned and deposed Cyril and Memnon.2 Cyril'scouncil, the and added papal delegates, meanwhile, had been joinedby time condemning Pela/John to its list of deposed,at the same ^ The gianism (see p. 188), doubtless to please the West. at a loss as to what to course Emperor Theodosius II was The
Nestorius
pursue.
retired to
prisoned Cyril and inclined their
their side and
to
\ffollow. Antioch ever,
Alexandria
and
they
both, under
were
Nestorius, and
was
now
were
would
allowed
soon
in
imperialpressure,
Antioch
Theodosius
trouble-makers, but
as
real victim
The
sees.
but
Memnon
monastery.
a
to
to to
was
more hostility were
politics
return
worse
made
im
than
willingto
Nestorius, and Cyril in creedal formula. Accord
sacrifice
compromise. concede something to Antioch ingly,in 433, John of Antioch sent to Cyrila creed composed, of Cyrus, then the leadingtheo it is probable,by Theodoret This creed was Antimore logianof the school of Antioch. ochian than Alexandrian, though it could be interpretedin Lord Jesus therefore acknowledge our either direction. "We A union Christ complete God and complete man. of the two natures has been made, therefore we confess one Christ. The holy Virgin is Theotokos,because God the .
.
.
Word tion 1
was
...
.
.
.
made
united
Ayer, p.
with
507.
flesh and Himself 2
became the
man,
and
from
temple received
Ibid.,509.
3
her concep from her."
Ibid.,pp. 510, 511.
3
THE
FATE
OF
NESTORIUS
149
signed this creed, though without retracting any of his former utterances. By so doing he made irrevocable the of Nestorius. Yet Nestorius could have signed it overthrow more even willinglythan he. This agreement enabled Cyril in the East for his council of 431, to secure generalrecognition of papal representa ih the West the participation in Ephesus tives had always accredited it as the Third General Council. Nestorius himself 'was banished to upper Egypt. There he lived a miserable existence,and there he wrote, certainlyas Treatise of Heraclides of 450, his remarkable late as the autumn he survived the Council of Chalcedon Whether of Damascus. (/
Cyrilnow
"
is uncertain. all events
is
some
reason
to think
that
he did.
rejoicedin the steps which led to it,and then sympathy with the views which were
he
in
himself
There
At
felt pro
claimed orthodox. all of Nestorius's sympathizers shared in his desertion., Ibas, the leadingtheologianof the Syrian school of Edessa^ */ supported his teaching. Persecuted in the empire, NestorianNot
ism
found
Persia.
much
There
in Syria, and protectionin followingeven it developed a wide missionary activity. In
~/
time the seventh century it entered China, and about the same southern India. Nestorian churches still exist in the region Lake where Turkey and Persia divide the territorybetween Urumia The
the upper Tigris,and also in India. Antioch and Alexandria agreement of 433 between and
in reality, but
a
truce.
The
division of the two
was,
partiesbut in majority of the
Cyril undoubtedly representedthe Eastern Church, with his emphasis on the divine in the person im of reducing the human of Christ, at the expense to an personal humanity. Though he vigorouslyrejectedApollithat of Apollinaris.It had the narianism, his tendency was especially sympathy of the great party of monks; and many, in Egypt, went further than Cyril,and viewed Christ's human absorbed in His divinity,so that He pos ity as practically sessed one nature only, and that divine. Cyril died in 444, and was succeeded as patriarchof Alexandria by Dioscurus, and religious of far less intellectual acumen motive, but a man the authorityof to advance ambitious, if possible, more even the Alexandrian Two see. later,446, a new patriarch, years took the Flavian, bishop'sthrone in Constantinople. Though of his earlyhistory, littleis known it seems probable that his creased.
DIOSCURUS,
150
with
sympathieswere Flavian's
the
promised
course
AND
FLAVIAN,
LEO
school of Antioch. be
to
He
stormy.
the
From had
the
first, opposi
only of Dioscurus, but of the imperialfavorite minis ter, Chrysaphius,who had supplantedPulcheria in the counsels tion not
Chrysaphiuswas
II.
of Theodosius
a
supporter of the Alex
andrians.
r
Dioscurus planned an at arose. quarrelsoon of the Antiochian school tack on the remaining representatives In sympathy with this effort, and as a Nestorian heretics. as for
Occasion
leader
of the monastic
party,
the
on
counted, stood the aged abbot
help of
which
Dioscurus
"archimandrite," Eutyches
or
of
of little theological a man a partisan Constantinople, ability, of the late Cyril,and influential not only by reason of his the of b ut by friendship Chrysaphius. Eutyches popularity, with was now charged heresyby Bishop Eusebius of Dorylseum. with reluctance,evidentlyknowing Flavian took up the case its possibilities of mischief ; but at a local synod in Constanti and examined condemned. nople,late in 448, Eutyches was His heresy was that he affirmed : I confess that our Lord was of two before the union [i. but natures e.y the incarnation], "
after the union
had
Rome of Leo and
I
nature."
one
now
l
of the ablest of its Popes in the person (seeante, p. 135), and to Leo both Eutyches
one
(440-461)
Flavian
speedilypresentedthe case.2 To Flavian, whom he heartily supported,Leo wrote his famous letter of June, 449, usually called the Tome,3 in which the great Pope set forth a
the view
which
the West
had
entertained
since the time
of
that in Christ were two Tertullian, complete natures, from the without which, detracting propertiesof either nature and substance, came togetherin one person." What may be said,chieflyin criticism of Leo's letter is that, while represent ing clearlyand truly the Western tradition,it did not touch the subtler Greek mind the intellectual depths to which had carried its speculations.Probably it was well that it did not. Meanwhile Dioscurus was moving activelyin Eutyches's full and
"
defense and
the extension of his
the
own
claims.
Emperor called a general council to August, 449. At Ephesus Dioscurus was rehabilitated,Flavian
was 1
Ayer, pp. 513, 514.
3
Ibid.,28
and
:
; extracts, Ayer, p. 515.
At
his instance
in
Ephesus in Eutyches supreme. of Dorylseum conEusebius meet
"
Letters of Leo, 20-28.
y CHALCEDON
OF
CREED
THE
152
Jr. m^y^ ;_truly perfectIn Godhead p"rl Q^r" p^rJWvfGod and trul^m^n, of a reasonable soul and body; consubstantial with the Father accordingto the Godhead, ancLcon(ojjLOovcnov) substantial with, .us -according to the manhood, in all thingslike
the
same
sin;begotten before all ages of the Father accord ing to the Godhead, and in these latter days,for us and for our sal of God (Theotokos), vation,born of the VirginMary, the Mother Christ,Son, Lord, accordingto the manhood; one and the same us, without
unto
unchangeably, inOnly-begotten,in two natures, inconfusedly, being by no divisibly, inseparably,the distinction of natures taken away means by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved,and concurringin one person (prosopon) and one subsistence (hypostasis) not parted or divided into two and the Son and but same one Only-begotten,God the persons, Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophetsfrom the beginning have declared concerningHim, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the creed of the holy Fathers has handed down ,
to
us.
Such
is the creed that has
Greek, Latin, and
since been regardedin the
ever
Protestant
most
Churches
the
as
"
ortho
Christological problem. It is easy to criticiseit. Its adoptionwas greatlyinvolved in ecclesiastical It solved few of the intellectual difficultiesregarding politics. Christologywhich had been raised in the East. It did not ,/ even heal the Christological quarrels.But, when all is ad dox"
solution
mitted,it
of the
be said that its formulation
must
its consequences field in which a
there
portant than that, it I of the church ^
It established
useful.
had
been true
was
that in Christ
a
to
a
was norm
fortunate
and
of doctrine in
great confusion. the fundamental
More
im
conviction
complete revelation of God
is
genuinehuman life. and Roman If a coincidence of imperial interestshad secured for Rome, the imperialauthority was a great dogmatic victory determined that the victoryshould not be one of Roman juris the council diction. By a canon, againstwhich Leo protested, like that of exalted the claims of Constantinople to a dignity made
Rome
in terms
of
a
(ante,p. 135). Nor
the downfall
was
of Alexandria less
damaging. Alexandrian rivalryof Constantinoplehad been successful rivalrywas Rome's advantage in the East. Now at
an
end, for the
consequences
of the Chalcedonian
decision
^fcrippledAlexandria permanently. By the council the historic distribution of the Orient
was
Jerusalem beinggiven completed,
THE
REVOLT
MONOPHYSITE
153
the patriarchalstandingwhich it had long claimed, side by Alexan side with the three older patriarchates, Constantinople,
dria,and Antioch.
X.
THE
EAST
creed of Chalcedon
was
now
f
The
SECTION
originand largeportion of
DIVIDED
the officialstandard
the empire. Its Western
able, however, entals
to
it seemed
a
shared
the East.
This
"Nestorian."
those regionswhich
spiritmade
stronglyin
most
it unaccept Ori To many
especiallytrue
was
of
the
in
Alexandrian
tendency to emphasize the divine in Christ at the expense of the fullyhuman, and these elements of oppositionincluded of the monks, the old native stock of Egypt generally, most and a largeportion of the population of Syria and Armenia. Cyril and Undoubtedly {he tendencies which the "orthodox" his heretical successor, conDioscurus,had representedwere of the and with seemed Greek sonant conception salvation, honor Christ. These to do to special rejectersof the creed of Chalcedon included many shades of opinion,but as a whole they showed little departure from Cyril. Their chief differ from of emphasis. and the West Chalcedon ence was one They rejectedEutyches, yet most of them would say "of two and di understood that the human natures," provided it was '7
\
vine
were
united
in the incarnation
into
nature, and
one
that
attributes. As with Cyril,this divine,with human essentially than with more humanity was impersonal,and, perhaps,even him it was that without transformed into divinity, so ceasing, in a certain sense, to be human, it was properly describable as one
Hence
divine nature.
"/called Monophysites
"
the
opponents
believers in
Immediately after the Council
one
of Chalcedon
were
nature.
of Chalcedon
in
Palestine and, the government
which revolution, practical able only slowlyto master. was By 457 the see of Alexandria in possessionof a Monophysite, Timothy, called by his was enemies the Cat; by 461, Peter the Fuller,of the same faith,
next, Egypt
were
held that of Antioch. nent, but
the
native
off the
throwing sympathized with the Fuller caused
These
captures
were
not
to be perma
populationsof Egypt and Syria were of Constantinopleand dominance largely the Monophysite protest. In Antioch Peter fresh commotion by adding to the Trisagion,
EFFORTS
COMPROMISE
154
ascriptionran: "Holy God, holy Strong,holy Im mortal, who ivas crucified for us." The empire found itself grievously 'threatened, no politically and much of the less than religiously, by these disaffections; than two centuries was devoted to imperialpolicy for more In the con their adjustment, with slightpermanent success. Zeno and Basilicus for the imperialthrone, the test between direct bid for Monophysite support by issuing, latter made a "the so-called in 476, an Encyclion,in which he anathematized in modification Tome of Leo, and all thingsdone at Chalcedon that the
so
"
of the
creed.1
Nicene
For
yet ready, and this action that led to his overthrow induced I
to
attempt
new
I famous
a
heal the
reversal the East
of Basilicus
was
one
not
was
of the
causes
Zeno, however, probably
by Zeno. patriarchAcacius
the
by
such
Constantinople,made a In 482 he published his
of
schism.
In it the results of fhe Councils of Nicsea
Henoticon.2
confirmed, Nestorius and Eutyches Constantinoplewere condemned, and Cyril's "twelve chapters"3 approved. It and
of the exact relationship which to that of Chalcedon not intended to was not, and was in the declaration : These was be, clear. Its chief significance brief
a
gave
statement, Christological
"
things we write, not as making an innovation upon the faith, who has held or holds any but to satisfyyou ; and every one other opinion,either at the present or at another time, whether in any at Chalcedon or synod whatever, we anathematize." creed
left it free to hold the Chalcedonian
This
The
ous.
was
consequence
not
peace
but
to
be
confusion.
errone
While
Monophysites accepted it,the Monophysite extremists On the other would have nothing to do with the Henoticon. and its orthodoxy at hand, the Roman see, feelingits honor tacked by this practical rejectionof Chalcedon, excommuni many
cated
Acacius
and
broke
off relations with
the
East, the schism
the continuing till 519, when the Emperor Justin renewed that increased authority of Chalcedon, under circumstances the prestige of the papacy,4but only alienated Egypt and Syria
the
!
more.
Justin's successor,
than
any
other
himself master 1 3
Ayer, pp.
of the Eastern of the church.
523-526.
Ibid.,pp. 505-507.
fully making conspicuous militarysuc-
the great Justinian (527-565), more succeeded Emgerors, His 2 4
in
Ibid.,pp. 527-529. Ante, p. 135 ; see Ayer,
p. 536.
155
POLICY
JUSTINIAN'S
the empire for a time control of Italy and The church was a department now practically
cesses
restored to
North
Africa.
Heathenism
of the state. before. never
suppressed and
was
persecutedas
Justinian himself was, at first, strongly in his sympathies,his Empress, Theodora, leaned While
Chalcedonian
Monophysite side. He soon gave up the persecutionof Monophysiteswith which his reignbegan. Himself one of the minds of the age, he sought to develop an ablest theological ecclesiastical policythat would so interpretthe creed of Chalthe
to
leavingit technicallyuntouched, would ex construction, clude any possibleAntiochian or "Nestorian" thus bringing its significance fullyinto accord with the the he hoped to pla By this means ology of Cyril of Alexandria. cate the Monophysites,and also to satisfythe wishes of the whether "orthodox" or East generally, Monophysite, without and the West too deeply by an actual rejection offendingRome
/cedon that, while
of the Chalcedonian
Justinian's aim.
orthodoxy was Cyrillic-Chalcedonian a
As
difficulttask.
far
as
concerned
dox
Any
view it succeeded.
nently discredited. By satisfied the wishes of "orthodox"
result
Justinian
and
was
was
Leontius theologian,
witnessinga
Leontius
and
"orthodox"
torian."
perma
undoubtedly
"
An
the
a
fresh
teaching of
a
The
Byzantium (c.485-543). Aristotelian philosophy, distinctions to
The
feelingof
much
be
subsistences
"
explanationwithout
Leontius now "intra-hypostatic"ewTrdoraTo?
of the
the
that
Monophysite, was
hypostases
the rise of
revival of the
in Christ could not
natures
ing two
of
appliedAristotelian
tologicalproblems. two
was
overwhelming majority of the
greatlyaided in his task by of the Chalcedonian creed, in interpretation age
Cyril
East.
Justinian
monastic
was
only "ortho
the
of Antiochianism
form
a
satisfaction of the Mo
of Chalcedon
this the
It
In its effort to render the
it failed. in general nophysites of the creed lic interpretation "
a
of
establishment
the
Hence
decision.
the
Chris-
East, both
affirmation
of
without involv interpreted and therefore being "Nes these
"Nestorian" The
conse
might be that is,there might be such of one nature a hypostaticunion that while the peculiarities remained, it might find its hypostasisin the other. In Christ which is that of both natures, is that of this one hypostasis, the Logos. Thus Leontius would interpretthe creed of Chal-
quences
was
what
"
gave.
"
natures
JUSTINIAN
156
THEOLOGICAL
in terms
cedon
subordinated Such
an
seemed, interpretation
basis of reunion
with
constituted their
majority. The
the
in Christ
human
the ultimate
that
POLITICIAN
with the aim, if not
wholly consonant language,of Cyril. The
exact so
A
AS
realityis at the
is
with
the
real,but is
the divine.
time, a quitepossible
moderate
more
Monophysites, who largesection led by Severus,
Monophysite patriarchof Antioch (512-518),who, tillhis death in 538, found a refugein Egypt, held essentially the same posi tion as Leontius. Their chief difference was that they regarded the Chalcedonian Council and its creed with greater suspicion. radical Monophysites, led by Julian of HalicarWith the more less auspicious. nassus (d.after 518), the prospect of union was They went so far as to hold that Christ's body was incorrupti and incapableof ble from the beginning of the incarnation, so far as Christ Himself save permittedit. Its enemies suffering charged the theory of Julian with Docetic significance. this situation by establishing To meet an anti-Antiochian, of the creed of Chalcedon, and winning, interpretation Cyrillic if possible, the moderate Monophysites,was the aim of Jus tinian. He came to favor the so-called Theopaschite (i.e., of formula the Scythian monks, "one of the "sufferingGod") Trinity suffered in the flesh,"after a controversy lastingfrom Because of monastic 519 to 533. quarrelsin Palestine,and also because the Emperor's theological sympathies,like those of his age, were exceedinglyintolerant,Justinian condemned and teachingsof Origen in 543. 1 the memory Justinian's great effort to further his theological policywas "
occasion
the
discussion
of the
known
as
"
that
of the
"Three
Chapters." In 544 Justinian,definingthe issue by his own the person and writingsof Theo condemned imperialauthority, dore
of
Mopsuestia,now
than
more
a
century dead, but
once
the revered leader of the school of Antioch
(ante,p. 145), the writingsof Theodoret of Cyrus in criticism of Cyril (ante,p. 148), and a letter of Ibas of Edessa to Maris the Persian (ante, been and Ibas had approved by the p. 149). Theodoret Council
in interpretation
school
Council
of
any
Antioch, and i
Emperor nominally it impossible made
Cyrillicsense, condemned greatlydisparagedthe authorityof but
The
of Chalcedon.
of the
untouched, but
left the creed of Chalcedon
of
action
The
of Chalcedon.
a
edict aroused
Ayer, pp. 542, 543.
not
a
the the
little opposi-
AS
JUSTINIAN
POLITICIAN
THEOLOGICAL
A
157
Pope Vigilius(537-555) disliked it, but the imperial reconquest of Italyhad placed the Popes largelyin the power Between his knowledge of the feelingof the of the Emperor. vacil attitude was and his fear of Justinian,Vigilius's West latingand utterlyunheroic.1 To carry out his will,Justinian tion.
the Fifth General
convened
now
Council,which
met
in Constan
Chapters," i. e., Theodore tinoplein 553. By it the "Three and the writingsjust described,were condemned, the "Theoreckoned more paschite" formula approved,and Origen once heretic.2 Pope Vigilius, though in Constantinople,refused a the imperialpres but such was to share in these proceedings, less than
that within
sure
the council.
The
was
action
of the council
Africa; and
year
he acceded
to the
decision of
of the creed of Chalinterpretation Cyrillic the only "orthodox" understanding. The
cedon
now
a
was
resisted for
the yieldingattitude
few
a
of the
years
Pope led
in North to
a
schis
which lasted separationof northern Italy from Rome till the time of Gregory the Great, and in the neighboring of the longer. One main purpose Illyricumand Istria even of the "Three condemnation Chapters" the reconciliation of failed. In Egypt and Syria Monophysitthe Monophysites ism remained the dominant being that force,the real reason these provinces were developing a native national conscious differences to the empire,for which theological ness antagonistic matic
"
"
were
the
more
Justinian's
Under berius
excuse
II
than
the
successors,
(578-582), alternate
nophysitesand
vain
attempts
cause.
Justin II (565-578),and Ti severe persecutionof the Mo to
win
them
occurred.
These
the Monophysite groups as significance The native were separatednational churches. now practically Monophysite body of Egypt can hardly be given fixed date for in of Chalcedon the land was the Council its origin. From rebellion. That church, the Coptic, is creasinglyin religious than stillthe main Christian body of Egypt, numbering more six hundred and fiftythousand adherents, stronglyMonophy site to this day in doctrine,under the rule of a patriarchwho stilltakes his title from Alexandria, though his seat has long Its services are still chieflyin the ancient in Cairo. been extent replaced it. The Coptic, though Arabic has to some most conspicuousdaughterof the Coptic Church is the Abysefforts
1
See
were
now
Ayer, pp.
of less
544-551.
2
Ayer, pp. 551, 552.
158
ABYSSINIA,
EGYPT,
was Christianity
When
sinian.
SYRIA,
is uncertain.
There
is
some
ARMENIA
AND
introduced to
reason
Frumentius, ordained
think
into "Ethiopia" that
its first mis
bishop by Athanasius, effective spread of Christianity there seems The 330. about The Abyssinian 480. to have been by Egyptian monks, about stands to the present day in dependent relations to Church that of Egypt, its head, the Abuna, being appointed by the It is Monophysite, and differs Coptic patriarchof Alexandria. of its cul in the backwardness little from that of Egypt, save sionary was
a
the great extent to which fastingis carried. It is probably the lowest in civilization of any existingchurch. While Egypt presented the spectacleof a united Monophy ture, and
site population,Syria was tants
inclined to
deeply divided.
Nestorianism
(ante, p.
Part
of its inhabi
149). Some were great organizer of
Monophysite. The Syrian Monophysitism, after its persecutionin the early part of the reign of Justinian, was Baradseus Jacob, nicknamed monk and enjoyed a Edessa, he became (?-578). Born near the support of Justinian's Monophysite-disposed Empress, Theodora. In 541 or 543 he was ordained bishop of Edessa, and for the rest of his lifeserved as a Monophysite missionary, ordaining,it is said, eighty thousand clergy. To him Syrian Monophysitism owed its great growth, and from him the Syrian Monophysite Church, which exists to the present day, derives the name given by its opponents, Jacobite. Its head calls himself patriarchof Antioch, though his seat has for centuries of his flock are to be found. been in the TigrisValley,where most abou-t eighty thousand. They number Armenia Em during the first four centuries of the Roman vassal kingdom, never a pire was thoroughly Romanized, and under its own its peculiarities language maintaining own sovereigns. Christian beginnings are obscure; but the great in the land was Gregory, called the propagator of Christianity Illuminator,who labored in the closingyears of the third cen converted and tury. By him King Tiridates (c.238-314) was baptized Armenia thus becoming the first country to have a orthodox, and
many
"
Christian ruler,since this event antedated the Christian pro Armenian fession of Constantine. Christianitygrew vigor
ously. Never menia
was
in
of the next
to the Roman closelybound In part conquered by Persia in 387. very
century hatred
of Persia
seems
to
world, Ar the
have
struggles turned
MONOTHELITE
THE
160
CONTROVERSY
by the Caliphs Omar
carried out
and
fell in 635, Jerusalem In 651, the Persian kingdom the
Spain,bringingthe into
forward
the
France,
Damascus
to
end.
an
to
a
close,and
and
Poitiers.
In the
it, in 672-678, North Africa were
Syria,Egypt, and
swept
East, Con
and
again in permanently
the Mohammedans.
by
circumstances, before
such
Under efforts
naturallymade
were
to
the
final
catastrophe,
unity in the threatened
secure
After
negotiations empire. lastingseveral in which the patriarchSergius of Constantinople was leader,a union policywas inauguratedby the Emperor
portionsof the
clius,on
into
its progress was permanently under Charles in the great Martel,
resisted stantinoplesuccessfully 717-718.
By 711,
where
Franks, by V battle of 732, between Tours
taken
in 641.
Strait of Gibraltar
Visigothicmonarchy
the
checked
Othman.
brought
was
crossed
flood
Mohammedan
and
in 638, Alexandria
Antioch
the basis of
a
declaration
that in all that He
years,
the Hera-
did Christ
by "one divine-human energy." Cyrus, the "orthodox" patriarchof Alexandria,set up a formula of union, of which this the substance, in Egypt, in 633, with much was apparent suc in Monophysite opinion.1 Opposition arose, cess conciliating led by a Palestinian monk, Sophronius,soon to be patriarchof alarmed Jerusalem. and now tried to stop any Sergius was discussion of the question. He now wrote, in that sense, to Pope Honorius (625-638), who advised againstthe expression and said, rather incidentally, that "energy" as unscriptural, acted
Christ had
will.
one
Heraclius
now,
composed by Sergius,in which he question of one or two energiesand
in 638, issued his Ekthesis, forbade discussion of the affirmed
that Christ had
will.
one
It
easier to start
was
it. Pope John will in Christ 641. stans
or
discussion
655), who further an
1
Monothelite
heresy
died that year, and was II (642-668), who issued,in 648, holder
with
the as
pp.
questionof
called
was
Christ's will
661, 662.
in
Conhe
wills.2
or
I
(649-
only
to
theological problem consonant West, which had always held that Christ's
of interpretation of the
by
one "
Typos, in which
a
of the papacy the ambitious Martin was in the situation an saw opportunitynot
the views
Ayer,
of the
it
end
to
doctrine of
succeeded
Heraclius
forbade The
theological controversy than
(640-642) condemned
IV "
a
the
2
Ibid.,pp.
662-664.
THE natures
each
were
authorityin
COUNCIL
GENERAL
SIXTH
perfectand entire,but also
the Orient.
161
therefore assembled
He
papal great synod
to assert a
proclaimed the existence of two wills and not only condemned Serdivine gius and other patriarchsof Constantinople,but the Ekthesis flat defiance of the Emperor. and the Typos.} This was Conarrested and had stans brought a prisonerto Pope Martin treated with great bru Constantinoplein 653, where he was tality. Martin had the courage of his convictions. He was in 649, which and human in Christ in Rome
"
Crimea, where
exiled to the
he
died.
Strained
Constantinoplefollowed.
and
Rome
tween
"
Constans
IV
Constantine
relations II
be was
that
time, the (668-685). By by Monophysite provinces,the retention of which had been the had been taken by the Mohammedans. of the discussion, source It was more important to placateItaly than to favor them. The Emperor entered into negotiationswith Pope Agatho (678-681), who issued a long letter of definition as Leo I had Under set forth his Tome. once imperialauspicesa council, held in Constantinoplein 680 the Sixth General Council, was and 681. By it Christ was declared to have "two natural wills succeeded
willings
or
.
.
not
.
contrary
one
to
but
other
the
.
.
His
.
or reluctant,but rather as resisting subject to His divine and omnipotent will." It also con in the patriarchate demned Sergiusand other of his successors and Pope Honorius.2 of Constantinople,Cyrus of Alexandria the divided had triumphed over For the third time Rome definition. Nicsea, Chalcedon, and Con East in theological victories. It must be said, stantinoplehad all been Roman will was for that complete and also,that a human necessary for which perfecthumanity of Christ as well as perfectdivinity, The doctrine,thus defined,was the West had always stood. With its defini the logical completion of that of Chalcedon. ended in so far as controversies were tion, the Christological
will
human
follows,not
doctrinal determination
a
defeat.
Like
work
was
meet
in
of
Council
appendix
which
was
thus
was,
in
a
the council of the "Three
a
Western sense,
a
success,
Western
Chapters" (553), it
A council to do this canons. disciplinary summoned by Justinian II (685-695, 704-711), to Constantinoplein 692, and is called from the domed
formulated
had
1
sort
concerned.
was
the Sixth General
While it had
as
no
Extracts, Ayer, pp. 664, 665.
2
Ayer,
pp.
665-672.
THE
162 room
in which
council of 680
IMAGE
CONTROVERSY
it assembled and
had
681
"
met
which "
was
that
the Second
in which
Trullan
the
Council,
Quini-sextum,as completing the Fifth and Sixth It was General Councils. entirelyEastern in its composition, and is looked upon by the Oriental Church as the completion is not accepted of the council of 680 and 681 though its validity were renewed; but by that of Rome. Many ancient canons several of the new enactments directlycontradicted Western practice. It enacted, in agreement with Chalcedon, that "the see of Constantinopleshall enjoy equal privilege with the of Old Rome." It permittedmarriage to deacons and pres see the Roman byters,and condemned prohibitionof such mar riages. The Greek Church stillmaintains this permission. It of fastingon forbade the Roman custom Saturdays in Lent. It prohibited the favorite Western representationof Christ under the symbol of a lamb, orderinginstead the depictionof human a figure.1Though not very important in themselves, these enactments of the growing estrangement in are significant feelingand practicebetween East and West. The apparent collapseof the Eastern empire in the seventh followed by a very considerable renewal of its century was strength under the able Leo III, the Isaurian (717-740), to whose lease of life militaryand administrative talents its new due. A forceful sovereign,he would rule the church in was the spirit of Justinian. He desired to make entrance as easy and for the of as Jews, Moslems, possible representatives the stricter Christian sects, such as the remaining Montanists. of the wide They charged the church with idolatry, by reason spreadveneration of pictures. In 726, Leo forbade their further result was employment in worship. The religiousrevolt. The monks and common peopleresisted, partlyfrom veneration of images,partly in the interest of the freedom of the church from imperialdictation. Leo enforced his decree by the army. In most of the empire he had his will. Italywas too remote, and there Popes and people resisted him. Under Pope Gregory III (731-741), a Roman the synod of 731 excommunicated opponents of pictures. The Emperor answered by removing all of Sicilyand such portionsof Italy as he could from the Pope's jurisdiction.Leo's able and tyrannous son, Constanrelenttine V (740-775),pursued the same more policyeven or
Concilium
,
1
Ayer, pp. 673-679.
163
DAMASCUS
OF
JOHN
lessly. A synod assembled by him in Constantinoplein 754 the condemned pictures and approved his authority over In this strugglethe papacy church. sought the help of the and
Eastern
Emperors.
tore
dependence on the imperialpolicycame, however,
itself permanently from
Franks
A
change of
the
(780-797), under
VI
the accession of Constantino of his mother, Irene, a dominance with
partisanof pictures. By
the with the presence of papal delegates, estimate of the Greek Church, the last, assembled in Nicrea in 787. By its de
authority,and imperial Seventh
and, in the
General
Council
now
" the cross, and the Gospels should be given due cree pictures, not indeed that true wor salutation and honorable reverence, For the ship,which pertainsalone to the divine nature. honor which is paid to the image passes on to that which the .
image represents,and shows council
the
to
reverence
to
seems
he
have
shows
who
.
.
image
the
to
reverence
subject representedin it." the
much
that
unconscious
been
The same
thing could have been said by heathenism for its images. Among the vigoroussupporters of image-reverencewas John (700?-753?), the
of Damascus
of the later theo
honored
most
logiansof the Eastern portionof the the city from which he took his name,
church.
ancient
the
son
of
a
Born
in
Christian
civil service of the Mohammedan Caliph, he succeeded to his father's position, only to abandon it and Jerusalem, of the cloister of St. Sabas monk near become a
high-placedin
the
of Knowledge, is a complete, of the theology of the church of the systematicpresentation His
chief work,
East.
With
Fountain
The
and originality, whole presentedthe
littleof
earlier writers,he
much
use
of extracts
in clear and
from
form, logical
instructor of the Greek the great theological that he became so Church, and, thanks to a Latin translation of the twelfth cenHis philosophi tury, influenced the scholasticism of the West. influenced by Neo-Platoncal basis is an Aristotelianism largely
ism.
In
the
(ante,p. 155), in consonant
is
a
he
discussion Christological an
of the interpretation
with the views
of
Cyril.
God,
sacrifice offered to
not
a
To ransom
followed
Chalcedonian
him
the death to
Leontius
symbol of Christ
the devil.
The
Lord's Supper is fullythe body and blood of Christ,not by tranbut by a miraculous transformation wrought by substantiation, the
Holy Spirit. 1
Ayer,
pp. 694-697.
,
S
^
CONSTITUTION
164
OF
John of Damascus the
summed
Orient, and beyond the
THE
IMPERIAL
the
theological development of positionswhich he representedthe up
made
East
Its practicallyno progress. intellectual explanationof Christianity was
XII.
SECTION
CONSTITUTIONAL
THE
CHURCH
contribution
to
the
completed.
DEVELOPMENT
OF
THE
CHURCH
as acceptance of Christianity
The
to
gave
the
By
the
time
the practicalauthority over Justinian,the Emperor declared, on
Emperors of
what initiative,
the religion of the empire
a
sound
was
doctrine, and
to
a
church. his
own
considerable
regulated churchly administration.1 The Emperors largely controlled appointment to high ecclesiastical office, in the East. This imperialpower limited,how was especially by the necessity,which even Emperors as powerful as ever, Justinian felt,of securingthe approval of the church through of adminis of faith and canons generalcouncils for statements tration. The imperialsupport of these edicts and decisions of have generalcouncils made heresy a crime, and must seriously of Christian thought. It was limited freedom narrow a very path both in doctrinal opinion and in administration,that a If con bishop of Constantinople,for instance,had to walk. extent
ditions
it
were
more
favorable
for the papacy (ante,pp. 134-136), of the general ineffectiveness of
largelya consequence not lackingwhere imperialcontrol in Italy,though cases were the Popes felt the heavy hands of the Emperors. As in the third century, the bishopscontinued to be the centres was
of local ecclesiastical administration,and increase.
to
By
them
the other
clergywere
their power not
tended
merely ordained,
in their hands. The First but the pay of those below them was Council of Nicsea provided that other clergyshould not remove from
a
diocese
the bishop'sconsent.2
without
In each of the
the metropolitan, provincesthe bishop of the capitalcitywas who, according to the synod of Antioch (341), should "have that the other bishops do nothing precedence in rank of local extraordinarywithout him." 3 The ancient custom ex synods, for the consideration of provincialquestionswas .
.
tended, the First Council 1 3
E. g.,
Ayer, pp. 542, 555. Ibid.,p. 363.
.
of Nicsea
requiringthem 2
to
Ayer, p. 361.
be
held
twice
165
CLERGY
THE
year.1 This metropolitan arrangement
a
into the East
troduced
it
In the West
by
half
about
was
the
fully in
was
of the fourth
middle
century.
a century later in development, of the papacy. the dominance
limited in Italy by its way in northern Nevertheless it won and
was
the metropolitansstood the whose of the empire, the patriarchs,
Above
rise of ;the metropolitansystem.
Italy,Spain,and Gaul. bishopsof the great capitals
prominence antedated These
were
the
the
bishops,or
patriarchs,of Rome, Constantinople (by 381), Alexandria, Antioch, and, by 451, Jerusalem. class made a privileged By Constantine, the clergy were of taxation (319).2 The and exempted from the publicburdens through the en government, anxious not to lose its revenues into clerical office of the well-to-do,ordered that only trance those
fortune"
small
"of
result of this
policywas
should
ordained
be
(326).3
The
that, though the ordination of slaves
forbidden in the East everywhere discouraged,and was re prevailingly by the Emperor Zeno in 484, the clergywere
was
cruited
classes of little property
from
or
education.
The
bril
Ambrose of whom of talent and means, then before those of high is an example, show the possibilities which had long who passedthese barriers. The feeling, ability
liant careers
of
some
men
existed,that the higher clergy,at least,should
not
engage
in
were worldly or gainfuloccupation, grew, and such works expresslyforbidden by the Emperor Valentinian III in 452. an Such exclusive devotion to the clerical callingdemanded the received not merely enlarged support. The church now of old ; but the income of a rapidlyin as giftsof the faithful, creasingbody of landed estates presentedor bequeathed to it in the hands by wealthy Christians,the control of which was (468-483) of the bishops. An arrangement of Pope Simplicius provided that ecclesiasticalincome should be divided into quar each for the bishop,the other clergy,the up-keep of ters, one
any
the services and The
feelingwas
for the poor. natural that the clergyshould
and edifices,
be moral
ex
amples to their flocks. Celibacy had long been prizedas be longingto the holier Christian life. In this respect the West stricter than the East. Pope Leo I (440-461) held that was sub-deacons should refrain from marriage,4though it was even 1 3
Aver, p. Ibid.,p.
360.
2
Ibid., p. 283.
280.
4
Letters,145.
CATECHUMENS,
166
CONFIRMATION
universallyenforced in the still con Church. In the East, the practicewhich Western established by the time of Justinian,that only tinues was celibates could be bishops,while clergybelow that rank could ordination. This before without rule, though not marry advantages, has had the great disadvantage of blocking pro motion in the Eastern Church, and leading to the choice of from the ranks of the monks. bishopsprevailingly thus extensive,the growth of While the bishop'spower was
to
be centuries before this rule
the church
was
into the rural districts about
the
and of cities,
many
congregationsin the cities themselves, led to the formation of congregationsin charge of presbyters,and thus to a certain office. These increase in the importance of the presbyterial congregationsstillbelonged,in most regions,to the undivided citychurch, ruled by the bishop;but by the sixth century the in France. its appearance There the parish system made in charge received two-thirds of the local priest (presbyter) income, paying the rest to the bishop. from into the church heathenism The incoming of masses to an Reception led,at first, emphasis on the catechumenate. of hands, was and laying on to it,with the sign of the cross popularlyregarded as conferringmembership in the church, and went
of less earnest Christians the great multitude in possible in Christian profession, save danger of death.
was
as
far
as
growth of generationsof exclusivelyChristian ancestry, and, in the West, the spread of Augustinian doctrines of bap The tismal grace, brought this half-way attitude to an end. when the whole population lost its significance catechumenate had become supposedly Christian. In one important respect East and West fellasunder in this with baptism. As already period regarding rites connected described, by the time of Tertullian (ante, p. 96), baptism in followed by anointingand laying on of hands was proper token of the receptionof the Holy Spirit.In Tertullian's age both baptism and laying on of hands were acts of the bishop, in case of necessity, when save baptism could be admin the growth of istered by any Christian (ante,p. 97). With in East and the church, presbyterscame to baptize regularly West. With regard to the further rite the two regionsdiffered. The East saw its chief significance in the anointing,and al lowed that to be performed,as it does to-day,by the presbyter
The
LORD'S
THE
168
Augustine,and
and Ambrose,
SUPPER
Leo I in the West.
This preach
largelyexpository,though with plain applicationto often highly rhetori the problems of dailylife. In form it was their approval by applause. cal, and the hearers manifested excelled,preach probablynever Yet, while this preachingwas general,and in many by no means ing was country districts, ing
was
offered before
Prayer
was
form.
The
benediction
and
sermons
non-baptizedthen dismissed. The private portion of the service
the
"
held
Lord's
present, and
the
Supper
that, by divine
"
followed.
Both
the miracle
of Christ was of the presence wrought, but differed in the service it took place. In the judgment of the
to when
as
East
it was
This
was
East
West
made,
was
prayer
heard.
in liturgical
sermon
givenby the bishop,when
was
and
be
to
were
after the
classes for whom
various
the
to
cities,few
considerable
even
or
power,
the invocation,epiklesis. in the West till late in the
duringthe prayer known undoubtedly the view
as
There, however, it was replaced,probably under Roman influence,by the conviction that the Eucharistic the words of institution were when miracle occurred recited, sixth
century.
"
this is the new covenant culminatingin This is My body To Gregory of Nyssa and Cyril of Alexandria in My blood." of the incarnation,wherein Christ the Supper is the repetition .
the
takes
into union
elements
flesh. The
human
communion. other.
It
The
.
with
Himself
as
Lord's
Supper was at once possibleto emphasize
was
East
.
put that
of communion
a one
He
once
did
sacrificeand
aspect
in the
or
a
the
foreground.
theory of salvation,the Supper was viewed as primarilya great, life-giving mystery, wherein the partaker received the transformingbody and blood of his Lord, and at least,a partakerof the divine thereby became, in a measure its
with
Consonant
nature, built up
the
immortal
in the
denied
far from
was
to
and
West.
sinless life. This It
held
was
to
be
view true.
conception of salvation as coming into right relations with God, led the West to emphasize the aspect of sacrifice, as incliningGod to be gracious to those in whose But
the Western
behalf so
it
readilyas
The
offered.
was
of the
tery-drama,in which in life-giving energy.
mind
did
not
lend
itself
the Oriental mysticism. In general, Lord's Supper tended to become a mys
the Eastern
administration
Western
to
the divine and
eternal
manifested
itself
CHRISTMAS
Sunday worship,daily services
Beside the acter
were
morning
169
now
very
and
common,
cost, Easter
was
briefer char
evening worship.
and
were,
a
widely developedinto
had
older festivals of the Christian year,
The
of
Easter
and
Pente
earlier,great periodsof religiousobservance. precededby a fortydays' fast,though the method as
reckoning this lenten period varied. The Roman system became that of the whole West, and continues to -ultimately whole time of the present. The of Holy Week now a was to the Easter re observance, passingover specialpenitential of Ascension joicing.By the fourth century the observance was general. The chief addition to the festivals of the church which belongsto this periodis that of Christmas. Apparently in church till into held feast of Christ's nativitywas the no the fourth century. By the second century, January 6 had been of Basilides as the date of observed by the Gnostic disciples Jesus' baptism. At a time not now apparent, but probably about the beginning of the fourth century, this was regarded of an in the East as the time of Christ's birth also,by reason Him made of Luke 323, which exactly thirty interpretation of
years
old at His It
ever. was
was
an
created
at
calendar the
as
at work, how baptism. Other factors were opinionin the third century that the universe in the Julian the vernal equinox,reckoned
March
beginningof the
tion,fall
on
the
habits of thought would make creation,the inceptionof the incarna
Similar
25. new
day,
same
winter solstice, December
and
25.
therefore That
that
Christ's birth
date, when
the
on
the
sun
begins to turn, was the birthday of the Mithraic Sol Invictus, well of the choice,though it may not probably the reason was have commended it as substitutinga great Christian for a festival. At all events, the celebration of popular heathen first in Rome, apparently December 25 as Christmas appears in 353 or 354, though it may it From Rome date from 336. into Constantinople, spread to the East, being introduced A probably by Gregory of Nazianzus, between 378 and 381. in 388, declares of Chrysostom, preached in Antioch sermon that and
celebration
the the
discourse
observance Alexandria 1
then
was
was
ten
years
delivered,it would
of December between
not
25
400
old in the
appear,
on
East,
the first
in the
and
Syrian capital. It reached its inauguration, 432. 1 From
Kirsopp Lake, in Hastings'sEncyclopaediaof Religion and Ethics,3601-8.
MARTYRS
170 Christmas
became
SECTION
back
to
93). With
the middle
the
with
church
in honor
of Peter
deaths
public services (ante,p.
himself
Constantine
in Rome.
looked
Men
Their
Constantine, however, and the fresh from heathenism, this of masses
pilgrimageto Jerusalem, where
be discovered.
of their relics
of
largelyincreased.
reverence
CHRISTIANITY
of martyrs and second century.
of the
conversion
accession to the church
Pentecost.
LOWER
XIV.
regularlycommemorated
were
a
and
Easter
beginningsof veneration
The run
great festivals of the church,
of the
one
comparable only with
RELICS
AND
the true
cross
was
the time
on
great
a
mother, Helena, made
His
back
built
of
thought to persecution
heroic age, and upon its martyrs as the athletes of the Christian race. Popular opinion,which had with
much
as
reason,
a
of the martyrs in long sanctioned the remembrance and worship, had passed over, before the close of the to be prayed to century, to the feelingthat they were
with
tercessors
those
who
tianityof
God,1 and
as
them.
honored the second
able to
There
fourth as
protect, heal, and thus
arose
rank, as Harnack
prayer
popular
a
in aid
Chris
has well called it. The
the old gods and heroes. To the martyrs, popular feelingadded distinguished ascetics,church leaders,and opponents of heresy. There was,
martyrs, for the
yet,
as
no
masses,
of
regularprocess
Inclusion in its ranks
was
guardians of
were
took
a
the
place of
weighing claims
matter
of
cities,patrons of omnipresent. As Jerome
common
to
sainthood.
opinion. They
trades, curers
of disease.
expressed it: "They fol is present low the Lamb, whithersoever He goeth. If the Lamb be believed respectingthose who must everywhere, the same 2 with honored with the Lamb." burning are They were tapers.3 Chief of all these sacred personages the VirginMary. was Pious fancy busied itself with her early. To Irenseus she was the second Eve (ante,p. 66). Yet, curiouslyenough, she did not stand out pre-eminent tillwell into the fourth century, at least in the teaching of the intellectual circles in the church, though popular legend,as reflected for instance in the apocryThey
1
3
are
Augustine, Sermons, 1591. Ibid.,7.
2
Against Vigilantius,6.
THE
MARY
VIRGIN had
of James, phal Protevangelium
illustrated in Tertullian
as feeling,
171
made
much
of her.
and
Clement
of
Ascetic
Alexandria,
asserted her perpetualvirginity.With the rise of monasticism, monastic full elevation of ideal. The the Virgin became a created beingscame with the ChrisMary to the first among and the complete sanction of the de tologicalcontroversies, of God/' in the condemnation of Nestorius scription"Mother and the decision of the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Thenceforth ular and
the
Virginwas
officialreverence
that feelingwhich
had
the chosen
as
Apostle could
or
her went expressionin the
found
Above
far nobler form.
due
alike.
all saints in pop
among
To
goddesses of Egypt, Syria,and
mother a
foremost
that
the
was
of
All that martyr
intercessor
as
much
worship of the Asia Minor, though in her reverence rightfully
vehicle of the incarnation. do for the faithful
out
or
protector,
blessed above
abundant them, could dispensein yet more In proportion,also, as the Cyrillicinterpretation
she,
as
measure.
of the
Chalcedonian
creed and
phasizethe divine in Christ
Monophysitism tended
to
em
at the expense
of the human, and afar from men, therefore,however unintentionally, put Him she appeared a winsome sympathizer with our humanity. In
a
tween
The
she took the place of her Son,
measure,
and
God roots
of
mediator
as
be
man.
are angel-worship
to be found
in apostolic times,1 of in certain Gnostic systems, and
much yet though made playing a great role, for instance,in the speculationsof
Origen, angels
an
conspicuouslyobjects of Christian tilllate in the fourth century. They were reverence always far less definite and graspableby the common mind than the for angels was given great furtherance martyrs. Reverence Christian mystic work by the Neo-Platonic composed in the last quarter of the fifth century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite,2 and called that of Pseudo-Dionysius. Of all the most honored. angelicbeings,the Archangel Michael was A
church
were
not
of him
in commemoration
was
Constantinopleby Constantine, and in the fifth century.
When
Michaelmas, September 29 aeval It 1
feast-daysin the has already been
Col. 218.
West
the one
"
"
was
pointed
one
built
a
few miles from
existed in Rome
early
celebration of his festival on of the most popular of medi
instituted,is uncertain. out
that
reverence 2
Acts 1734.
for relics
ANGELS,
172
of martyrs
remains
ciated, it
included
being developed
was
not
merely the
mortal
of articles saints,but all manner believed, with Christ, the Apostles, and
was
and
church.
of the
heroes the
extent, and
enormous
an
century it
fourth
began early. By the to
PICTURES
RELICS,
of the
statute
Their Seventh
Council
General
this time forward
from
wide-spread use
asso
the
is illustrated
(787):
"If
by any
is found
consecratinga temple holy deposed as a transgressor of with the ecclesiastical traditions."1 this Closely connected for relics was the valuation reverence placed on pilgrimages to placeswhere preserved,and above all to the Holy they were Land, or to Rome. for pictureswas slower in gaining a foothold. Reverence It seemed connected with the ancient idolatry. too positively rapidly By the time of Cyril of Alexandria, however, it was it if where in the Eastern became, Church, anything, spreading The struggles more ending in the prevalentthan in the West. General Council of picturesby the Seventh full authorization have already been narrated (ante,p. 163). Christian feeling flat surface only,paintings, and that representation a on was bishop
relics,he
without
shall be
mosaics, not statues, should be allowed, at least in the interior of the Greek Church the custom of churches, and this remains of not matter a to the present, though this restriction was law.
church This life of
of the second Christianity the people,but it had also
monks, and leaders
it
of the
was
rank
profoundlyaffected
the
its heartiest supporters in the rather than resisted by the great
furthered
church, certainlyafter the middle
of the
fifth
from heathenism to undoubtedly made the way Christianityeasier for thousands, but it largelyheathenized It
century.
the church
itself.
SECTION
While
East
XV.
and
SOME
West
already outlined,and
CHARACTERISTICS
WESTERN
shared in the Western
theological development
influences and
contributed
much
to
contro Christological a versies,there was appreciabledifference in the weight very interest in the two portionsof the empire. The of theological leader between West produced no reallyconspicuoustheological
the
official decisions
in the
1
Arian
Canon
7.
CHARACTERISTICS
WESTERN
173
(340?-397). Even Hilary of eminent as an original not sufficiently Poitiers (300?-367) was Both real exception. thinker to make Hilary and Ambrose a
Cyprian (d. 258)
the latter espe Tertullian was per
Fathers"
students of the Greek
devoted
were
Ambrose
and
ciallyof the great Cappadocians. Though by his Montanism, his sonallydiscredited
influence lived
on
in
greatlyvalued Cyprian. While, therefore, Greek elements into Western entered largely thinking,it developedits own pe the
culiarities. The
like Tertullian, disposed,
part of the empire was
western
rather than, like the East, Christianityunder judicial Its under thought of the Gospel was philosophical aspects. did not deny law. While the West that primarilyof a new the Eastern conceptionthat salvation is a making divine and immortal of our sinful mortality,that conceptionwas too ab that sal Its own stract for it readilyto grasp. thought was vation is getting Hence, in Tertullian,Cyprian, rightwith God. of sin,and a clearer con and Ambrose there is a deeper sense Religionin the West had a ceptionof grace than in the East. closer relation to the acts of every-day life than in the East. It was recognizedevil acts, J more forgivenessof definitely a
to view
^
and
less
"more
transformation of nature, than in the East
abstract
an
overcoming
an
sin,and less
of
a
from
rescue
earthiness
West, through the teaching of Tertullian, Cyprian,and Ambrose, sin was traced to an inherited vitiation
and
In the
death.
of human
estimate
of sin and
yet
combined
was,
jbfthe
if.
West, gave
dailylife of
the
All these Western "TfTthff work
a
There
in the East.
"
in
nature
'of
that had
way
can
be
Church
was
became
though
it
ecclesiasticalorganization
Church
a
stronger control of the
Augustine.
the
Aquileiahe the
out
peoplethan was achieved by that of the East. to their fullfruition to come were peculiarities
he studied in Rome, he
firmer
the Western
could boast.
in 360.
worked imperfectly
the
SECTION
Jerome
doubt, also,that this Western
no
grace,
with
corresponding parallel
no
ablest Born where made
XVI.
scholar about he his
was
JERtfME
that 340
the
ancient
in Strido in
baptizedby Pope
headquartersfor
friend of Rufinus
Western
Dalmatia,
a
Liberius
while, where
(?-410), the translator of
174
JEROME
Origen, like Jerome to be a supporter of monasticism and a in Palestine,but with whom monk he was to quarrel over Origen'sorthodoxy. Jerome had a restless desire to know the From 366 to 370 he visited the world. scholarlyand religious cities of Gaul. him again in Aquileia. The next three years saw Then he to Antioch, where came a journey through the Orient with
overtaken
was
Himself
illness in which
severe
he believed Christ
reproached him for devotion to the turned to the Scriptures, studying Hebrew, and
appeared
classics. He
a
now
and
livingas a hermit from 373 to 379, not far from Antioch. Ordained a presbyterin Antioch, in 379, he studied in Constan him in The tinopleunder Gregory Nazianzus. year 382 saw the hearty support of Pope Damasus Rome, where he won and out of season the merits (366-384),and preached in season of the monastic life. Soon he had a largefollowing, especially Roman of position women enmity, even ; but also much among the for monasticism not as yet popular in was clergy, among the West, and
Jerome
of
disputants.The
so
uncomfortable
whither led
by
number
a
Paula
and
himself
death
was
of Damasus
in Rome
that he
of his Roman
Jerome's
made
retired,in 385,
Antioch,
to
a
celibacy,
to
the chief
Bethlehem
monastery his
made
him.
followed
her
daughter,Eustochium, soon With them he journeyed through Palestine and of Egypt, returningto monastic establishments
Jerome's
position
to monastic
converts
386, where Paula built nunneries and Here, as head of the monastery, Jerome tillhis death, in 420.
vindictive
of the most
one
for
in men.
headquarters
as a unquestionablelearningwas older Latin versions were translator of the Scriptures. The crude, and had fallen into much corruption. Pope Damasus revision. That he completed for the a proposed to Jerome
New
best
Testament
use
about
of his
lated in Bethlehem, with
proof of
The
388.
Old Testament
he then trans
friends.
the aid of Jewish
It is
a
scholarshipthat,in spiteeven of the wishes of Augustine,he went back of the Septuagint to the Hebrew. the Vulgate, The result of Jerome's work was stillin
Jerome's
in the Roman
use
Jerome
had, also, no
tinued the Chronicle a
of
soundness
It is his best monument.
Church.
small
deserts
of Eusebius.
His
biographicaldictionaryof Christian
himself.
He
was
an
abundant
a
as
De
historian.
con
Viris Inlustribus
writers to and
commentator
He
on
is
including the Scriptures.
AUGUSTINE'S
176
YOUTH
two Augustine himself. In Augustine there were natures, one other and the eagerly high-minded and passionate sensuous, be wrong not to say that father and truth-seeking. It may reflected in him. From mother sent for were Tagaste he was the sake of schoolingto the neighboring Madaura, and thence he pursued the study of rhetoric. Here, to Carthage, where
when
hold
to
he was seventeen, he took a concubine, to whom for at least fourteen a son, Adeoyears, and to them
about
dearly loved, was born in 372. If the sensuous Augustine Augustinewas thus early aroused, the truth-seeking awakened. of When the Cicero's nineteen, was speedily study almost completely lost Hortensius affec "changed my now 1 O This im tions,and turned my prayers to Thyself, Lord." perfectconversion caused Augustine to desire to seek truth as He began to study the Scriptures, "but that alone of value. they appeared to me unworthy to be compared with the dig and intellectual turned for spiritual nity of Cicero." 2 He now datus, whom
comfort
to
he
the
dualistic system syncretistic,
known
Mani-
as
willingto pray "Grant me chas yet."3 For nine years Manichsean, living Augustine remained a in and partly Tagaste,engaged in study and partlyin Carthage teaching. He was crowned at Carthage for a theatrical poem.4 He gatheredfriends about him, of whom to prove Alypius was he began to doubt the intellectual the closest. As he went on His associates urged and moral adequacy of Manichseism. him to meet the highly respectedManichsean leader,Faustus. The inadequacy of Faustus's expositionscompleted his mental he remained disillusion. Though outwardly a Manichsean, Augustinewas now inwardly a sceptic. By the advice of Manin 383, and by their ichsean friends Augustine removed to Rome aid, in 384, he obtained from the prefect,Symmachus, a gov then ernment appointment as teacher of rhetoric in Milan the Western capitalof the empire. in Milan, Augustine came under Here the powerful preach he heard as an illustration of pulpit ing of Ambrose, whom since he eloquence rather than with approval of the message, of the scepticalphilosophy of the under the sway was now and Alypius joined him. Monnica Here At New Academy. chseism (ante,p. 107). He was tityand continence, but not
;
"
1
Confessions, 34.
2
Ibid.,3s.
wish
his mother's
he
of the
youth
the
entered
It
with another.1
He on
faith
less creditable relation
even
pointof
the lowest
was
of
account
his regretfully
dismissed an
befitted his
as
postponed on
marriage was
woman.
and
ful concubine
betrothed
became
now
station in life,though
177
CONVERSION
AUGUSTINE'S
his moral
life. At
with Neo-Platonism, in contact junctureAiigustinecame (ante,p. 106), through the translations of Victorinus. It was
this
almost
a:
revelation to him.
and
of the materialism
Instead
world the spiritual the source not only of all good, but of all reality. Evil was existence,as with the no positive It was Manichseans. negative,a lack of good, an alienation
Manichseism, he only real world, and in God of
dualism
now
in the
saw
highestof blessings. This new philosophy,which always colored Augustine'steach for him to accept Christianity.He was ings,made it possible impressedby the authorityof the church, as a hearer of Ambrose As he said later,"I should not believe might well have been. the Gospel except as moved by the authorityof the Catholic know
To
God.
of the will from
God
is the
2
Church."
He at hand. now Augustine'sexperiencewas had never felt more painfullythe cleft between his ideals and his conduct. He was impressed by learningof the Christian in old age, some before, by the Neoprofessionmade years Platonist Victorinus,whose writingshad so recentlyinfluenced A travelled African,Pontitianus,told him and Alypius him.3 that filledwith shame of the monastic life of Egypt. He was like these monks could put away temptations ignorant men felt powerlessto resist.4 Over of learning, which he, a man with self-condemnation,he rushed into the garden and come
A
crisis in
there heard
ing : "Take
up
that he had in
the voice
riotingand
ness,
not
thereof." mind
and
he had 1 3
6
5
not
that
From
thus
He
drunkenness,
make
the
child from
a
reached
reading,and his
in strife and
Christ, and
a
read."
and
been
of
not
eyes
in
neighboringhouse, say for
moment
of the
copy
fell on
the words
chambering
envying ; but put
provisionfor
a
ye
on
and
epistles :
"Not
wanton
the Lord
Jesus
the flesh to fulfil the lusts
Augustine
had
the peace
of
his sins which of divine power to overcome It may be that it was, as it far sought in vain. sense
Against the Epistleof Manichceus, 5 ; Ayer, p. 455. * Confessions,88. Confessions,82; Ayer, pp. 431-433. " 1313812 435-437. Romans ; Confessions, ; Ayer, pp. 615. Confessions,
2
AUGUSTINE'S
178
called,a conversion
has been
its outward
but
LATER
form.
In
Christian transformation
to
its
LIFE
monasticism. it
essence
was
of nature.
Augustine'sconversion occurred in the late He resignedhis professorship partly on account retired with
now
to
await
ology as yet. He
his friends to the estate
baptism.
He
was
His most
far from
being the were
of 386.
summer
named
characteristic tenets
still primarilya
was
If so, that was fundamental a
and illness, Cassisiacum,
of
in the
master
undeveloped.
Christianized Neo-Platonist
; but
the
type of his piety was
At Cassisiacum the alreadydetermined. engaged in philosophicaldiscussion,and Augustine
friends wrote
some
of the earliest of his treatises.
At the Easter
season
baptized,with Adeodatus and Alypius,by Am for his birthplace. brose in Milan. left Milan Augustine now the journey Monnica On died in Ostia. The story of her death, as told by Augustine,is one of the noblest monuments of ancient Christian literature.1 His plans thus changed, he in Rome, but by the autumn lived for some months of 388 was in Tagaste. Here he dwelt with a group of friends, more once busied in studies much at Cassisiacum. as During this period in Tagaste his brilliant son, Adeodatus, died. Augustine thought to found a monastery, and to further this projectwent the modern to Hippo, near Bona, in Algeria,early in 391. There ordained he was the priesthood,almost to forcibly. of Hippo. Four ordained colleague-bishop years later he was When his aged associate, Valerius,died is unknown, but Augus tine probably soon had full episcopalcharge. In Hippo he of 387
he
was
in that portion of Africa, and the first monastery died on it also a training-school for the clergy. He
founded made
August 28, 430, during the siegeof Hippo by the Vandals. Almost from the time of his baptism Augustine wrote against With his entrance the ministry,and es the Manichseans. on peciallyas bishop,he was brought into conflict with the DonaThis tists (ante,p. 113), then wide-spreadin northern Africa. discussion led Augustine to a full consideration of the church, its nature and its authority. By the earlyyears of his episco sin and pate he had reached his characteristic opinions on not the product of the great Pelagian con They were grace. troversy which occupiedmuch of his strengthfrom 412 onward, though that struggleclarified their expression. 1
910-12. Confessions,
AUGUSTINE'S
THOUGHT
of much
OF
GOD
179
Augustine'sinfluence lay in his mys tical piety. Its fullest expression,though everywhere to be found in his works, is perhaps in the remarkable Confessions, written about 400, in which he gave an account of his experi The
secret
to
ences
of
his conversion. written
No
other
similar
autobi spiritual
in the ancient
ography was church, and few at any periodin church history. It has always stood a classic of re ligious experience."Thou hast formed us for Thyself,and our restless tillthey find their rest in Thee" (I1). "It is good, then, for me to cleave unto God, for if I remain not in hearts
are
Him, neither shall I in myself; but He, remaining in Himself, reneweth all things. And Thou art the Lord God, since my standest
Thou a
of
way
of my
goodness" (711)."I sought acquiringstrengthsufficientto enjoy Thee; but I
it not
found
in need
not
until I embraced
that 'Mediator between God and the man Christ Jesus/ 'who is over all God blessed for man, ever' callingme" (718)."My whole hope is only in Thy ex
ceeding great what
command and
thank
mercy.
Thou
Give
Thee, and
hast melted
deeper note
of
permanent,
even
confess unto Thy name, because Thou these so wicked and nefarious acts of I attribute it,and to Thy mercy, that
away
sin
my
as
personaldevotion
since Paul, and the to the livingGod
Thou
and commandest, wilt" (1029). "I will love Thee, O Lord,
from me hast put away To Thy grace mine. Thou
what
it were than
ice"
the church
as conceptionof religion was
(27).
a
if often but
had
was
partially comprehended. thus always one was
first thought of God Augustine's sonal connection
tion
with
a
being in whom
man's
is a
heard
vital relationship
the influence of which
one
Here
onlyreal
to
be
of per
satisfac
good is to be found ; but when he thought of God philo it was in terms borrowed from Neo-Platonism. God sophically, is simple, absolute being,as distinguished from all created things or
which
are
manifold
and
variable.
of all that
reallyexists. This phasize the divine unity, even
His doctrine he set forth in his came
determinative
He
is the basis -andvsource conceptionled Augustine to em when
treatingof the Trinity. great work On the Trinity. It be
henceforth of Western
thinking. "Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit, one God, alone,great, omnipotent,good, of all things visible and invisible." 1 just,merciful, creator of one and the same "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, substance, 1
Trinity,7
:
612.
"; AUGUSTINE'S
180
THOUGHT
OF
GOD
work the creator, the omnipotentTrinity, "Neither three Gods, nor three goods,but one
God
"
indivisibly(421). God, good, om
nipotent,the Trinity itself."1 Tertullian,Origen, and Athanasius had taught the subordination of the Son and Spiritto the Father. Augustine so emphasized the unity as to teach is so great an the full equality of the "persons." "There equalityin that Trinity,that not only the Father is not greater but neither are the Father and than the Son, as regardsdivinity, the Son togethergreater than the Holy Spirit." Augustine not satisfied with the distinction "persons"; but it was was consecrated by usage, and he could find nothing more fitting: "When it is asked, what are the three? human language labors under great poverty of speech. Yet we say, three 'persons/ in order to express it,but in order not to be silent." 3 It not is evident that, though Augustine held firmlyto the ecclesias and his Neo-Platonic tical tradition, his own inclinations, phi inclined toward the Monarchian Modalistic losophy position. It would, however, be wholly unjust to call him a Modalist. He attempted to illustrate the Trinityby many comparisons, the even such as memory, famous or will,4 more understanding, lover,loved, and love.5 This
"God
unity and
whom
whom
from
Augustinehold the
Word
is
that
born,
the Holy Spiritprincipally proceeds. And added because find the word principally, we
I have
therefore
equalitymade
alone is He
the Father from
and
of
sense
Eastern the Holy Spiritproceeds from the Son also."6 and remains of subordinationism feelingthat the Father is
that
all,taught that the Holy Spiritproceedsfrom for that the Father alone,but Augustine had prepared the way which, acknowledged in Spain, at the Third Council filioque, of Toledo, in 589, as a part of the so-called Nicene creed,spread the West, and remains to this day a dividingissue between over the sole
incarnation
the
the divine.
stronglyas God
and
b Wherefore, far 1
4 7
as
He
Latin Churches.
and
the Greek In
of
source
man
; so
God
far
is man,
as
Augustine emphasized "
Christ
before all worlds He
is
God, He
the Father
Trinity,8, Preface. Ibid.,1012. Enchiridion, 35.
Jesus,the Son ;
and
man
in
the of
human
God,
world.
our
.
the Father
is greater than He."
2
Ibid.
z
*
Ibid.,92.
6
as
is both
are 7
one
He
;
.
.
so
is the
Ibid.,59. Ibid.,1517.
181
STATE
FALLEN
MAN'S
alone and man, God through whom only mediator between of sins. "It [Adam's sin]cannot be pardoned there is forgiveness God mediator between and blotted out except through the one the man, and man, of that remission.
Augustine had it sometimes of
which
men
Christ's death is the basis
As
the exact
of that death, significance
to
God, sometimes stead,and sometimes
sacrifice to
a
punishment
our
Jesus."1
in
our
as
ransom
a
of the devil.
the power
freed from
are
endurance
an
as
viewed
He
thought to consistent clearness.
not as
Christ
To
a
by degree
Augustine laid stress theologians, That humility life of Jesus. of the humble the significance on the characteristic in vivid contrast to the pride which was was The true It is an example to men. note in the sin of Adam. hast pointed out Thou in Thy secret mercy mediator, whom to the humble, and didst send, that by His example also they humility." might learn the same created good and upright, Man, accordingto Augustine,was in the Greek
to be found
not
"
possessedof
with the
will,endowed
immortality.3 There was happy and in4communion
ning and He
free
of
was
sin
of not possibility
in his nature.
discord
no
God.4
with
this
From
of which fell by sin,the essence was pride.5 Its the loss of good.6 God's grace was forfeited, was consequence The of God.7 forsaken the soul died, since it was body, no of under the dominion longer controlled by the soul, came state
Adam
which
of "concupiscence,"
manifestation less and were
who
Adam
is lust.
ruin,of which all in that fell into
concerning the Not only were is made
worse
man
one
sin."
9
first all
of God. 1 4
7 10 12
a
"mass From
all the
of total and "
human
that
race
sinners in Adam,
since all
are
human
born
of
race,
but
;
has
we
man
declared
sinned.'"10
their sinful state The
"concupiscence."
the youngest in such deserves the wrath to
even
and as perdition,"12 sin "no this hopelessstate of original of
sin
for
all that
all have
'in him
hope
This
death.8
[Adam] when we were "The Apostle, however,
man
men
state
a
characteristic
most
ending is eternal
involved
result is that the whole fant is
fellinto
the proper
its consequences
and
the worst
2 Confessions,1043. Enchiridion, 48. 5 Nature and Grace, 33. 1426. City of God, 8 1415. 132. Ibid., City of God, Romans 512 ; Forgivenessof Sins, I11. OriginalSin, 34.
and
one,
Grace,33.
8
Rebuke
6
Enchiridion, 11. Ibid.,13U ; Ayer, Marriage, I27.
9 u
no,
p. 439.
GRACE
18 82 not
delivered,except by the
be
SALVATION
delivered,or is being delivered,or
has been
one,
AND
by God's grace, which and wholly free. "Wages is paid as a tary service. It is not a gift; wherefore Salvation
that death
sin is death, to show but
the due
as
is
comes
'
unearned, is not
all.
We
But
wholly undeserved, for mili
recompense
he says
l
the wages
of
inflictedundeservedly,
not
was
of sin.
recompense
1
of the Redeemer."
grace
will
ever
a
unless gift,
it is wholly
understand, then, that man's good deserts are themselves the giftof God, so that when of eternal life, these obtain the recompense it is simply grace
given
for
chooses
a
giftat
grace."2
to send
it.
This He
grace
are
to
to those to whom
comes
therefore
"to
whom predestinates
He
God
will,
3
The number of each class punishment and to salvation." is fixed.4 Augustine had held, in the periodimmediately fol lowing his conversion, that it is in man's power to accept or before the Pelagian controversy, he had rejectgrace, but even
the conclusion
to
come
this
savinggrace
originaland which
we
that grace is irresistible. The Faith is instilled, and is twofold.
personal,are
are
forgivenat baptism: "The Christians is the giftof God." 5 As
effect of
sins,both faith such
by
it is-
immediate
But justification.
Tertullian
(ante,p. 69), it is the infusion of love by the Holy
grace
does much
more.
As with
Spirit. It frees the enslaved will to choose that which is pleas ing to God, "not only in order that they may know, by the manifestation of that grace, what should be done, but more in order that, by its enabling, over they may do with love what 6 It is a gradual transformation of nature, a they know." sanctification. Through us, God does good works, which He rewards and to which He ascribes if they were men's own as merit.
No
man
have grace
may ance,
he will not
can
now,
be
sure
of his salvation in this life. He
but, unless God
maintain
adds
it to the end.7
the giftof persever that It would seem
Augustine may have been led to this conclusion largelyby the doctrine of baptismal regeneration. It is evident that if men receive grace at baptism, many do not keep it. This doctrine of grace was coupled in Augustine with a high valuation of the visible Catholic Church, as that only in which the true infusion of love by the Holy Spiritmay be found. 1 4 7
OriginalSin, 34
2
3
Ibid.,100
5
6
Rebuke
Enchiridion, 107. Ayer, p. 442. Predestination,3. Giftof Perseverance,1.
; and
Ayer, p. 442. Grace, 3.
THE
184
who
He
grace.
does not
CITY "
OF
GOD
faith
obstruct
"
expect, however, problem was not Middle Ages; but Augus may
benefit of the sacrament.1
to receive the
yet WTOiightout
it was
as
to be in the
The
be called the father of the doctrine of the sacraments tine may in the Western Church.
his City of God, begun in Augustine'sgreatest treatise was 412, in the dark days after the capture of Rome by Alaric,and It was his philosophyof history, and .his finished about 426. defense of Christianity against the heathen charge that neg lect of the 6ld gods under whom had grown Rome great was of its downfall. the cause He showed that the worship of the old gods had neither given Rome virtue,nor assurance strength, of a happy future life. The loss of the old gods, that the wor
ship of the one true God should come, was not a loss,but a great gain. Augustine then discusses the creation and the of evil. That bringshim to his great originand consequences theory of history. Since cities have
been to the
self,even of God,
againstGod "two formed by two loves : the earthlyby love of contempt of God ; the heavenly by the love
the contempt of self/'2 in Cain and Abel. Of the
These
to
even
resentatives members
been
the first rebellion
have
who
confessed
City
pilgrimson the earth. The Earthly City heathen Babylon and Rome, representatives states
and
civil order
of self his
as
own.
Those
are
due.
In
world
a
it represses its principle, But it must pass away
who
make
up
the
City
has chosen
to
though
all in that church
not
salvation.
has but
strangers and its
as
highest
all other
civil
It is a relative
its embodiment.
are
their rep of God, all have
themselves
had
of
disorder
are
the
as
of God
These
good. To it peace sin,though having love
are
are now
elect.
and
City
to
secures
of God
grows.
the elect whom in the visible
each
God
church,
the church
"Therefore
Christ, and the kingdom of kingdom His saints reign with Him, heaven. now Accordingly,even though otherwise than as they shall reignhereafter; and yet, though the tares grow in the church along with the wheat, they not reign with Him." 3 The visible,hierarchically organ and church t hat is the of ized it is,therefore, must God, City and of rule the world. this In more more teaching Augustine much of the philosophic basis of the theory of the mediaeval lay even
now
is the
of
(do A
papacy. 1
9810 Letters,
;
Ayer, p. 450.
2
City of God, 1428.
3
IUd.t
209.
TEACHINGS
PELAGIUS'S It is evident that, clear as respects,it contained many
185
Augustinein
the system of
was
profound contradictions,due
to
and Neo-Platonic thoughts of deep religious the intermingling traditionalism. Thus, he taught a and popular ecclesiastical He will,yet in which God sends grace to whom predestination with a he confined salvation to the visible church endowed
sacramental ecclesiasticism. He approached the distinction at*the Reformation between the visible and the invisi made
church, without clearlyreaching it. His heart piety, of personalrelation to God the Christian life as one also,saw in faith and love, yet he taught no less positively legalistic a ble
asceticism.
monastic
and
The
Ages did
Middle
not
reconcile his
respects beyond Augustine. It did not of them that most contradictions. It is by reason in these
could draw
movements
SECTION
most Augustine's
CONTROVERSY
PELAGIAN
THE
that in which
controversy, and
famous
various later
him.
from inspiration
XVIII.
advance
his
with to clearest expression, was teachingson sin and grace came British, a Pelagiusand that teacher's disciples.Pelagiuswas or perhaps an Irish monk, of excellent repute, much learning, about great moral earnestness, who had settled in Rome He seems the year 400, when to probably well on in years. morals and to have been shocked at the low tone of Roman
and
ethical stand labored earnestlyto secure strenuous more ards. Instead of being an innovator, his teaching in many
have
ways
the
older represented East generally, and
than
views
those
agreement with
in
"As
of virtue
and
a
to show
often
I have
in the
many
that of the popu to speak of the principles was
accustomed
am
capacityand
it is able to
what
as
holy life,I
attention to the
Augustine. With
West, will. "If I ought, I can,"
he held to the freedom of the human well expresses his position.His attitude lar Stoic ethics.
of
character
accomplish;
first of all to call
of human
then
from
and
nature
this to
arouse
of the hearer, that he may strive after different the feelings kinds of virtue." 1 He, therefore,denied any originalsin in herited power
the
mass
from not
Adam, men
affirmed that
Like the Stoics
to sin.
of
and
are
bad. 1
Adam's
Ayer,
pp.
all
men
now
have
the
he recognizedthat generally, sin set them
458,
459.
an
illexample,
PELAGIUS'S
186
TEACHINGS
they have been quick to follow. Hence they almost all need to be set right. This is accomplishedby justification by of the work faith alone, through baptism,by reason of Christ. Paul and Luther between No man so emphasized justification full power and duty faith alone. After has man baptism, by to keep the divine law. a vigorous follower in the much Pelagius won younger Ccelestius, a lawyer,and a Roman though he has been possibly which
claimed Africa
as
an
About
Irishman.
410, the
two
to
went
North
Augustine in Hippo, without findinghim. Pelagiusthen journeyed to the East, while Coelestius remained in Carthage and sought to be ordained a presbyterby Bishop Aurelius. That bishop now received from Paulinus, a deacon of
and
Milan,
"Adam sinned
called
letter
a
made
was
on
charging Coelestius
mortal
and
had
not
sinned.
self alone,and
not
the human
in that
or
would
(2) The
have
with
six
died whether
sin of Adam
(3) New-born
race.
(1)
errors.
he had
injuredhim children
are
(4) Neither does the whole race die,nor by by the death and sin of Adam the resurrection of Christ does the whole rise. race (5) The state
in which
Adam
was
before his fall.
kingdom of heaven as well as the Gospel. with men (6) Even before the coming of the Lord there were l This was sin." out an unfriendlystatement, but Coelestius did not rejectit; and it probably represents his views, which radical than those of Pelagius. have been somewhat more may An advisory synod in Carthage, in 411, decided against his ordination. Coelestius then journeyedto Ephesus, where he apparentlyreceived the desired consecration. Augustine had not been present in Carthage, but he soon heard of the matter, and at once began his long-continued literarypolemic against Pelagianism, which he found had religiousexperiencewas supporters. Augustine's own many saved been believed that he had He by deeply wounded. law
leads
to
the
irresistibledivine grace
from
sins which
he
could
never
have
as by his own strength. He held Pelagiusin error denying originalsin,rejectingsalvation by infused grace, and sin. Pelagiusdid not to live without affirminghuman power rejectgrace, but to him grace was remission of sins in baptism work of and generaldivine teaching. To Augustine the main that infusion of love by which character is gradually grace was
overcome
1
Ayer, p.
461.
AUGUSTINE
AGAINST
PELAGIUS
187
Early in Pelagius found support in the East. to 415, Augustine sent Orosius to Jerome, then in Palestine, interest him for the Augustinian cause. By Jerome, Pelagius accused before Bishop John of Jerusalem,but was approved was by the bishop" and before the year was out, a synod held in declared Pelagiusorthodox. Palestine) Diospolis(Lydda^in transformed.
In this situation
Augustineand
his friends caused
two
North
synods to be held in 416, one for its local district in in Mileve. These con Carthage and the other for Numidia demned the Pelagianopinionsand appealed to Pope Innocent African
I
(402-417) for
confirmation.
Innocent
was
undoubtedly
pleased at this recognitionof papal authority,and did as the Innocent died shortlyafter,and was African synods wished. succeeded by Zosimus (417-418), a Greek, and therefore nat urallyno specialsympathizer with the distinctive Augustinian appealed in person. positions.To Zosimus, Coelestius now The new Pope declared that the African synods had been too A to have regarded Coelestius as orthodox. hasty,and seems new synod met in Carthageearlyin 418, but the Africans made In April,418, at their instance the effective move. a more Western Emperor, Honorius, issued a rescriptcondemning Pelagianism and orderingthe exile of its adherents. In May held in Carthage, which held that Adam a largecouncil was that children should be baptizedfor the became mortal by .sin, for right remission of originalsin,that grace was necessary and that sinlessness is impossiblein this life. Moved living, Zosimus issued a circular letter condemn now by these actions,
ing Pelagiusand Coelestius. disappears. He probablydied Pelagiusnow
before 420.
A
appeared in the champion of his opinionsnow of Bishop Julian of Eclanum, in southern Italy. An person edict of the Emperor Honorius, in 419, requiredthe bishopsof of Pelagiusand Coelestius. the West to subscribe a condemnation Several of them Julian and eighteenothers in Italy refused. In Julian, driven into exile and sought refugein the East. were Augustine found an able opponent, and Pelagianismits chief who was much of a ration more systematizer ; but a defender 429 Julian and Coelestius found alist than Pelagius. About some though Nessupport from Nestorius in Constantinople, torius was not a Pelagian. This favor worked to Nestorius's troubles,and togetherwith the wish disadvantagein his own new
and
able
Pope led
of the
so-called Third
the condemnation
to
on
in less extreme
in the
a tendency represented
secure
even
and
forms, and
thinkingof
the
has
al
the church.
the great teacher of the Western before his death in 430. By no means
Church
peculiarportions of his
all
ac
theology,
definitely rejected. Thus,
Jerome
share in conversion, and had no irresistibledivine grace, though deeming grace will
ascribed to the human an
(ante,p.
West
as
cepted, however, the more where Pelagianismwas even thought of
431
the
SEMI-PELAGIANISM
XIX.
fame Augustine's was
Pelagianismby
in
Council
148). East, nevertheless lived
SECTION
of
Ephesus in officially rejectedin the
General
Pelagianism,thus
ways
AUGUSTINE
FROM
DISSENT
188
a
essential to salvation. Northern Africa, which had led the since the time of Tertullian, Church Western was intellectually devastated
now
the Vandals.
by
chief controversy
over
Cassianus, probablyfrom East, visited Egypt, and
pre-eminence in
France, and it was
southern
passedto
ship now
Its
leader
there that the
John Augustinian principlesarose. Gaul, but who had journeyed to the had served as deacon under Chrys-
in Marseilles about ostom, founded a monastery and a nunnery his Not far from 429 he wrote 415, and died there about 435.
in the form Collationes,
with
of conversations
free in man, of God." 1
opinion "the will always remains either neglector delightin the grace
his
In can
monk
of
Egyptian
Lerins, wrote
monks. and
it
Commonitorium, his design in which, without attackingAugustine by name, to do so really, was by representingAugustine'steachingson In 434
and
grace
Catholic all
Vincent,
as predestination
tradition.
possiblecare
has men
been and
a
novelties
without
support
"Moreover, in the Catholic Church that
should be taken
believed
a
we
everywhere, always
their associates
were
hold and
in
itself
that faith which
by
all." 2
called in the sixteenth
These
century
"Semi-Pelagians,"though Semi-Augustinianswould be more points with Augustine, correct, since they agreed in most and though rejectinghis essential doctrines of predestination who sincerely These were feared irresistiblegrace. earnest men that
Augustine'sdoctrines 1 2
Ayer, p. 469. Quod ubique, quod
would
cut
the
nerve
of all human
12 ;
semper,
quod
ab
omnibus, 24; Ayer, p. 471.
THE
effort after
SYNOD
OF
ORANGE
189
that righteousness righteousnessof life,especially
Predestination and irresistiblegrace sought in monasticism. seemed to deny human responsibility. This dissent from Augustine appeared in stillmore positive form in the writingsof Faustus,abbot of Lerins,and afterward bishop of Riez\ In his treatise on Grace, of about 474, he as
sin,but recognized original
held that
men
"the pos is the divine promise stillhave
of striving for salvation." Grace sibility and warning which inclines the weakened but stillfree will to choose the right rather than, as with Augustine, an inward will do with the God foresees what men transformingpower. invitations of the Gospel. He does not predestinate them. Though Faustus rejectedPelagius,he reallystood closer to him than to Augustine. A more Augustinian direction was given to the thought of southern France by the able and devoted Caes"ciiis (469?-542), for a time a monk of Lerins,and from 502 onward bishop of Aries. In 529 he held a littlesynod in Orange, the canons of which received a much because approved largersignificance Boniface II ended the by Pope (530-532). They practically Semi-Pelagian controversy, though Semi-Pelagian positions have always largelybeen maintained in the church.1 It was affirmed by this synod that man is not only under original sin, but has lost all power to turn to God, so that "it is brought about by the infusion of the Holy Spiritand His operationin that we wish to be set free." It is "by the free giftof grace, us that is,by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit,"that we have "the desire of believing"and "come to the birth of holy bap All good in man tism." is the work of God. of Thus many the main thoughts of Augustine were approved; but with a decided weakening of emphasis. The irresistibility of grace
is nowhere
affirmed.
"resist that
On
the contrary, those in
error
are
said
Holy Spirit." Predestination to evil is condemned. of all,the receptionof grace But, most marked is so bound to baptism that the sacramental qualityof grace the merit of works and are good put in the foreground. "We also believe this to be accordingto the Catholic faith,that grace having been received in baptism, all who have been baptized, and ought, by the aid and support of Christ, to perform can those thingswhich belongto the salvation of the soul,if they to
same
1
Ayer, pp. 472-476.
labor
GREAT
THE
GREGORY
190
1 Augustinianism was faithfully."
"
in the direction
modification
undoubted
approved, but with of popular Catholic" blunted.
religious conceptions. Its sharp pointswere XX.
SECTION
The
GREGORY
tendencies toward
a
THE
GREAT
and blunted, ecclesiastically
presentationof
sacra-
Augustinianism,which
mentally emphasized have alreadybeen noted, characterized the thinkingof Gregory v/the Great, the interpreter of Augustine to the Middle Ages. A teacher of littleoriginality, he presentedthe theological sys in in essential the with tem West, alreadydeveloped harmony of his age. His influence was the popular Christianity thus far-reaching.He is reckoned with Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome
of the Doctors
one
of the Latin
trative abilitiesand
achievements
become
of the
Church.
In adminis
Gregory was one of the great est of the Popes, and Latin Christianity generallyhad in him vision and permanent a leader of broad accomplishment. in of born Rome senatorial Christian family a Gregory was Before 573 he was made of about 540. or prefect, governor, the cityby the Emperor Justin II. The monastic lifeattracted civil distinctions, and by 574 he had devoted him from his and to the poor, and wealth to the founding of monasteries a
member
of St. Andrew
monastery
in what
home on the Cselian hill. Gregory formerly been his own always retained his interest in monasticism, and did much for life. His own the regulationand extension of the monastic and in 579 Pope too active for the cloister, temperament was to the Pelagius II (579-590) sent him as papal ambassador of w here he served with ability, court Constantinople, though, About curiously,without acquiringa knowledge of Greek. had
586
he
In 590 office.
The
was
he
more
once
chosen
was
He
died
time
of
on
in Rome
the
as
Pope, being the
March
of St. Andrew.
abbot
first monk
to attain that
12, 604.
Gregory's papacy
was
propitiousfor
an
able
which had risen high under Innocent I Pope. The papacy, (402-417) and Leo I (440-461),had sunk in power after Jus tinian had conquered the Ostrogothsand restored the imperial authority in Italy. Since 568, however, the control of the
Emperors
in
Italyhad
more 1
and
more
Ayer, p. 475.
waned
before the Lom-
GREGORY'S
192
THEOLOGY
for the future was significant Gregory'sfar-reach ing missionary campaign for the conversion of England, in will be given (p.198). account augurated in 596, of which some of Christianity, but It not only advanced markedly the cause of England, and the initiation of a closer relationship was than had yet been ultimatelyof Germany, with the papacy Even
achieved
more
elsewhere.
Nearer
home,
among
the
Arian
Lom
bards, Gregory inaugurated ultimately successful efforts to them to the Catholic faith,especially turn through the aid of the Queen of Kings Authari Theodelinda, who was successively (584-591)and Agilulf(592-615). Tradition mation
has ascribed to
of church
music
Gregory
the
"
a
in the refor
great work
"Gregorianchants"
"
and
in the
liturgy;but the absence of con temporary reference makes it probable that his services in both these respects were relativelyinconspicious.On the other undoubted. As a writer hand, his abilitiesas a preacherwere three of his works maintained high popularitythroughout the of Job, or Moralia, his treatise on Middle Ages his exposition the Regula Pasthe character and duties of the pastoral office, and his credulous Dialogueson the Lifeand Miracles of toralis,
development of
the Roman
"
the Italian Fathers.
Gregory'stheology is Augustinian,but with another em phasisthan that of Augustine. He developedall of Augus tine's ecclesiasticaltendencies,and
that
mass
of material
from
which Augustine took up into his system. popular Christianity Miracles, angels,and the devil have an even greater part in Gregory's system than in that of Augustine. While Gregory of the elect is fixed,and depends upon held that the number had Augus as God, he had no such interest in predestination is simply divine often speaks as if predestination tine. He practical.Man is fettered foreknowledge. His interests were in original sin,the evidence of which is his birth through lust. of Christ, re From this condition he is rescued by the work after baptism must be ceived in baptism; but sins committed satisfied. Works of merit wrought by God's assistinggrace make satisfaction. "The good that we do is both of God and of ourselves ; of God by prevenientgrace, our own by good will : for sins after following." Penance is the proper reparation baptism. It involves recognitionof the evil of the sin,coni
Moralia,
3321.
193
PURGATORY
has many helpsfor him Of these the great exercise penance. church
and satisfaction. The trition, seek merit
would
who
Supper, which
is the Lord's
est
of the sacrificeof There work
or
Gregory
should
pwn
For
martyrs."
l
as
repetition
a
the dead.
Christ,available for the livingand
is also the aid of the saints. of their
viewed
run
to
"Those
who
the
protectionof
the
in
trust
no
holy
of Christ, who, while reallydisciples
those
to achieve works opportunities avail themselves of merit, fail to do penance, or inadequately of the helps offered in the church, there remain the purifying
make
an.
of these
insufficientuse
fires of purgatory. The thought of
purgatory
first faint intimation
With
may
was
not
be
found
evident, and
Cyprian it is more
new
Gregory. The
with
in Hernias
of
he cites in this
Rome.2 connec
argued Augustine,on the basis of 1 Cor. 311'15, absolute that purgatory was not improbable,though he felt no definitely certaintyregardingit.4 Csesarius of Aries held more him fact. it was to the conception. To a Gregory now taught tion Matt.
purgatory
526.3
as
a
essential to the faith.
matter
"It
is to be be
purgatorialfire before the judgment for certain lightsins." Though the Eastern Church held that an and the judgment, death intermediate state exists between and sacrifice, its and souls can be helped therein by prayer conceptionof purgatory has always been vague compared with
lieved that
there
is
a
5
that of the West.
Thus, in all departments of ecclesiastical activityGregory
conspicuousleader of his time. In him the Western of the Middle Ages already exhibited its Church of doctrine,life, characteristic traits,whether worship, or or to be in the directions in which ganization. Its growth was Gregory had moved. as Contemporary with Gregory in part, and of significance of the theological of much the transmitter leaningof the an cient church to the Middle Isidore,the head of the Ages, was Spanish church from about GOO to 636, as bishop of Seville. brief statements of doctrine His Book to was of Sentences text-book of the Western be the theological Church tillthe His Origins or Etymologiesembraced welltwelfth century. of his age, ecclesiasticaland secular, nigh the round of learning stood
forth the most
"
1
Moralia,
*
Enchiridion,69 ;
1651.
"
2
Vis.,37.
City of God,
21 26.
3
51-5520. Letters,
6
Dialogues, 439.
ISIDORE
194
and
was
a
of
thought Vandals age,
main
antiquity. great.
was
all
the
originality
of
source
earlier but
of
SEVILLE
OF
His In
Middle
remarkable
knowledge value
him,
Ages
as
as
the
in
the
were
breadth
a
Middle
historian
to
of
of
the
learned
most
find
a
of
Ages
teacher
learning.
Goths
and of
man
of
the
his
little
THE
IV.
PERIOD
SECTION
of
acceptance
MISSIONS
I.
the
Franks
of
Catholic been
THE
the
OF
ISLANDS
Germanic
tribes,the con faith, and the gradual
Roman
the
by
orthodoxy
noted
CLOSE
THE
BRITISH
the
among to
TO
CONTROVERSY
IN
of Arianism
spread
version
AGES
INVESTITURE
THE
THE
MIDDLE
Germanic
invaders
Much,
however, to more striking proof of the no vitalityof the church in the collapsing empire and the opening it under with which Middle Ages than the vigor and success of Christianity. took the extension in the British foothold Isles before Christianity had some of Constantine. the conversion Bishops of York, London, and of Aries in 314. probably Lincoln, were present at the Council have
already
be
remained
Yet
it survived
downfall
the
129-134).
is
of the
the Celtic population, while
among
and
England
eastern
Saxon
invaders.
found but
(ante, pp.
There
done.
was
advanced
so
of the
the
feebly
soil of southern
heathenism
by the Angloto be beginnings were
slight Christian
Some
but
Empire
much
for
won
chiefly in the south
he
Roman
of Ireland
before
the
time
of
Patrick;
of the
Gospel in that island institutions,that he deserves
cause
and
the organized its Christian title of the Apostle of Ireland. Born about the 389, possibly in southern Wales, Patrick was of a deacon and the grandson of a priest. His training was son so
therefore
was
slave
a
years
Christian.
for
in
and
a
Most
the
coast
work
of
west.
not
to
facts
Few and
as
whom
which
little of his
In
432
of
he of
Germanus ended
with
of
was
or
Auxerre,
his death
in
in northeastern
were
in
the
his zeal
scattered
Patrick
monastery
south
there
conspicuous abilities
hitherto 195
the
efforts but
for six
was
Continent,
of
labors
some
survive;
the
the
France.
missionary without
405, he
about
inmate
an
in Ireland
of Patrick's
question, ganizer under no
raid
a
Escaped time
southern
Ireland, though wilder
in
missionary bishop by Bishop
began
461.
Ireland.
considerable
a
Lerins, off the dained
Seized
as
and be
can an
or
Christianity
of
Ireland
island in
the
with
and
Continent It
systematized and
was
brought
made
advance.
great
into association with
measure
some
Patrick
introduced
the diocesan
copate into Ireland; but that institution was by the clan system of the island,so that there and
monastic
many
by Patrick; but
He the
Rome. that
certain
seems
SCOTLAND
AND
IRELAND
196
soon
were,
epis
modified
instead,
favored was bishops. Monasticism great developer of the peculiar Irish
tribal the
(470?-548), under whose a stronglymissionary and, for the time, a notably leadership monasticism learned
of
group
monastic
Finian
was
monasteries
schools of Ireland centuries.
seventh
Irish
of Clonard
The
into
came
justlyfamous
were
gloryof this
is said
the can
earlyyears said.
be
to
have
labored
The
in the sixth and
Irish monasticism
missionaryachievement. in Scotland The beginningsof Christianity Ninian
being.
are
there in the fourth
very
was
its
obscure.
century and
but of his date and real work little fifth, Kentigern,or Mungo (527?-612?), who spread of the
in the neighborhood of Glasgow, is almost as dim Christianity Irish a probable that the northern figure. It would seem settlers who founded, about 490, the kingdom of Dalriada, em The Christians. as Argyleshire,came bracing the modern Columba (521-597), a man great missionaryto Scotland was of the most powerful tribal families closelyrelated with some of Ireland, and a pupil of Finian of Clonard. Distinguished in monasteries and founder of monk Ireland,he a alreadyas a himself transferred his labors,in 563, to Scotland, establishing with twelve companions on the island of lona or Hy, under the protectionof his fellow countryman and relative,the King of monas Dalriada. There Columba developed a most flourishing the labors among tery, and thence he went forth for missionary By Picts,who occupied the northern two-thirds of Scotland. and his associates the kingdom of the Picts was won Columba institutions were in Ireland, Christian for the Gospel. As the There even dioceses, and were no largely monastic. in ordination,of Co under the authority,save bishops were abbots as a lumba, who was presbyter,and of his successors of lona. These
land,
Irish
among
the island of
carried to northern Eng missionaryefforts were the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria. There, on
Lindisfarne,off the
extreme
northeastern
coast
of
OX
MISSIONARIES
England,a
lona
new
lona, in 634.
region by him associates.
by
Columba
in
monk
a
from in the
widely spread
651, and
afterward
his
by
the missionaryzeal of these Celtic monks
was
confined
means
any
Christianity was
till his death
Nor
197
established by Aidan,
was
Thence
CONTINENT
THE
the
to
British
the
Islands.
Columbanus,
monk of the Younger (543?-615), a celebrated Irish monastery of Bangor, which founded in was 558 by ;Comgall,a leader in learning and missionary zeal. From set forth, about. 585, with twelve Bangor, Columbanus monastic companions, and settled in Anegray, in Burgundy, which he planted the monastery of Luxeuil. Driven near forth about 610, in consequence of his prophet-like rebuke of King Theuderich II and the King's grandmother, Brunhilda, or
Columbanus where
worked
for
a
brief time
his Irish companion and
anchorite,and
an
became
later monastery northern
in northern
Callus, disciple,
as
name to, rather than to found, the of St. Gall. Columbanus made his way to
of
Columbanus
to live
was
to give his
Italy,and there established in.614,
the monastery
Switzerland,
Bobbio, in which
onfyone
was
monks
who
is
central and
labored
on
he died
a
of the earlier of
the Continent
"
in the year
Appenines, later.
number
a
of Irish
of them
many
in what
southern
Germany. Thus, Kilian wrought in Wiirzburgand Virgil in Salzburg. One modification of Chris tian practice, of great later importance,was introduced on the these Continent Irish monks, by notably by Columbanus. now
The
entrance
of thousands
into the church
when
Christianity
the old accepted by the state had largelybroken down of private publicdiscipline.There had grown up the custom
was
confession
stronglyfavored support than tended
to
the monks
the
among
the
of East
monks
it in the East. the Irish
among as laity,
Nowhere
had
monks, and
by
Basil
had
it"more hearty them
it
was
ex
The
the case, to some extent, by Irish on the Continent were the
introducers of privatelay confession. up
West.
indeed
was
of the East.
and
In
Ireland, also, grew
the first extensive
books, in which appropriate penitential assessed for specific sins though these books
satisfactions were had their antecedents
"
in earlier
penitentialtreatises the Irish monks
canons
made
of
councils.
familiar
on
These
the Con
tinent.
Meanwhile,
a
work
historyof Britain
of the utmost
and
the
papacy
for the religious significance had
been
undertaken
bv
MISSIONARIES
ROMAN
198
IN
ENGLAND
by a missionary impulse Pope Gregory the Great. Moved which he had long felt,and taking advantage of the favorable situation afforded by the marriage of ^Ethelberht, "King" of southeastern of Kent and overlord of much England, to a Christian princess,Berhta, Gregory sent a Roman Frankish friend,Augustine,the prior of his beloved monastery on the with a number of monastic Cselian hill, companions, to at tempt the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. The expeditionleft in 596, but its courage Rome small, and all the persuasive was of Gregory was requiredto induce it to proceed. It was power not tillthe springof 597 that the party, reinforced by Frank and ish assistants,reached Canterbury. ^Ethelberht many of his followers soon accepted Christianity.Gregory looked the struggleas already won. Augustine received epis upon copal consecration from Vergiliusof Aries in November, 597, and, by 601, Gregory appointed Augustine metropolitanwith authority to establish twelve bishops under his jurisdiction. northern When England should be converted a similar metroLondon and York politanatewas. to be established in York. British bishops, to be the ecclesiastical capitals. The were the Pope whom over Gregory had no recognizedjurisdiction, task committed to the superintendency of Augustine.1 The arduous than it seemed to much in realitywas to prove more Gregory's sanguine vision,and the greater part of a century in Eng to be dominant to pass, before Christianity was was thus inaugurated, was land. Yet the movement, vastly to The Anglo-Saxons owed their conver strengthenthe papacy. sion chieflyto the direct efforts of Rome, and they in turn devotion
displayeda
the papacy not characteristic of the had been and Spain,where Christianity
to
older lands,like France otherwise introduced.
to pro Anglo-Saxon Christianitywas of the most energeticof missionaries
some duce, moreover, the by whom Gospel and
advanced
without
obedience
were
alike to
be
the Continent.
on
England
papal
was
much
not
brought
vicissitude.
to the
The
acceptance of Christianity
hegemony
of Kent
was
wan
ing before the death of ^Ethelberht,and with it the first Chris tian triumphs were gradually gained eclipsed. Northumbria when Edwin, King of Northa success leadership. It was 1
9,
Gee
10.
and
Hardy, Documents
Illustrative of English Church
History, pp.
CHURCH
FRANKISH
200
AND
RULERS
tage of English Christianity.If that from
Rome
contributed
order,the Old British gave missionaryzeal and love of learning. The scholarshipof the Irish monasteries was transplantedto and there was strengthened by frequent AngloEngland, Of this intellectual movement Saxon a pilgrimagesto Rome. conspicuousillustration was Bede, generallycalled the "Vener able" of the joint member (672?-735). An almost life-long of Wearmouth
and
Jarrow
in
Northumbria, his learn embraced a century earlier, ing,like that of Isidore of Seville, monastery
the full round
of
of his age, and
knowledge
made
him
a
teacher
of
He wrote on generationsto come. chronology,natural phe and theology. Above the Scriptures, all,he is remem nomena, bered for his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, a of information work of great merit and the chief source regard ing the Christianization of the British Islands.
SECTION
CONTINENTAL
II.
the
With
conversion
MISSIONS
Clovis
of
AND
to
orthodox
Christianity and
of church (496) (ante,p. 133), a close relationship gan
in the Prankish
Frankish
that
of the
dominions.
conquest
Merovingian Kings
"
church
the
sank, however,
appointed
for
confiscated
or
to
the
low
ebb.
condition
true
two
sides
Clovis
of the
Even
church
be
was
"
the
Frankish
Bishops and abbots
considerations,much political put in secular hands.
were
of
state
it
largeextent
descendants
internal a
a
Christianization
and
Under
shield.
same
To
GROWTH
PAPAL
land
the efforts of
were was
Greg
papal control in France and to effect reform had little lastingresult. The political collapseof the Merovingians, led to the rise to of the Carolingianhouse, originally "mayors of the pal power ace," which was accomplished when Pippin,called,not wholly the battle of Tertry in 687. The of Heristal,won correctly, but the real authority Merovingian Kings continued in name, exercised by Pippin as "duke After his of the Franks." was Charles Martel death in 714, his illegitimate son (715-741) ex ercised all the powers of a King. By him the Mohammedan advance in western Europe was permanently stayed,by the ory
I to
gain
more
great battle between
effective
Tours
and
Poitiers in 732.
He
saw
the
advantage of churchly aid, and supported missionary effort in western Germany and the Netherlands,where he wished to ex-
Martel
Charles
nor
the
its
did
lands, and
Nevertheless,under Charles
its disorders.
sionaryand reformatorywork tianize largesections of western church, and bring the papacy the utmost
Pippin "of Heristal"
helpfulto the church of their Merovingians. They exploitedit for
secularized
political reasons,
little to check
Martel
initiated that
was
reform
Germany,
great mis
was
to Chris
the Frankish
into relations of
the Franks
and
a
both.
to
consequence
201
more
were
territoriesthan
own
neither
Yet
control. political
tend his
MISSIONARY
A
AS
BONIFACE
Willibrord (657?-739),a Northumbrian, began missionary work in Frisia with the support of Pippin of Heristal,and, in consecrated a missionarybishop by Pope SergiusI" 695, was an
resulted in the establishment
which
action
His
Utrecht.
work
of the ablest
one
Winfrid shire
had and
Boniface
or
In
and
success,
remarkable
most
An
(680?-754).
by birth,Winfrid
chester.
scanty
became
of the
with such illsuccess
that he returned
by period" up
of Devon
Anglo-Saxon of Nutcell
716, he began missionary labors
of
see
taken
was
men
monk
a
of the
near
Win
Frisia,but
in
England. In 718 and in Rome, where he received from Pope Gregory II 719, he was From 719 to (715-731) appointment to labor in Germany. he wrorked in Frisia and Hesse, going once to Rome more 722, in the year last named, and receivingconsecration mis as a to the Pope.1 The next ten sionarybishop,swearingallegiance in Hesse and Thuringia. Not a great success years witnessed only were heathen converted,but the Irish monks were brought largelyinto obedience to Rome. Gregory III (731-741) made Boniface an archbishopin 732, with authorityto found new sees. After a third journey to Rome, in 738, he thus organized the church
of
Bavaria, and
a
to
little later that
of
Thuringia. In
Sturm, in the foundation of the great 744, he aided his disciple, Benedictine monastery of Fulda, destined to be a centre of
learningand
Between
746
Mainz, which
thus
many.
of
priestlyeducation and
for all western-central
748, Boniface the
became
by
strengthenedthe causes increased papal authority. His
the considerable
fellow
found
workers
numbers
from
placein monastic 1
his and
Robinson, Readings
of native
archbishop
leadingGerman
this Boniface Jand
made
was
men
of order work and
was
England,
and
and
discipline greatlyaided
European History, 1
:
came
for whom
other Christian service. in
In all
see.
who
women
Ger
105-111.
as
he
BONIFACE'S
202
in 741
death of Charles Martel
The
his
between
Carloman
sons
(741-768). Both and
REFORMS
Carloman
monk.
churchly
more
ultimately retired
While
would
neither
his authoritydivided
(741-747), and
far
were
saw
from
abandon
Pippin than
their
father,
become
to
power
Short
the
authority
a
the
over
in the abolition of
supported Boniface and its worst abuses, and in a closer connec irregularities In a series of synods held under Boniface's tion with Rome. leadership, beginning in 742, the worldliness of the clergywas attacked,wandering bishops censured, priestlymarriage con At a synod enforced. demned, and stricter clerical discipline held in 747 the bishops assembled recognizedthe jurisdiction of the papacy, not though, as the civil rulers were present, Frankish
both
church,
these conclusions lacked the force of Frankish
law.
The
Frank
ish church, thanks to the work of Boniface, was vastlybettered in organization,character, and discipline, while, what was therein equally valued by him, the authority of the papacy was decidedlyincreased,even though that of the mayor very of the palace continued the more potent. drew As Boniface toward old age his thoughts turned toward the mission work in Frisia,with which he had begun. He se cured the appointment of his Anglo-Saxon disciple, Lull, as
his
successor
and
there
ive and faith.
in the
of Mainz.
see
murdered
was
by
the
In
had
work
well as solidation, the chief needs
SECTION
as
he
went
to
Frisia,
heathen, thus crowning his
widely influential life with His
754
death
a
of witness
and order,discipline, Christian advancement, and these
been
for
one
act
to
his con-
were
of the age.
III.
THE
FRANKS
THE
AND
PAPACY
pointed out (ante,p. 162) that the pa and Italy generally, opposed the iconoclastic efforts of pacy, the the Emperor Leo III, going so far as to excommunicate synod held under Gregory opponents of picturesin a Roman III, in 731. The by removing southern Emperor answered and placing these Italy and Sicilyfrom papal jurisdiction, regionsunder the see of Constantinople a matter long a thorn in the side of the papacy. In Rome and northern Italy the exercised from Constantinoplewas too feeble imperialpower It has already been
"
to control
papal action.
The
was imperialrepresentative
the
CORONATION
PIPPIN
OF
203
of Rome
stood a duke Ravenna, under whom in many militaryaffairs,though the Pope was of
exarch
for
respects the
of the city. Emperor's representativein the civil concerns in practical rebellion against the rulers The was now papacy
in Constantinople. It was, however, in a and were pressing, dangerous position.The Lombards The disunion conse threateningthe capture of Rome.
most were
quent
pn
papacy
seat
it necessary, if the the iconoclastic dispute made considerable to maintain independence in was any than that againstthe Lombards protection This the Popes sought,and at last obtained,
to find other
Rome, ,of the
J
their
had
who
Emperor. the Franks.
from
739
In
but in vain.
againstthe Lombards, otherwise.
was
He
greater plans than him.
Pippin
and
each to the other.
Charles
appealed to
III
Gregory
could
the papacy The
new
aid
With
his father had
even
for
Pippin the Short it minded, and ecclesiastically
more
was
Martel
Lombard
entertained be of mutual
now
moved
assistance
King, Aistulf (749-756),
from the Emperor in 751 and was griev conquered Ravenna itself. Pippin desired the kingly title as ously pressingRome in France. He had determined well as the kinglypower upon
should relegatethe last of the feeble Mero vingians,Childeric III, to a monastery, and placePippin him
a
revolution which
this change he desired not only the approval of the Frankish nobility,but the moral sanction of the church. He appealed to Pope Zacharias (741-752). The self on
the
throne.
Pope's approval was of was
751, Pippin was anointed
and
For
promptly granted, and formally in crowned, but
before the
close
kingly office. To this he whether by Boniface,as has
the
usuallybeen supposed, is uncertain. This
transaction,which
seems
to
have
been
simple at
the
far-reachingconsequences. fraught with the most the conclusion that it was it might be drawn From within the in Pope's powrer to give and withhold kingdoms. All unseen it,were wrapped up the re-establishment of the empire in the West, the Holy Roman Empire, and that interplayof papacy and empire which forms so, large a part of the historyof the Middle Ages. From this point of view it was the most impor of mediaeval history. tant event If the Pope could thus help Pippin, the latter could be no less serviceable to the Pope. Aistulf and his Lombards contime,
was
STATES
THE
204
THE
OF
CHURCH
Stephen II, therefore,went to Pippin himself,crowning anointingPippin and his sons afresh in the church of St. Denis Paris,in 754, and confirmingto near tinned to press
Rome.
and
them
the indefinite title of "Patricians
more
useful,perhaps,because
exarch his
in Ravenna.
implying a
It had
wholly undefined.
was
Soon
754, or
Aistulf to agree
early in
been
after this the
obligation. At reciprocal
late in
of the Romans"
to the
all the
relation to Rome
that
borne
by the imperial crowning,Pippin fulfilled
head
755, he invaded
to surrender
"
Pope
of
a
Prankish
Italy and Ravenna
army,
compelled
and
the other
campaign, in 756, was before the Lombard King made good his promise. necessary of which Exarchate Ravenna the capitaland The the was of the Pope. The "States the possessions now Pentapoliswere of the Church" were begun that temporal sovereigntyof the Lombard
recent
A
conquests.
second
"
which
papacy
was
to
last till1870.
Yet,
as
far
as
can
now
to Pope Stephen, judged, in thus granting the Exarchate itself, Pippin did Pippin regarded himself as overlord. Rome his to give. Legally,the not not give to the Pope. It was would have been hard to define. status of Rome Though the broken with the Emperor at Constanti Popes had practically Indeed the had not been conquered from him. nople,Rome recognizedthe sovereigntyof the Eastern Emperor in papacy till 772. the style of its public documents Pippin had the rightsthat might be included in the title wholly nebulous in the pos "Patrician of the Romans." was Actually,Rome session of the Pope. the extenta territorialruler, Though the Pope was thus now of his possessions far from was satisfying papal ambition, if' one judge by a curious forgery,the authorship of whichmay from this period the is unknown, but which to date seems
be
"
so-called "Donation
of Constantine."
l
In charter
form, and
of his expressionof a creed, and a fabulous account conversion and baptism, Constantine ordered all ecclesiastics to be subjectto Pope Sylvesterand successive occupants of the and all "the cityof Rome Roman see, and transferred to them the provinces, and cities of Italy or of the Western districts, half the Western a sovereigntyover regions." This meant of the empire at least an overlordship. Discredited by a few of the Middle of the wiser men was Ages, the "Donation" genwith
an
"
1
Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp.
319-329.
CHARLEMAGNE
205
erallybelieved,tillits falsitywas
demonstrated
of Cues
in 1440.
in 1433
and
SECTION
Pippin the
Short
Valla
Lorenzo
IV.
CHARLEMAGNE
in 768.
died
by Nicholas
A
strong ruler,his fame has been unduly eclipsed by that of his greater son, who, in general,
simply;carried had
further
his
divided
Carloman.
the
father
had
between
kingdom
his two between the
existed
Ill will
situation
what
begun.
sons,
Pippin
Charles
brothers, but
and
the
relieved
in 771. With by the death of Carloman that event the real reign of Charles, to whom the world has ascribed the title "Great" it indissolubly with to weave so as his name Charlemagne began. than any other sovereign in Charlemagne, perhaps more all thingsto his age. head over A warrior of great history, was than doubled his father's possessions. When gifts,he more he died his sway ruled all of modern France, Belgium, and Hol land, nearly half of modern Germany and Austria-Hungary, than half of Italy, and a bit of northeastern Spain. It was more since nearer imperialsize than anything that had been seen the downfall of the Western Roman Empire. Conquest was but part of his work. His armies, by extending the frontier, rest and time for consolidation to the central portion of gave his territories. He was the kindly mas the patron of learning, was
"
ter
"
of the
seemed A
church, the
small for attention
too
of
preserver or
too
quarrelwith Desiderius,King
in the
conquest
magne
in two
order, to whom
great for execution.
of the
extinction of that
and
campaigns in the
nothing
years
Lombards,
resulted
kingdom by Charle 774 to 777. Pippin's
the papacy were renewed, but the situation was altered. The was no practically longer separated as papacy
grants
to
it had
been
vening Rome
from
Lombard
was
main
Prankish
kingdom.
much
a
the
he thenceforth
ate of his
realm, rather than go
did that of the
so
far
as
Charlemagne's connection
effective overlordship than
more
father,and he did not
territories by the inter
treated as
an
the
Pope
as
bishopsof his
Highly important Charlemagne's conquest
for
that of his
the chief
independentpower,
to dictate the choice of the
with
prel
though
Popes,as he
kingdom.
the of the
extension
of
was Christianity Saxons, then occupying what
.
is
CROWNED
CHARLEMAGNE
206
EMPEROR
result achieved only after a Germany series of campaigns lastingfrom 772 to 804. His forcible a made impositionof Christianitywas permanent by the more and monasteries of plantingbishoprics throughpeacefulmeans out^theSaxon land. By this conversion the last considerable Germanic tribe,and one of the most giftedand energetic, was brought into the Christian family of Europe to its permanent became land. a wholly Christian advantage. Frisia,also,now Charlemagne's contests with the rebellious duke, Tassilo, of already Christianized Bavaria, led not only to the full absorp northwestern
now
tion of the Bavarian
system, but
to
"
in bishoprics
successful
wars
the
Prankish
against the
Avars
ecclesiastical and
the
ex
tension of Christianity of what into much is now Austria. Such a ruler,devoted equally to the extension of political power
and
of
it
the
visible embodiment
and controlling the greater part of Christianity, Western Christendom, was, indeed, a figureof imperial pro therefore,that Pope Leo III portions. It is not surprising, (795-816), who was greatlyindebted to Charlemagne for pro tection from disaffected Roman nobles, placed on the head of the Frankish the latter as King the Roman imperialcrown knelt in St. Peter's Church Christmas on day, 800. To the thinkingof the Roman populace who applauded,as to the West the restoration of the empire to the West, generally,it was that had for centuries been held by the ruler in Constan tinople. It placed Charlemagne in the great succession from Augustus. It gave a theocratic stamp to that empire. Un at the time to Charlemagne, expected,and not wholly welcome was
of
a
great ideal.
The
Roman
God's consecra died,and now thought,had never tion had been given to a Western Emperor by the hands of of the His representative.It was a not, necessarily, rejection imperialtitleof the ruler in Constantinople. The later empire had frequentlyseen Leo V two Emperors, East and West. (813-820), the Emperor in Constantinople, later, formally recognized the imperial title of his Western colleague. For
Empire, men
the West
and
consequence.
of the utmost for the papacy the coronation was of It raised questions of imperialpower and
to be controverted papal authoritythat were throughout the Middle Ages. It emphasized the feelingthat church and but two state sides of the same were shield,the one leading the other to eternal blessedness, to temporal happiness, man
15
Long.
10
EUROPE IN
THE
TIME
CHARLEMAGNE.
OF
AVest
5
10
Long.
15
East
fruui
T"
25
Greemv.
30
REVIVED
LEARNING and
both
made
more
UNDER
closelyrelated
and
than
ever
evident
cleavagebetween political peror
himself it seemed
207
owing mutual helpfulness.It anoT the deep-seatedreligious
East
and
the great Em the fulfilment of the dream of Augus
West.
To
in City offGod (ante,p. 184) the union of Christendom the earthly head. His kingdom of God, of which he was
tine's a
CHARLEMAGNE
power
"
greater than when
never
was
he died, in 814. schools were so
Charlemagne's accession no flourishing in Western Europe as those to be found in connection with the monasteries of the British Islands. It was from England that this many-sided monarch procured his chief intellectual and literaryassistant. Alcuin (735?-804) was probably a native, and certainly From of York. 781 to his death, with a student he was some interruptions, Charlemagne's main aid in a real renaissance of classical and Biblical learning, that rendered the reignbrightcompared with the years before,and raised the in At
tellectual life of the without
becoming
occasional
pupilin
though as
an
Charlemagne made Martin centre
Prankish
in
of
Tours, which
of
scholar,set the example of the palace." In 796
a
this "school
Alcuin
Charlemagne himself,
state.
much
the head
now
learningfor the.
of the monastery of St. under became his leadership a
whole
Frankish
realm.
helped in this intellectual revival,like the Lombard, (720?-795), the Frank, Einhard
Deacon
Visigoth,Theodulf various magne
national
The
mere
shows relationships
exhibited to
those who With
(760?-821). from
secure
any
the
Others
Paul
(770?-840), mention care
portionof
could raise the intellectual standards
or
the the
of these
which Western of his
Charle
Europe empire.
this growth of learning came
theologicaldiscussion. The Spanish bishops,Elipandus of Toledo and Felix of Urgel, Christology that Christ,though in His taught an adoptionist divine nature in His human the Son of God, was nature only a these opin son by adoption. Under Charlemagne's leadership ions were in synods held in Regensburg (792) and condemned Frankfort (794). In this work Charlemagne regarded himself the theological as guide no less than the protector of the church. In similar fashion,at the synod of Frankfort just mentioned, "
Charlemagne
had
the
conclusions
of the
General
Council
of
787vinNicsea of
(ante,p. 163), condemned, rejectedits approval and caused the Libri Carolini,defending picturereverence,
his position, to be issued.
In 809, at
a
synod in Aachen, Char-
ECCLESIASTICAL
208
MODIFICATIONS
lemagne approved the Spanish addition filioque(ante,p. 180) All these to the so-called Nicene-Constantinopolitancreed. in consultation with the bishops and theologiansof acts were his realm, but with no specialdeference to the Pope or refer of the matters to papal judgment. ence SECTION
V.
ECCLESIASTICAL
INSTITUTIONS
institutions were based on the cities, which on political dependent, and Christian organ surrounding country was
Roman the
ization
followed
the
same
rule.
The
country
districts
were
cared for by the city bishops and dependent upon and were their appointees,save where, in the East, there were "country Germanic invasions altered this situation. bishops." The By the sixth century the beginningsof the parish system were in France to be found (ante,p. 166). There it rapidly grew, of the foundation it was and stimulated by the custom of The founders and their heirs churches by large landowners. This situa retained the right of nominating the incumbent. tion left episcopal control uncertain. Charlemagne, there fore,provided that besides the rightof ordination of all parish the bishop should have visitorial and disciplinary priests, power his diocese. The further status was churchly throughout the full establishment of tithes. strengthenedby legal Long favored by the clergythrough Old Testament example, they demanded by a Frankish synod in Macon, in 585. By were treated as a legalcharge,and full legalsanc Pippin they were tion was to be col given them by Charlemagne. They were lected not only by bishops,but by and for the use of the incum bent of each parish. Moreover, constant giftsof lands to the church had raised ecclesiasticalpossessions, by the time of the The great to a third of the soil of France. earlyCarolingians, holdingswere a constant temptation in the financial need of a Charles Martel, who secularized much, but under the friendly of Charlemagne they were respected,if earlier government
confiscations Under
were
not
restored.
Charlemagne, preachingwas encouraged and books of sermons favored, though not yet prepared. Confession was obligatory. Every Christian was expected to be able to repeat the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles'Creed. Charlemagne renewed and extended the metropolitansystem,
AND
METROPOLITANS
ARCHBISHOPS
209
abeyance. At the beginningof his reign but one there was metropolitanin the Prankish kingdom. At These its end there were were now generally twenty-two. known as archbishops a title which goes back to the time of In Carolingiantheory Athanasius, though long looselyused. the judge and disciplinary the archbishop was officer of the bishopsof his province,possessedof powers which the growth It was of papal jurisdiction also his duty to curtail. was soon the religious to call frequentsynods to consider problems of the archdiocese,or as it was usuallystyled,the province. For the better regulation of his immediate clerical assistants, Bishop Chrodegang of Metz introduced, about 760, a semifavored which was and spread by monastic life in common, the designationof this life as the vita Charlemagne. From "canons" for the clergyattached to a cathe canonica,the name Their place of meeting was dral or collegiate church arose. called the capitulum,or chapter a title soon applied to the themselves. of the the life and work canons By this means bishop and his immediately associated clergy was largely regulated. Charlemagne himself designated the bishops of which
had
fallen into
"
"
his realm. In
all these
that of personalauthorityover changes, save episcopalappointments,Charlemagne was but carryingfurther the reforms Much that he completed begun by Boniface. his father,Pippin,had commenced. At Charlemagne's death, the Prankish
church
in
was
a
far better state
of
education,dis
and efficiency than it had been under the later Mero cipline, vingiansand earlyCarolingians.
SECTION
VI.
COLLAPSING
EMPIRE
AND
RISING
PAPACY
personal. Scarcelyhad he died when the rapid decline of his empire began. His son and Louis the Pious (814-840),was of excellent personal successor, character,but wholly unequal to the task left by Charlemagne, to the control of his own or even plottedagainsthim sons, who and quarrelled another. After his death they divided with one the empire between them by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. To Lothair (843-855) came Prankish Italyand a stripof territory the valleyof the Rhone and the region: including lyingimmedi atelywest of the Rhine, togetherwith the imperialtitle. To
Charlemagne'sgreat
power
was
THE
210
COLLAPSE
OF
THE
(843-875)was given the regioneast acquiredthe nickname, the German."
Louis he
EMPIRE of the
"
(843-877) came
most
of modern
France
and
To
Rhine, whence
Charles
the Bald
ultimatelythe is usuallyregardedas
im
the Treaty of Verdun and Germany go their separate ways. France These rulers proved utterlyinadequate for unity or defense. France suffered grievouslyfrom attacks by the Scandinavian Normans, who pushed up its rivers and burned its towns, ulti mately (911) establishingthemselves permanently in Nor of which to Saracen raids,in one a mandy. Italy was prey in Rome, was (841) St. Peter's itself, plundered. A littlelater, with the beginningof the tenth century, the raids of the Hun garians brought devastation to Germany and Italy. Under national unity or defense was im these circumstances, when possible,feudalism developed with great rapidity. Its roots back to the declining run days of the Roman Empire, but with the death of Charlemagne it was given great impetus. It was for any strong central govern intenselydivisive,substituting local seats of authority, ment jealousone of another and many engaged in constant struggle. Churches and monasteries be came largelythe prey of local nobles, or defended their rights with difficulty as parts of the feudal system. This social and form of organizationwas to dominate Europe tillthe political the growth of thirteenth century, and largelyto make possible
perialcrown. point whence
the mediaeval
This
papacy.
impulsegiven to learningby Charlemagne did not imme diatelydie. At the court of Charles the Bald, John Scotus much later added, the name Erigena was (?-877?), to whom held somewhat the same positionthat Alcuin had occupied un admired writingsof der Charlemagne. He translated the much Neothe Pseudo-Dionysius(ante, p. 171),and developedhis own too ignorant to judge Platonic philosophy,which his age was Maurus In Germany, Hrabanus heretical or orthodox. (776 ?856), abbot of Fulda and archbishopof Mainz, a pupilof Alcuin, attained a deserved reputationas a teacher, commentator on of and author furtherer of clerical education the Scriptures, what was (805?-882), well-nighan encyclopaedia.In Hincmar of France not Rheims, only a prelateof possessed archbishop controversial but a theological great assertiveness and influence, ist of decided gift. renewed The study of Augustine which this intellectual The
PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN
THE
212
DECRETALS
collapsingempire of Charlemagne led to the rise of a churchly party in France, which despairingof help from the of unity and hope. as the source state, looked toward the papacy This party regarded with suspicionalso any control of the church by the sovereigns or nobility,and it represented the jealousyof the ordinary bishops and lower clergytoward the great archbishops with their often arbitraryassertions of au Hincmar was a conspicuousexample. The thority,of whom The
aim
of the movement
the exaltation
not
was
of the papacy for of checking sec
sake; rather its exaltation as a means ular control and that of the archbishops,and of maintaining ecclesiastical unity. From 847 and 852, this circle,between and probably from Hincmar's own one regionof Rheims, came remarkable of forgeries the so-called Pseudoof the most Isidorian Decretals purporting to be collected by a certain Isidore Mercator, by whom Isidore of Seville (ante,p. 193) and its
own
"
"
Marius
Mercator
were
intended.
doubtless
It
consisted
of
of Rome in the Popes and councils from Clement first century to Gregory II in the eighth,part genuine and part "Donation of Constantine" (ante, p. 204) is forged. The included. The su early Popes therein claim for themselves jurisdiction.All bishops may appeal directlyto papal preme rightsare limited,and authority. Interveningarchiepiscopal neither papacy nor bishopsare subjectto secular control. With had nothing to do; but it was its originthe papacy to be used mightilyto the furtherance of papal claims. The age was un critical. It passed immediately as genuine, and not was ex historical study. had awakened posed tillthe Reformation the independence of the With the decline of imperialpower, the strong The Popes showed themselves rapidlyrose. papacy in Italy. Leo IV (847-855), aided by south Italian est men decisions
of
cities,defeated St. Peter's Nicholas
I
the
in Rome
with
surrounded
and
Saracens a
wall
(858-867) the Roman
"
see
the had
the
"Leonine
quarter of
City."
its ablest and
In
most
Gregory the Great and Hildebrand. of papal claims,hardly surpassed to be centuries in achieving. later,but which the papacy was Nicholas attempted to realize the ideals of Augustine'sCityof God. is superior to all earthly In his thought, the church the ruler of the whole church is the Pope, and the bish powers, able to make his agents. These conceptionshe was ops are assertive occupant between He sketched out a programme
effective in two
notable
tage of choosing the
cases,
side
on
in which which
I
NICHOLAS
BY
ADVANCED
PAPACY
he had
213
also the advan
right lay.
The
first was
Thietberga,the injuredwife of Lothair II of Lorraine. his concubine, WalDivorced that that sovereignmight marry drada, she appealed to Nicholas, who declared void the sanc tioningdecision of a synod held in Metz, in 863, and excom the archbishops of Trier and municated Cologne who had The Pope had defended helplesswoman supported Lothair. of the most two the less humbled powerful hood, he none second the ruler. In German German prelatesand thwarted a Nicholas received the appeal of the deposed Bishop case, Rothad of Soissons,who had been removed by the overbearing forced his restoration. of Rheims, and Archbishop Hincmar Here Nicholas appearedas the protector of the bishopsagainst their metropolitansand the defender of their right to appeal to the Pope as the final judge. In this quarrel the Pseudothat of
Isidorian Decretals In was
were
firstemployed in Rome.
third case, Nicholas, though having right on his side, less successful. The Emperor in Constantinople,Michael a
of ruled by his uncle,Bardas, a man Ignatius,refused Bardas reputation. The patriarch,
"
III, the Drunkard," unsavory
was
deposed. In his place,Bardas sacrament, and was learned men of the most cured the appointment of one
the
the
later Greek
world, Photius
pro
of
858-867, 878-886), (patriarch appealedto Nicholas, injured,
layman. Ignatius,thus who sent legatesto Constantinople. They joined in approval The Pope repudiatedtheir action,and, in 863, de of Photius. accused the Western clared Photius deposed. Photius now clause to the creed, Church of heresy for admitting ihefilioque fastingon Saturdays,using milk, butter, and cheese in Lent, and confiningconfirmation to the celibacy, demanding priestly bishops. At a synod under his leadershipin Constantinople, Nicholas failed in his condemned. in 867, the Pope was Church. the Eastern attempt to exercise his authority over but augmented, The ill feelingbetween East and West was which was to lead,in 1054, to the complete separationof the then
a
churches.
During this period followingthe death of Charlemagne im begun. Ansgar (801?-865), portant missionary efforts were a
monk
the next
of
driven out in 826, but was In 831 he labored in Sweden.
Corbie, entered Denmark
year.
In 829
and
830
MISSIONS
214 he
IN
EUROPE
appointed archbishop of the newly constituted see of Den Hamburg, with prospectivemissionaryjurisdiction over The destruction of Hamburg mark, Norway, and Sweden. by the Danes, in 845, resulted in Ansgar'sremoval to Bremen, which united with was ecclesiastically Hamburg. Ansgar's efforts were backed by no Frankish militaryforce,and his pa tient labors accomplished little. The full Christianization of was
Scandinavia
was
yet in the future.
attended missions in the East. The Bulgars, Larger success Turanian a originally people, from eastern Russia, had con quered a largeterritoryin the Balkan region in the seventh and century, and, in turn, had adopted the manners speech of their Slavic subjects. Under their King, Boris (852-884), For was introduced, Boris being baptizedin 864. Christianity time undecided between some Constantinopleand Rome, Boris finallychose spiritual allegianceto the former, since the pa triarch of Constantinople was willing to recognize a selfThis adhesion of immense governing Bulgarian church. was in determining the future growth of the Greek consequence Church in Eastern Europe. The most celebrated missionaries the Slavs were, however, the brothers Cyril (?-869) and among Methodius (?-885). Natives of Thessalonica, they had at tained high positionin the Eastern empire. On the request of Rostislav,duke of Moravia, the Eastern Emperor, Michael III, There they labored with great sent the brothers thither in 864. A struggleof several years between the papacy and success. resulted Constantinoplefor possessionof this new-won territory in the ultimate victoryof Rome. The use of a Slavic liturgy was permittedby Pope John VIII (872-882),though soon with its worship came drawn, but from this source ultimatelyto the Russian church. From Moravia, Christianityin its Roman
form
SECTION
came
to Bohemia
VII.
PAPAL
about
the close of the ninth
DECLINE
AND
RENEWAL
BY
THE
century.
REVIVED
EMPIRE
It may which such showed seem strange that the papacy under Nicholas I should within twenty-fiveyears of his power death is the
have fallen into its lowest
degradation. times. Up to
growing anarchy of the the collapseof the empire aided
the
The
explanation certain point a development of papal
PAPACY
THE
OF
DECLINE
RAPID
215
the sport of the became authority; that passed, the papacy in con faction was Italian nobles and ultimatelyof whatever chosen trol of Rome, since the Pope was by the clergy and could now appeal for aid to no peopleof the city. The papacy had to Pippinagainst as Zacharias strong outside political power the Lombards.
the close of the ninth century the papacy
At
quarrelsfor
in the
the
involved
was
of Italy. Stephen possession of
Spoleto,and
overborne by Guido, duke 891) was the empty imperialtitle. Formosus to grant him
V
(885-
compelled (891-896) Lambert,
similarlydependent, and crowned Guido's son, this situation Formosus sought relief Emperor in 892. From had the Germans in the aid of Arnulf, whom in 893 by calling In 895 Arnulf captured Rome, and was chosen King in 887. the next year. A few months crowned Emperor by Formosus of Rome, and his partisan, in turn master later Lambert was Stephen VI (896-897), had the remains of the latelydeceased in a synod, and treated Formosus disinterred,condemned with extreme indignity. A riot,however, thrust Stephen VI into prison,where he was strangled. in rapid succession, another the followed one as Popes now
was
various
factions
Stephen
VI
than
(897) and
influences in the
From
Alberic, a
son
much the was
who
and
man
of less
(955) no
controlling
The
century
were
notorious
those
daugh
their creatures.
controlled by Marozia's of strength, and character,who did ability, was
for
fitness for the
Octavian office,
in 955,
choosingas (955-964),being one of the
on
death
churchly reforms in Rome, but nevertheless secured appointment of his partisansas Popes. On his death he succeeded as temporal ruler of Rome by his son Octavian, had few of the father's rough virtues. Though without
moral as
throne. tenth
the XII
Theophylact, and his The Popes were Theodora.
death in 954 Rome
to his
932
the accession of John
noble
Roman
ters, Marozia
Between
Rome.
occupied the papal openingyears of the
seventeen
of the
controlled
Pope
election.
He
his
name
secured in this
earliest
Popes
whole
Roman
altered the
to
his
election
own
capacityJohn XII take
a
new
name
situation and
in
historyof the papacy, by calling the able German for aid upon sovereign,Otto I, against the threateningpower of Berengar II, who had gained control of a largepart of Italy. troduced
a
new
chapter in
the
line of
The
tion
Charlemagne
of the
to
came
of Louis
the death
911, with
OF
REGENERATION
THE
210
GERMANY
an
the Child. and
Carolingianempire
the
end
in
Germany, in With the disintegra growth of feudalism,
Germany threatened to fall into its tribal divisions,Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony, Franconia, and Lorraine. The most power ful
the tribal dukes.
were
men
The
necessities of defense from
and
Hungarians forced a degree of unity,which aided by the jealousyfelt by the bishops of the growing was nobles and of the secular nobility. In 911 the German power great clergy,therefore,chose Conrad, duke of Franconia, as King (911-918). He proved inadequate,and in 919 Henry elected his successor the Fowler, duke of Saxony, was (919-936). His abilitywas equal to the situation. Though having little in Saxony, he secured peace from the other dukes, save power, the Northmen
the drove back the Danes, subdued territories, in 933, defeated the Hun of the Elbe, and finally,
fortifiedhis Slavs east
own
The
garian invaders. moved, and he
the
foundations
succeeded
was
worst
King by
as
perilsof Germany had been re of a strong monarchy laid,when his
even
abler son,
Otto
I
(936-
973). first work
Otto's
the consolidation of his kingdom.
was
He
his vassals. In effectively all the aid of the bishops and great he used above this work abbots. They controlled largeterritoriesof Germany, and by these posts with his adherents, their forces,coupled with filling made
semi-independentdukes
the
his own,
sufficient to enable
were
Otto
to
control
any
hostile
lay nobles. He named the bishopsand abbots, to continue to the and under him they became, as they were prelates. The Napoleonicwars, lay rulers as well as spiritual peculiarconstitution of Germany thus arose, by which the imperialpower was based on control of ecclesiasticalappoint to lead to the investiture struggle ments was a situation which combination
of
"
with
the
papacy
in the next
century.
As
Otto
extended
his
bishopricson the borders of his king and partly missionary in aim, as Bran dom, partly political the Slavs,and Schleswig, Ripen, denburg and Havelberg among he
power
and
founded
Aarhus
new
for the
Danes.
He
also established
the
arch
bishopricof Magdeburg. Had
Otto
for the
ing of
confined
to
Germany
it would
have
been
land, and for the permanent upbuild strong central monarchy. He was, however, attracted
advantage a
his work
of that
HOLY
THE
ROMAN
EMPIRE
217
by Italy,and established relations there of the utmost historic the strength destined to dissipate importance,but which were A first invasion in 951 made him for centuries. of Germany of northern Italy. Rebellion at home master (953) and a great campaign againstthe Hungarians (955) interruptedhis Italian invaded Italy,invited by more enterprise ; but in 961 he once Pope John XII, then hard pressedby Berengar II (ante,p. 215). in Rome On February 2, 962, Otto was crowned by John XII event which, though in theory continuingthe as an Emperor succession of the Roman Emperors from Augustus and Charle the inaugurationof the Holy Roman was Empire, magne, in which till 1806. the to continue was name Theoretically, the head of secular Christendom, so constituted Emperor was with the approval of the church expressedby coronation by the papacy. he was less powerful Ger a more or Practically, man ruler,with Italian possessions, on varyingterms with the Popes. John XII soon tired of Otto's practical control,and plotted such to whom againsthim. Otto, of strong religious feeling, also moved a an offense,doubtless was Pope was by a desire the German to strengthenhis hold on bishops by securinga In 963 Otto more worthy and compliant head of the church. to choose no compelled the Roman people to swear Pope with John XII to be deposed, and brought out his consent, caused about the choice of Leo VIII (963-965). The new Pope stood solelyby imperialsupport. On Otto's departureJohn XII re "
his papacy, chose Benedict V. sumed
and
John's
on
death
the
factions
Roman
returned, forced Benedict into exile,restored Leo VIII, and after Leo's speedy demise, caused the choice of John XIII (965-972). Otto had rescued the papacy, for the time being,from the Roman nobles,but at the cost
of
Otto's
his
and
successor,
Otto
II
(973-983),pursued substan
policy at home, and regardingthe papacy, hand. His son, Otto father, though with a weaker same
(983-1002),went controlled
Rome, made
Otto
more
subserviencyto himself.
son
tiallythe
Once
put
the
further.
papacy
them
The
Roman
nobles
in his minority,but
down, and
caused
had
in 996
his cousin
once
as
III
more
he entered
Bruno
to
be
to hold Pope as Gregory V (996-999)" the first German the papal office. After Gregory's decease Otto III placed on the papal throne his tutor, Gerbert, archbishopof Rheims,
218
AND
EMPERORS
THE
THE
PAPACY
Silvester II (999-1003)" the first French
as
learned
of the age. of Otto III ended
man
death
The
Pope, and the
the direct line of Otto
most
I, and the
by Henry II (1002-1024), duke of Bavaria A man filled with and great-grandsonof Henry the Fowler. sincere desire to improve the state of the church, he yet felt him self forced by the difficultiesin securingand maintaining his po sition to exercise strict control over ecclesiasticalappointments. affairs to interfere His hands too fully tied by German were of Tusculum in Rome. There the counts gained effectually control of the papacy, and secured the appointment of Benedict VIII (1012-1024), with whom Henry stood on good terms, and he was crowned. persuaded the unspiriby whom Henry even tual Benedict VIII at a synod in Pavia in 1022, at which both the prohibitionof Pope and Emperor were present, to renew which the age re priestlymarriage and favor other measures garded as reforms. With the death of Henry II the direct line was more once secured by a Franconian extinct,and the imperialthrone was secured
throne
was
count,
Conrad
II
(1024-1039),
one
of the
ablest of German
empire gained great strength. His considerations however, and political thoughts were political, he Rome his ecclesiastical appointments. With determined rulers, under
did
whom
interfere.
not
for Benedict
papacy
his death
the
Tusculan
the
There
XIX
brother, John
VIII's
secured
party
the
(1024-1032),
twelve-year-old nephew, Benedict IX of the worst (1033-1048), both unworthy, and the latter one An intolerable situation arose occupants of the papal throne. able and which ended (see p. 221) by Conrad's at Rome, was far more religious son, Henry III, Emperor from 1039 to 1056. and
on
for his
SECTION
Charlemagne cational
ideals
and
himself
cultural
work
than in
the
in 779.
for its ascetic ideals.
Charlemagne's reign to
Benedict's
full ascetic observation
(ante,p. 139). The
for its edu
more
France, Witiza, or as he (750?-821) called of Aniane, from
by him
of Nursia
monasticism
of southern
Benedict
founded
MOVEMENTS
REFORM
valued
appealed,however,
nobleman
where
VIII.
aim of the
educational
was
was
"Rule" or
soon
the to
a
Those
soldier-
known,
monastery
secure
every
of Benedict
industrial side of
AIMS
220
This
new
that such
ence
force
CLUNY
REFORMS
in monasticism, and
it made
with
all the
order, under
an
a
was
THE
OF
singlehead,
a
constitution
a
with
comparable With
implies. It
Cluny practically strengthand now
came
of the Dominicans
that
or
influ
to
have
Jesuits of
this
an growth came enlargementof the An illustration is reformatory aims of the Cluny movement. of God." the "Truce Though not originatedby Cluny, it taken up and greatlyfurthered by Abbot Odilo from 1040 was
later times.
Its aim
onward.
to limit the constant
was
petty
wars
between
closed season in memory of Christ's a by prescribing from Wednesday evening tillMonday morning, during passion,
nobles
which
of violence
acts
should
visited with
be
tical punishments. Its purpose
severe
ecclesias
excellent;its success
was
but
partial. As
Cluny
the
clergy,and
movement
became
an
grew
not effort,
it
the support of the for the reform of monasticism, won
of clerical life. wide-reachingbetterment By the first half of the eleventh century the Cluny party, as a to "Simony"1 and "Nicolaitanism."2 whole, stood in opposition understood givingor receptionof a By the former was any as
at
but for first,
a
clericaloffice for money
payment
or
other sordid consideration.
By the latter,any breach of clerical celibacy,whether by marriage or concubinage. These reformers desired a worthy the age understood as clergy,appointedfor spiritual reasons, of the Cluny party, and even abbots While many worthiness. had apparently no criticism of royal ecclesias of Cluny itself, from tical appointments, if made spiritualmotives, by the of the eleventh century a large section was middle viewing and had as its reforma any investiture by a layman as simony, strong enough to take from the Kings and tory ideal a papacy princeswhat it deemed their usurped powers of clerical designa tion.
This
was
the section that
his great contest. Elsewhere than
in the
characteristic of the instituted
Romuald
tenth
ascetic reform
movement
and
a
monastic
eleventh
centuries.
In
in
was
Lor
revival of
hermits, called "deserts," in which
practised,and 1
support Hildebrand
to
largeproportionswas by Gerhard, abbot of Brogne (?-959). In Italy, of Ravenna (950?-1027) organized settlements of
Flanders
raine and
Cluny
was
Acts
from
818-24.
which
the strictest asceticism
missionaries 2
and
Rev. 2".
was
preachers went 14-
15.
RESCUES
III
HENRY
PAPACY
THE
221
"desert," which stillexists and gave Arezzo. is that of Camaldoli, near its name to the movement, Peter Damiani famous Even more was (1007?-1072), likewise of Ravenna, a fierysupporter of monastic reform, and oppo for a time, of simoriy and clerical marriage, who nent was, cardinal bishop of Ostia, and a leading ecclesiastical figurein of Hildebrandian ideas, preceding Italy in the advancement The
forth.
famous
most
Hildebrand's
papacy.
It is evident that before the middle a
for
strong movement
felt.
Henry
had, in
II
of the eleventh
reform
churchly large measure,
century
making itself sympathized with it was
under more even Henry III (1039-1056) was close its influence. Abbot Hugh of Cluny (1049-1109) was a friend of that Emperor, while the Empress, Agnes, from Aquitaine, had been brought up in heartiest sympathy with the Cluny party, of which her father had been a devoted adherent. nature, and though he Henry III was personallyof a religious had hesitation in controllingecclesiastical appointments no for political reasons as fullyas his father,Conrad II, he would take no money for so doing,denounced simony, and appointed bishops of high character and reformatory zeal. demanded The situation in Rome Henry Ill's interference,
(ante,p. 218).
for it had
now
become
an
intolerable
placed on the throne by the unworthy that its rivals,the were
back
party, had
of the
IX,
proved
Crescenzio
so
faction,
him
out
of
Rome,
partialpossessionof the city,and now, tiring and probably planning marriage, temporarilyof his high office, he sold it in 1045 for a pricevariouslystated as one thou two or sand pounds of silver. The purchaser was a Roman archpriest of good repute for piety,John Gratian, who took the name known few. to Gregory VI. Apparently the purchase was Gregory was welcomed at first by reformers like Peter Damiani. The scandal soon became public property. Benedict IX re fused to lay down the papacy, and there were three Popes now in Rome, each in possessionof one of the principalchurches, and each denouncing the other two. inter Henry III now fered. At a synod held by him in Sutri in December, 1040, Silvester III was deposed, and Gregory VI compelled to resign and banished to Germany. A few days later,a synod in Rome,
was
soon
in
nobles
Benedict
in 1044, and install their Silvester III in his stead. Benedict, however,
able to drive
as representative
Tusculan
scandal.
PARTY
REFORM
THE
222
SECURES
THE
PAPACY
under
imperialsupervision, deposed Benedict IX. Henry III and the overawed immediately nominated clergy and people of the city elected a German, Suidger,bishop of Bamberg, as Clement II (1046-1047). Henry III had reached the highmark of imperialcontrol over the papacy. water So grateful did its rescue from previousdegradationappear that the reform party did not at first seriouslycriticise this imperialdomina tion ; but it could not long go on without raisingthe question of the independence of the church. The very thoroughness of roused opposition. Henry's work soon Henry III had repeated occasion to show his control of the papal office. Clement II soon died, and Henry caused another bishop of his empire to be placed on the papal throne as DamII. The asus new Pope survived but a few months. Henry his cousin Bruno, bishop now see appointed to the vacant of Toul, a thoroughgoing reformer, in full sympathy with as a Cluny, who now journeyed to Rome pilgrim,and after merely formal canonical election by the clergy and people of the city for the Emperor's act was determinative took the "
"
title of Leo
IX
SECTION
Leo most
(1049-1054).
THE
IX.
set himself
IX
effective
composition of
measure
REFORM
PARTY
vigorouslyto was
a
SECURES
the
THE
PAPACY
task of reform.
His
great alteration wrought in the
advisers the cardinals. Pope's immediate The been employed to indicate cardinal,had originally name, a clergyman permanently attached to an ecclesiastical posi tion. By the time of Gregory I (590-604),its use in Rome was, uncertain From however, becoming technical. an epoch, but earlier than of Rome
the
the
"
conversion
of
Constantine, in each district deemed, or designated,the
particularchurch was the exclusive place for baptisms most as important,originally "title" churches, known as probably. These churches were and their presbytersor head presbyterswere the "cardinal" of the heads In a similar way, or leadingpriestsof Rome. the charitydistricts into which Rome divided in the third was known the "cardinal" or leading deacons. as century were At a later period,but certainlyby the eighth century, the bishops in the immediate vicinityof Rome, the "suburbicarian"
a
or
suburban
bishops,were
called the
"cardinal
bish-
THE
PARTY
REFORM
THE
SECURES
PAPACY
223
ops/' This division of the collegeof cardinals into "cardinal persists bishops,""cardinal priests,"and "cardinal deacons" and of As the Rome the to vicinity, leadingclergy present day. became "cardinal" the before name exclusively they were, long even or primarilyattached to them, the Pope's chief aids and advisers.
attainingthe
On
Leo
papacy
found
IX
the cardinalate filled
they were representativeof the had before noble factions which long controlled the papacy unsympathetic with Henry Ill's intervention, with men Leo IX appointed to several of these high placesmen reform. Christendom. of reformatory zeal from other parts of Western thus largelychanged the sympathies of the cardinalate, He with
Romans,
and
himself
surrounded
with the
rendered
measure
far
so
Church
of the Western
as
trusted
and in considerable assistants,
thenceforth
cardinalate as
whole
a
and
representative simply of the local
not
community. It was a step of far-reaching consequence. of of these Three specialsignificance. appointments were made cardinal of bishop,and Humbert, a monk Lorraine,was to be a leadingopponent of lay inves to his death in 1061 was titure and a force in papal politics.Hugh the White, a monk from the vicinityof Toul, who was to live till after 1098, be cardinal priest, was a long to be a supporter of reform, came only to become for the last twenty years of his life the most Roman
of
embittered
Finally,Hildebrand from Germany, was cial man
himself, who made
administration,in see.
tory zeal
a
and
his
successors.
had
accompanied Leo IX sub-deacon,charged with the finan considerable
some
of the
measure,
Ro
of power and reforma appointed other men important,if less prominent,posts in Rome and its
Leo to
of Hildebrand
opponents
IX
vicinity. Hildebrand, who dinalate, is the
papal history.
A
now
most man
came
into
remarkable of diminutive
association with
personalityin stature
and
the
car
mediaeval
unimpressive
of intellect, his power firmness of will,and limithim the outstandingfigureof his age. lessness of design made
appearance,
Born
Tuscany, not far from the educated in the Cluny monastery of St. 1020, he was year Mary on the Aventine in Rome, and early inspiredwith the radical of reformatory ideals. He accompanied Gregory most VI to Germany on that unlucky Pope's banishment (ante. in humble
circumstances
in
LEO
224
IX.
EAST
AND
WEST
DIVIDED
with Leo IX. 221), and thence returned to Rome Probably but whether he in he was was ever already a monk, Cluny it He was, however, still a young self is doubtful. and to man, p.
is
Leo
error.
an
Leo
leadinginfluence
the
ascribe to him
the
vigorousLeo
vigorouslyon
the work
of reform.
in cordial relations with its chief leaders,Hugo, abbot
Damiani, and
Peter
IX
rather his teacher.
was
entered
IX
under
Frederick
of Lorraine.
He
He
stood
of
Cluny,
made
exten
sive
journeys to Germany and France, holding synods and enforcingpapal authority. At his first Easter synod in Rome, in 1049, he condemned simony and priestlymarriage in the A synod held under his presidencyin Rheims severest terms. affirmed the same the principleof canonical election, year "no shall be promoted to ecclesiastical rulershipwithout one the choice of the clergyand people." By these journeys and assemblies the influence of the papacy was greatlyraised. In his relations with southern Italyand with Constantinople Leo IX was less fortunate. The advancing claims of the Nor who since 1016 had been graduallyconquering the lower mans, opposed by the Pope, who asserted part of the peninsula,were Papal interference with the possession for the papacy. still paid allegianceto churches, especiallyof Sicily,which Constantinople,aroused the assertive patriarchof that city, in conjunctionwith Michael Cerularius (1043-1058), who now, Leo, the metropolitanof Bulgaria,closed the churches of the in a the Latin Church Latin rite in their regionsand attacked letter written by the latter urging the old charges of Photius of un of the use (ante,p. 213), and adding a condemnation which had be leavened bread in the Lord's Supper a custom "
come
the
in
common
in the
West
ninth
IX
Leo
century.
of Lor and Frederick repliedby sending Cardinal Humbert raine,the papal chancellor,to Constantinoplein 1054, by whom an
of Michael
excommunication laid
was
on
the
high
usuallyregarded Latin
Churches.
as
altar of St. Sofia.
the
In
1053
formal Leo's
himself
Normans.
this
1054.
captured by the catastrophe, dying in
all his followers
Cerularius and This
separationof forces He
were
did
act
the
has
Greek
defeated not
been
and
and he
long survive
IX, Henry III appointed another Ger He took the of Eichstadt, as Pope. Bishop Gebhard man, title of Victor II (1055-1057). Though friendly to the reform On
the death
of Leo
INDEPENDENCE
SEEKS
PAPACY
THE
devoted
225
of his
admirer
imperialpatron, the unexpected death of the great Emperor in 1156, and on the quiet succession of Henry Ill's son did much to secure Henry IV, then a boy of six,under the regency of the Empress Mother, Agnesj. Less than a year later Victor II died. party, Victor II
X.
SECTION
a
THE
radical
BREAKS
PAPACY
Ill's dominance
Henry more
was
was
reformers,who
WITH
THE
EMPIRE
to the undoubtedly displeasing had endured it partlyof necessity,
be the papacy could otherwise freed from the control of the Roman nobles,and partlybecause since it
apparent how
not
was
Henry's sympathy with ment. Henry himself had of
features
many
been
firmly intrenched
so
church, and
control of the German
of the
of the reform the logicalconsequences he been clear to him. Now to have had
gency
formers
taken
for
an
place.
advance
if possible, end
or,
his
it
The
was
gone.
seemed lessen
move
in his
that itself,
papacy
movement
time
should
which
of the reform
appear
A
weak
not re
ripe to the re imperialcontrol,
altogether.
by the reform clergy, chose Frederick of Lorraine Pope as Stephen IX (1057-1058) without consulting the German thoroughgoing regent. A the brother of Duke reformer, the new Godfrey of Pope was of the German Lorraine,an enemy imperialhouse, who by his marriage with the Countess Beatrice of Tuscany had become the strongest noble in northern Italy. Under Stephen,Cardinal On
Victor
Humbert Three
now
II 's death
issued
a
the
Romans,
programme
led
for the reform
party in his
Books
Against the Simoniacs, in which he declared all attacked lay appointment invalid and, in especial, lay investi ture, that is the giftby the Emperor of a ring and a staff to the elected bishop in token of his induction into office. The the foundations victoryof these principleswould undermine of the imperial power in Germany. Their strenuous asser tion could but lead to a struggle of giganticproportions. far. too Nevertheless, Stephen did not dare push matters and Bishop Anselm of Lucca, He, therefore,sent Hildebrand who secured the approval of the Empress Agnes for his papacy. Scarcelyhad this been obtained when Stephen died in Flor ence.
Stephen'sdeath
provoked
a
crisis.
The
Roman
nobles
re-
HILDEBRAND'S
226
LEADERSHIP the
asserted their old authority over
partisan,Benedict
own
cardinals had lost.
The
to
X, only
flee.
situation
Their
week
a
by
the
chose their
later.
seemed
cause
saved
and
papacy
The
reform
for the
firmness
moment
and
political approval Godfrey of Tuscany and of a part of the people of Rome for the candidacy of Gerhard, bishop of Florence,a reformer and, like Godfrey, a A representative of this Roman native of Lorraine. minority obtained the consent of the regent, Agnes. Hildebrand now gathered the reform cardinals in Siena, and Gerhard was there chosen as Nicholas II (1058-1061). The militaryaid of God the new of Rome. made Pope master frey of Tuscany soon was
skill of Hildebrand.
secured
He
the
of
that of Hildebrand, and II the real power was and Peter Damiani. in lesser degree of the cardinals Humbert
Under
The
Nicholas
problem
Roman
nobles
to
was
without
free the papacy coming under
from the
the control
of the
overlordshipof
the
be must physical support for the papacy found. The aid of Tuscany could be counted assured. as Beatrice and her daughter, Matilda, were to be indefatigable in assistance. Yet sufficient. Under the not Tuscany was skilful guidance of Hildebrand, Nicholas II entered into cordial Some
Emperor.
relations with
the
Normans, who
trouble, recognized their vassals of the papacy.
had
caused
conquests, and
With
like
Leo
IX
received
intimate ability,
so
much
them
as
connections
of Peter established,largelythrough the agency of Lucca, with the democratic and Bishop Anselm Damiani the Pataria,opposed to the antias party in Lombardy known were
now
higher clergy of that region. reformatory and imperialistic Nicholas II at the Roman alliances, Strengthenedby these new synod of 1059 expresslyforbad lay investiture under any cir cumstances.
The
event significant
most
the decree
of this Roman
of the papacy synod of 1059
of Nicholas
regulatingchoice
the papacy the oldest written constitution now in spiteof considerable modification,it governs "
II
in
was
to
force,since,
the selection of
day. In theory,the choice of the Pope had been, like that of other bishops,by the clergyand people of the city In practice, election. of his see. termed This was a canonical such election had meant control by whatever political power constitution dominant The in Rome. was design of the new that danger. In form, it put into law the cirto remove was Popes
to this
in Mantua over
a
Alexander
IX
Hildebrand's
Thus
in 1064.
divided
EMPIRE
AND
PAPACY
228
CONTEST bold
policytriumphed
Germany.
II,with Hildebrand's
guidance,advanced the papal of Mainz, authoritymarkedly. Anno of Cologne and Siegfried of the most two powerfulprelatesof Germany, were compelled for simony. He preventedHenry IV from secur to do penance lent his approval to He ing a divorce from Queen Bertha. William the Conqueror's piratical expedition which resulted in the Norman conquest of England in 1066, and further aided of Norman William's plans by the establishment bishopsin the He gave his sanction to the efforts of principalEnglish sees. of southern the Normans to result in the Italy which were of age in 1065. Henry IV came conquest of Sicily. Meanwhile showed himself one of the Far from being a weak King, he soon most
of German
resourceful
rulers.
It
inevitable
was
that the
papal policyregardingecclesiastical appointments should clash with that historic control by German sovereignson which their The actual dispute in the empire so largelyrested. power of Milan the archbishopric a over came post of the first im Italy. Henry had ap portance for the control of northern whom Alexander had charged pointed Godfrey of Castiglione, "
with
simony.
The
Pataria
of
Milan
chose
a
certain
Atto,
recognizedas rightfularchbishop. In spite secured Godfrey's consecration,in of that act, Henry now fully on. struggle was 1073, to the disputed post. The of the the power involved The contest imperialgovernment Alexander and the claims of the radical papal reform party. misled looked Henry as a well-intentioned young man, upon not Henry by bad advice, and he therefore excommunicated counsellors as guiltyof simony. himself,but Henry's immediate II died,leaving the Within few days thereafter Alexander a great dispute to his successor. Alexander
whom
SECTION
Hildebrand's new
election
constitution
of Alexander
claimed
Hildebrand
the church
took the
came
established
funeral
Pope,
and
in curious
under
Nicholas
carried
IV
HENRY
about
II, in St. John
disregardof the II. During the
Lateran, the crowd
him, almost
Chains, where he was of Gregory VII (1073-1085).
of St. Peter in name
AND
HILDEBRAND
XI.
in
a
ac
riot,to
enthroned.
He
In his accession
IIILDEBRAXI)
AND
HEXRY
IV
229
of Augustine's of the principles interpretation he The papacy City of God had reached the papal throne. which all viewed as a divinelyappointed universal sovereignty, must obey, and to- which all earthlysovereignsare responsible, welfare,but for their temporal good not only for tl"eir spiritual Though Cardinal Deusdedit, rather than Hildegovernment. brand, .was probably the author of the famous Dictatus,it well Church "That the Roman Hildebrand's principles: expresses "That the Roman founded pontiffalone was by God alone." de he alone can "That with rightbe called universal." can "That he alone may use [i.e., dis pose or reinstate bishops." be permitted it may "That pose of] the imperialinsignia." be judged he himself may him to depose Emperors." "That absolve subjectsfrom their fealty he may "That of no one." It was men."1 to wicked nothing less than an ideal of worldrulership.In view of later experienceit may be called imprac
the extremest
ticable and
unchristian; but neither Hildebrand
even
nor
his
experience. It was a great ideal of a possible effected by obedience to command society, regeneratedhuman and as such was deservingof respect in ing spiritual power, alone could held it,and worthy of that trial which those who age
had
had
that
reveal its value
or
worthlessness.
favorable were pontificate A rebellion againstHenry IV by his Saxon for the papacy. and the discontent of the who had many grievances, subjects, nobles of other regionskept Henry fullyoccupied. In 1074 he and prom in Nuremberg before the papal legates, did penance in 1075, Hilde ised obedience. At the Easter synod in Rome brand the decree againstlay investiture7~cfejiy to renewed later Henry any share in creatingbishops. A few months Henry's fortunes changed. In June, 1075, his defeat of the of Germany, and his atti Saxons made him apparentlymaster tude toward the papacy more speedilyaltered. Henry once Hilde made an appointment to the archbishopricof Milan. brand replied, in December, 1075, with a letter calling Henry his with account.2 On to severe January 24, 1076, Henry, nobles and bishops, held a council in Worms, at which the turn forward with personal coat cardinal,Hugh the White, was The
1
opening years
of Hildebrand's
Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp. 366, 367 Robinson, Readings in European History, 1 : 274. 2 Henderson, pp. 367-371 ; Robinson, 1 : 276-279.
;
extracts
in
HILDEBRAND
230
AND
IV
HENRY
There a largeportionof the Ger chargesagainstHildebrand. of Hildebrand and man bishopsjoinedin a fierce denunciation of his authorityas Pope1 an action for which the a rejection approval of the Lombard prelateswas speedilysecured. Hildebrand's reply was the most famous of mediaeval papal At the Roman decrees. synod of February 22, 1076, he ex communicated Henry, forbad him authorityover Germany and Italy,and released all Henry's subjectsfrom their oaths of allegiance.2It was- the boldest assertion of papal authority To it Henry replied that had ever been made. by a fieryletter "
addressed which
to
HiHebrand,
he called
on
"now
Hildebrand
no
pope,
to
"come
but
false
a
down,
to
monk," in
be damned
throughout all eternity."3 Had Henry IV had a united Germany behind him the result might easilyhave been Hildebrand's overthrow. Germany was united. The Saxons and Henry's other political enemies not used the opportunityto make him trouble. the bishops Even had regard for the authorityof a Pope they had nominally unable the risingopposition. to meet rejected. Henry was An assembly of nobles in Tribur, in October, 1076, declared that unless released
from
excommunication
within
a
year
he would
be
invited to a new assembly to deposed, and the Pope was in Augsburg, in February, 1077, at which the whole Ger meet man politicaland religioussituation should be considered. It became a Henry was in great danger of losinghis throne. of vital importance to free himself from excommunica matter Hildebrand tion. refused all appeals;he would settle the ques tions at Augsburg. and dramatic resolved on a step of the utmost Henry IV now Hildebrand would before the He meet political significance. Pope could reach the assembly in Augsburg and wring from He crossed the Alps in the winter him the desired absolution. in northern Italy,through which the and sought Hildebrand Pope was passingon his way to Germany. In doubt whether in peace or war, Hildebrand sought refugein the Henry came strong castle of Canossa, belongingto his ardent supporter, the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, the daughter of Beatrice (ante, 1
Henderson,
pp.
373-376.
Henderson, pp. 376, 377 ; Robinson, 1 : 281, 282. to The letter seems Henderson, pp. 372, 373 ; Robinson, 1 : 279-281. often which it is to to rather than assigned. belong here, January, 1076, 2 3
HILDEBRAND
226). Thither
p.
AND
Henry went,
IV
HENRY
there
and
231
presentedhimself
days, barefooted as a companions pleaded for him, and on released from excommunica January 28, 1077, Henry IV was it was tion. In man^ a political triumph for the King. ways before the castle gate on penitent. The Pope's
had
He
three successive
his German
thrown
opponents into confusion.
had
He
prevented a successful assembly in Augsburg under papal lead ership. The Pope's plans had been disappointed. Yet the in men's recollection as the deepest has always remained event of the humiliation of the mediaeval empire before the power church.1
enemies, without Hilde1077, Henry's German brand's instigation, of Swabia, as counterchose Rudolf, duke claim ensued, while the Pope balanced one King. Civil war ant againstthe other,hoping to gain for himself the ultimate decision. Forced at last to take sides,Hildebrand, at the Roman synod in March, 1080, a second time excommunicated In
March,
and
seldom can deposed Henry.2 The same political weapons be used twice effectively. Sentiment had crystallized in Ger and this time the Pope's action had littleeffect. Henry many, answered by a synod in Brixen in June, 1080, deposing Hilde brand,3 and choosing one of Hildebrand's bitterest opponents, Archbishop Wibert of Ravenna, as Pope in his place. Wibert called himself in
Clement
battle,in October
than
before.
ever
III
He
Henry invaded gainedpossessionof and
to the victorious
Rome.
it
army
offer no
porters 1
The
so
burned
best account
387 ; Robinson, 1
:
2
Henderson,
8
Ibid,,pp. 391-394.
pp.
388-391.
Hildebrand.
In
before
he
The
resistance.
thirteen of the
cardinals,turned ruler and his Pope. In March, 1084, crowned
Hilde
Henry Emperor. still held
any
the
castle of San
compromise.
In
May a rough sup
but these relief, plundered Rome, that he had
is that of Hildebrand 282-283.
Germany
by the overwhelming political supporters
to Hildebrand's
and
in
years
permanently effective
less than
German
came
upon
forces,Hildebrand's
brand, apparently a beaten man, Angelo, and absolutelyrefused Norman
three
was
Pressed
enthroned, and
was
to be rid of
Italy,but
Lombard
proved too weak to Roman people,and Wibert
determined
of Rudolf
death
left Henry stronger following,
1081
German
(1080-1100). The
himself.
to
Henderson,
with-
pp.
385-
232
APPARENT
draw
with
DEFEAT
them, and
he died in Salerno,
by
in the account
be
sufficient to
May
Erance.
of this
painfulexile,
1085.
25,
other
countries
conflict with
in the
such
to
his control.
bring
to
He
Henry with
extreme
an
attempted
He
under
year
CONTINUED
have
been
passed
of his great strugglewith Germany. It may similar,though so en say that his aims were
he grossed was pushed matters where
nearly a
relations to
Hildebrand's
and
after
on
WORK
BUT
caused
the the
IV
that
he
never
Kings of England high clergy every
extensive
codification
of
He enforced clerical celibacyas not law to be made. Church. rule of the Roman only the theoretical but the practical church
If his methods
doubtedly
and
misfortune
no
were,
ever
unscrupulous,as caused
him
to
moral in apparent defeat he won a ideals that he had established for the papacy were
claims, and The
worldly
were
long after
even
they abate
un
his
victory. to
live
him.
SECTION
STRUGGLE
THE
XII.
ENDS
IN
COMPROMISE
Hildebrand, the cardinals faithful to him chose as his successor Desiderius,the able and scholarlyabbot of Victor III (1086of Monte Cassino, who took the name the outlook that he long refused 1087). So discouragingwas honor. When at last he accepted it,he quietly the doubtful On
the death
of
efforts at extremer world-rulership, dropped Hildebrand's with utmost of investiture though renewing the prohibition lay but a few days. vigor. He was, however, able to be in Rome in the hands of Wibert, and before the end That cityremained of 1087
Victor
of Hildebrand
III
was
seemed
no
more.
The
situation
well-nighhopeless. After
of the party hesita much
and chose tion,a few of the reform cardinals met in Terraciria, French a Cluny monk, who had been appointed a cardinal bishopby Hildebrand, Odo of Lagary, as Pope Urban II (1088of Hildebrandian convictions,without Hilde 1099). A man brand's skilful.
genius,Urban He sought
party among
was
with
the German
and politically conciliatory create to a friendly great success monks the clergy,aided thereto by far
more
He stirred up dis of the influential monastery of Hirschau. Yet it was affection for Henry IV, often by no worthy means. not
tillthe close of 1093
of possession
Rome
and
that Urban
drive out
able to take effective His rise in power Wibert. was
thence
was
CONTINUED
STRUGGLE
THE
rapid.
1095, he sounded
At
in
great synod held in Piacenza
a
of
the note
At
crusade.
a
March, in No
Clermont
brought the Crusade into being Urban rose (p.239). On the flood of the crusadingmovement of European leadership.Henry IV and to a ppsition at once achieved had Wibert a him, but the papacy might oppose compared with which they had nothing to popular significance of the
vember
same
he
year
offer.
Though Paschal ter.
were
men
(1099-1118), made
II
Henry
IV's
bellion,headed abdication
of the
weary
last
by
in 1105.
days
long strife,the
matters
his son, Henry V His death followed
V's
positionin Germany
had
been, and he
unscrupulous.
more
was
rightsof investiture was 1110 Henry V marched
the next
as on
insistent
as
ever
assertion of his
that of his father. Paschal II
in force.
Rome
Henry
year.
his father's
His
re
his
(1106-1125), forced
stronger than
was
bet
successful
A
disastrous.
were
than
rather
worse
Pope,
next
was
In
pow
Pope and resignhis right Germany should relin
of a Hildebrand. without the courage agreed (1111) that the King should
erless and
Henry now of investiture, providedthe bishops of quish to him all temporal lordships.1That revolution
that
would
have
reduced
poverty, and
the protest raised in February, 1111, showed it
on
its
The
would
the
German
have
been
church
a
to
promulgationin Rome,
impossibleof accomplishment. Henry V then took the Pope and the cardinals prisoners. Pas chal weakened. In April,1111, he resignedto Henry investi him Emperor.2 The Hil and crowned ture with ring and staff, debrand ian party stormed in protest. At the Roman synod of March, 1112, Paschal well hold
was
wrung
withdrew from
him
his agreement, which he could by force. A synod in Vienne in
Henry and forbad lay investiture, and this action the Pope approved. Yet the basis of a compromise wras already in sight. Two French church leaders,Ivo, bishop of Chartres, and Hugo of and 1099 1106, had argued that Fleury,in writingsbetween church and state each had their rightsof investiture, the one with spiritual, the other with temporal authority. Anselm, the famous archbishop of Canterbury, a firm supporter of reform principles (1093-1109), had refused investiture from Henry I September excommunicated
1
Henderson,
2
Henderson,
pp.
pp.
405-407
407,
408.
;
Robinson,
1
:
290-292.
CONCORDAT
THE
234
OF
WORMS
of
England (1100-1135), and -led to a contest which ended in the resignation by the King of investiture with ring and staff, while retainingto the crown investiture with temporal posses sion by the receptionof an oath of fealty. These principles and of the controversy. precedents influenced the further course The in 1122, in the Concordat of Worms, compromise came arranged between Henry V and Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124). By mutual agreement, elections of bishops and abbots in Ger the
to
were
many
Emperor
be free and at
in canonical
the choice
election he should
form, yet the presence of allowed, and in case of disputed
was
consult with the
metropolitanand other bish ops of the province. In other parts of the empire, Burgundy and Italy, mention made of the imperialpresence. The no was investiture with ring and staff, i. e., with Emperor renounced the symbols of spiritual authority. In turn, the Pope granted him the right of investiture with the temporal possessionsof the office by the touch of the royal sceptre, without demand of from the candidate. This imperialrecognitionwas payment to take place in Germany before consecration,and in the other thereafter.1 The effect parts of the empire within six months that in Germany at least a bishop or abbot must be accept was able both to the church and to the Emperor. In Italy the imperialpower, which had rested on control of churchly ap It was of the outcome pointments, was greatly broken. an strugglewhich would but partiallyhave satisfied Hildebrand. Yet the church had won much. If not superiorto the state, it had vindicated its equalitywith the temporal power. SECTION
XIII.
THE
GREEK
CHURCH
AFTER
THE
PICTURE
CONTROVERSY
The the
Isaurian dynasty in
internal conflicts caused
severe
controversy, which of the the
church
from
loss of Rome
renewed
(717-802),witnessed Constantinople
in
was
a
measure
by the picture-worshipping for the freedom a struggle
imperialcontrol (ante,p. 162). and
of the
Exarchate, and
the
It beheld
rise of the
Charlemagne. The periodsof the Phrygian (820-867) and Macedonian dynasties(867-1057) marked notable revival of were that, intellec so learning, by a The patually,the East was decidedlysuperiorto the West. Western
1
empire
Henderson,
pp.
under
408, 409
;
Robinson,
1
:
292, 293.
SCANDINAVIAN
THE
236
to seek
(p.249). Driven
LANDS the Saracens, some~secthe borders of the empire in
refugeamong
tions of the Paulicians harassed
century, and
penetrateddeeply into it,tilltheir was activity, militarysuccess, though not their religious per in the Emperor, Basil I, 871. manently checked by the ninth
even
ninth
latter half of the
The
and
the tenth centuries
was
a
for the Eastern empire, espe revived militarypower under John Tzimiskes (969-976) and Basil II (976-1025). cially
periodof
latter, Bulgariaand Armenia
the
By
dissensions and
empire in
the eleventh
it
found
Turks
fear of
a
usurping militarism
century,
unprepared.
In
great loss
a
hundred
from
to be
weakened
the
Turks
conquered
established themselves
1080
miles
Christianitywas
to
the
1071
Internal
the rise of the Seljuk
that
so
largepart of Asia Minor, and in Nicsea, less than
conquered.
were
one
a
in
Constantinople.This of the causes leading
the Crusades.
to
XIV.
SECTION
and
tenth
The
THE
SPREAD
OF
centuries
eleventh
were
extension of Christianity.Ansgar's work lands (ante,p. 213) had left few results.
CHURCH
THE
an
epoch
of
large
in the Scandinavian Scandinavian
Chris-
and
Unni, archbishop gradual process. but without of Hamburg Ansgar, (918-936), great forward carried The work was by Archbishop Adaldag success. Bluetooth of (937-988). Under his influence,King Harold and Danish Denmark bishopricswere accepted Christianity, Harold's Under established. was Sweyn, heathenism son, but he was brought to favor the church in again in power; by King Canute completed in Denmark 995, and the work was also ruled England and, for a the Great (1015-1035), who time, Norway. The story of Norway is similar. Some Christian beginnings tianization
slow
a
was
imitated
were
sent
under
made
by
Harold
Hakon
Bluetooth
I
(935-961), and
of Denmark.
missionaries
were
in Christianity
Nor
permanently established till the time of Olaf I (995-1000), who brought in English preachers. The work extended to the Orkneys, Shetland, Hebrides, Faroe, was now possession. Iceland, and Greenland, then in Scandinavian way
was
not
Olaf
II
such
extreme
(1015-1028) enforced measures
that he
Christianity in Norway was
deposed and
Canute
with
gained
control;
lie
yet
Christianity konung
turies
who
and
various
the
organizer
1038),
history
cepted
St.
as
in
King
Ansgar,
Olaf
Skottthe
work
till
about
Yet
overthrown
reached
till
two
cen
in
the
Russia
of
patriarch
The
957.
work
last
Vladimir
I
(980-1015),
and
compelled
his
subjects
nominated
placed Kiev,
Vladimir,
at
the from
and
the
by
head
of
which
in
been
made
1325
the it to
to
follow
patriarch
Moscow.
his of
Russia.
The
by
time Rus
A
example.
his to
Grandin
baptism
1299
Chris
the
as
Constantinople,
in
this
Constantinople
to
with
in
of
established
church,
transferred
of
(866).
received
Latin
lies
early
visit
a
the
spread
as
definitely who
Russian was
on
of
conversion
Photius
baptism at
was
work
the
I
1124-1128.
Church
for
Constantinople
duke
politan,
the
ac
archbishopric till
the
lives
Boleslaus
an
Greek
Efforts
received
Olga,
Queen,
the
by
have
to
seem
with
were
of
who
King
1000
(997-
Mieczyslaw,
Christianized
considered
obscure.
are
in
not
extension
duke,
was
I
Stephen
monarchy,
church
accomplished
was
King
Polish
and
was
Christianity
century,
by
Polish
the
great
beginnings
tianity
in
(1035-
of
time
1008.
Hungarian
967,
just
and
period
in
in
tenth
The
Stephen.
movements
The
the
the
Pomerania
Church.
sian
by
not
were
Hungary
of
organized
Gnesen. The
in in
Christianity
(992-1025)
of
I
Magnus
the
fully
not
was
efforts
established
Its
from
baptized
Lapland
effectively
in
237
later.
After
in
Olaf.
established
was
heathenism
Finland
1100.
St.
as
beginnings
effectively
(994-1024), and
RUSSIA
work. many
was
slow,
tradition
in
the after
Sweden,
In
was
lives
completed
1047)
AND
POLAND,
HUNGARY,
see
the
988,
metro was
speedily city
of
PERIOD
V.
SECTION
Crusades
THE the
phenomena
The
historian
claim a
as
main
even
of the
counted.
worse.
Misery
at
the
had
as
downfall
and
Stimulated
by
age
made
period
a,
took feeTmgi ItT^mnifestations
It of
characterized
was
by
misery of earth increasing religiouszeal the
and
the
had
been
were
The
widely. such
more
migrations
Germanic
invasions
The
desire
of
same
to
of
sense
ascetic
and
forms.
"other-worldliness,"
blessedness
of
heaven.
forge which
the
the
religions
deepening
monastic
strong
a
conditions
conditions, doubtless,
economic
eleventh_jcentiirywa,a
century
felt.
however,
these
well
may
forty-eight famine
the
empire.
of
many.
eleventh
impossible in
Western
was,
the
1095
to
were
influences
prevailed
exhibited
the
causes
1040
1085
unrest
been
environment
change whole
of
and
970
remarkable
most
Their
Ages.
From
of the
conditions
nations
Middle
Between
source.
of
the
ways
who
were
settled
many
CRUSADES
emphasizes economic of unusually trying conditions
the
years
in
are
THE
I.
AGES
MIDDLE
LATER
THE
hnd
This
reformed
supported antagonism to simony and the empire. the long struggle with Nicolaitanism, and nerved had shone Those brightest, regions where the reform movement with the which into closest relations had reforming or come the recruit and southern France, Lorraine, Italy,were papacy, The jpjety nf fjip ing-grounds of the chief crusading armies. time rpljcs and placecLgreat vain** pilgrimages,and what nobler pilgrimage more precious relic could there be, or what shrine, than the land hallowed by the life,death, and resurrec had been tion of Christ? That land an object of pilgrimage had been since the days of Constantine. Jerusalem Though in Moslem been, save possession since 638, pilgrimages had for brief intervals, practicallyuninterrupted. They had never the
papacy,
and
had
nn
been
more
conquest capture
than
numerous
of much
of Asia
of Jerusalem,
ip nnd
by
in
the
Minor,
eleventh from
1071
the Seljuk Turks,
dpfifrrRted *b? 238
ho
century,
onward, mnde
till the and
the
pilgrimage
OF
CAUSES
CRUSADES
THE
239
profoundly impressed with the spiritual of these things came. advantage of pilgrimagesthat the news The was witnessingsuccessful contests with time, moreover, It
to
was
an
age
Between
Mohammedanism.
Jtaly
southern
of
Under
Ferdinand
1060
wrested
had
I of Castile
and
1090
Sicily from
the
Normans
the
Moslems.
(1028-1065) the effective Chris
had begun. tian reconquest of Spain from the Mohammedans The later eleventh century is the age of the Cid (1040?-1099). could dispossess The feeling was wide-spreadthat Christianity Love
Mohammedanism.
of
adventure,
desire for territorial advancement the Crusaders doubteoUymoved
and with
hopes
for
plunder,
religioushatred,
un-
earthly impulses.
very
should wrong them, however, if we did not recognizewith doing something equal clearness that they thought they were We
of the The
highestimportance for their souls and first impulse to the Crusades came
for Christ. from
an
appeal
of
Hildpbrand Vli (lU(^-1078),.t,n the~Easternt Emperor^Michael for
That Seljufes. ^ip^a^ajinstjthe
seemed
to
promise the
dom, took the
matter
reunion up
in
great Pope, to whom
of Greek
1074, and
and was
Latin
this
Christen
able to report to
were ready to Henry IV of Germany that fiftythousand men the proper leadership. The speedy outbreak of the go under investiture strugglefrustrated the plan. It was effectively in Urban the of be revived heir directions to II, by so many
Hildebrand. f
Alexius
I
(1081-1118), a stronger ruler than his immediate
predecessorsin Constantinople,felt unable to cope with the perilswhich threatened the empire. He, therefore,appealed II for assistance. Urban received the imperialmes to Urban at the synod in Piacenza, in northern Italy,in March, sengers 1095, and promised his help. At the synod held in Clermont, Urban in eastern France, in the followingNovember, now proclaimed the Crusade in an appeal of almost unexampled The enterprisehad magnified in his concep consequence. tion from that of aid to the hard-pressedAlexius to a general of the holy places from Moslem hands. H" called on rescue all Christendom tn giVpnpssj^sins
to
take
a.11 and
part in the work, promisingforfall fitprimllifp to thos^ wfrn shniiM
immediate in theenterprise. The message found and enthu the popular preachers who took it siastic response! Among than famous Peter the Hermit, a monk was more up none
THE
240
CRUSADE
FIRST
its vicinity.Early legend attributed to him of which he was the originof the Crusade itself, unquestionably Amiens
from
of the
one
or
effective
most
attributed
the distinction thus the
Crusade,
leadershipor Such
to
does
deserve
his conduct
was
to
not
do
on
credit to his
to his courage.
even
the
He
him, nor started,such as
it had
once
proclaimers.
enthusiasm
in France, engendered, especially of peasants, with some that largegroups knights among them, the lead of Walter the set forth in the spring of 1096, under Penniless;a priest,Gottschalk, and Peter the Hermit himself. of these wild companies many Jews were massacred By some cities. Their own in the Rhine disorderlypillageled to savage That under Peter reprisalsin Hungary and the Balkans. almost entirelydestroyedby reached Constantinople,but was was
the
Turks
not
share
and
in
real work from
the moral
Baldwin
of the
First
Crusade
was
himself did
crusading force, accomplished by
hero of the Crusade, since he commanded
his
to
though
not
the respect to its aims,
single-mindedand unselfish devotion its ablest general. With Godfrey were
and
Eustace.
led by Hugh
were
Peter
raised. nobilityof Europe. Three great armies were Lorraine and Belgium included Godfrey of Bouillon,
the feudal
due
Nicsea.
this catastrophe,joined the main survived the perilsof the expedition.
The
That
to reach
attempt
an
armies
Other
of Vermandois
and
from Robert
his
northern of
brothers, France
Normandy.
large force under Count Raimond of Toulouse, and from Norman Italy a well-equipped and his nephew Tancred. of Taranto led by Bohemund army No single The earliest of these forces started in August, 1096. Urban II had commander led the hosts. appointed Bishop Ademar of Puy his legate; and Ademar designatedConstan tinopleas the gatheringplace. Thither each army made its best it could, arrivingthere in the winter and spring as way little difficulty of 1096-1097, and causing Alexius no by their From
southern
disorder and
France
came
a
demands.
began the siegeof Nicsea. Its surrender On followed in June. July 1 a great victory Asia the Turks over near Dorylseum opened the route across losses through Minor, so that Iconium was reached, after severe hunger and thirst,by the middle of August. By October the That before the walls of Antioch. city crusading host was In
May, 1097, the crusadingarmy
Longl
it captured only after
days
the
later
CRUSADE
FIRST
THE
241
June
difficult siege, on
a
Crusaders
besieged in
were
Three
3, 1098.
the
city by
the
The crisis of the Crusade Kerbogha of Mosul. this time of periland despair;but on June 28 Kerbogha was Yet it was not till June, 1099, that was completelyf defeated. Jerusalem reached, and not till July 15 that it was was cap The tured and its inhabitants complete put to the sword. Ascalon defeat of an Egyptian relieving on August near army Turkish
ruler
12, 1099, crowned On
the
chosen
completion
Protector
1100, and lished
a
Baldwin
the
Latin I
of the
of the
succeeded
was
of the Crusade.
success
work, Godfrey of Bouillon He
died
Holy Sepulchre. by his abler brother, who
county in Edessa, and
(1100-1118). The
was
in
had
July, estab
took the title of
now
Crusaders
from
were
King
the feudal
divided and organizedin full feudal West, and the country was fashion. It included,besides the Holy Land, the principality of Antioch, and the counties of Tripoliand Edessa, which were
practicallyindependent towns important Italian of the knights were most Latin
rite in
of
the
business French.
and bishoprics,
ten
Under
a
but
patriarchof
the
into four arch
monasteries
numerous
the
up;
sprang
divided
was
In
Jerusalem.
settlements
Jerusalem, the country
bishopricsand
of
King
were
established. The
greatest support of the kingdom
soon
came
to
be the
militaryorders. Of these,that of the Templars was founded the by Hugo de Pay ens in 1119, and granted quarters near site of the temple hence II their name by King Baldwin (1118-1131). Through the hearty support of Bernard of Clairthe order received papal approval in 1128, and soon vaux won wide popularity in the West. Its members took the usual monastic and pledged themselves, in addition, to fight vows for the defense of the Holy Land and to protect pilgrims.They not clergy,but laymen. In some were respects the order was like a modern missionary society. Those who sympathized with the Crusade, but were debarred by age or sex from a personal share in the work, gave largelythat they might be Since represented by others through the order. property in the became was land, mostly Templars soon great land holders in the West. Their independence and wealth made them objectsof royal jealousy,especially after their original purpose had been frustrated by the end of the Crusades, and "
"
their
led to
ORDERS.
MILITARY
THE
242
suppressionin
brutal
France
CRUSADES in
the Crusades
(1285-1314). While
Philip IV
LATER
1307
lasted
by King they were
kingdom of Jerusalem. Much the same thing may be said of the great rivals of the Charle Templars, the Hospitallersor Knights of St. John. had founded de a hospitalin Jerusalem, which was magne Refounded stroyed in 1010. by citizens of Amalfi, in Italy, a
it
bulwark
main
of the
before
in existence
was
for the church
the
of St. John
First
Crusade, and
named
was
which it stood. Baptist,near This foundation made into a militaryorder by its grand was du Puy (1120-1160?), though without master, Raymond neg lectingits duties to the sick. After the crusading epoch it maintained a strugglewith the Turks from its seat in Rhodes
(1310-1523), and later
order
Germans
then that
was
in 1190.
the
from
(1530-1798). A third and
Malta
of the
Teutonic
Its chief
but, from 1229 known, East Prussia,where Palestine
work, however, was onward, in Prussia, or it
was
a
founded
Knights,
not as
by
to be
it is
in
now
pioneer in civilization and
Christianization. In was
the kingdom of Jerusalem spiteof feudal disorganization fairlysuccessful till the capture of Edessa by the Mo
hammedans Bernard a
in of
Clairvaux, now
Crusade
new
it of its northeastern
robbed
1144
enlisted Louis
and
and
the Emperor Conrad In 1147 the Second 1146.
III
littleof the fieryenthusiasm
of
the
West
toward
the Eastern
failure, rightlyor wrongly, was One the
of the
reason
quarrelsof
success
fame, proclaimed (1137-1180)
(1138-1152) from
Germany
forth; but it showed its forces largely its predecessor,
such to
as
take
reached
Palestine
Damascus,
In 1171
were
in 1148.
It
feelingin princes that
bitter
a
empire, to whose charged. of the Latin kingdom had
the Mohammedans.
in
set
failure,and its collapseleft
disastrous
a
his
of France
VII
Crusade
perished in Asia Minor, and badly defeated in an attempt was
heightof
at the
bulwark.
the Kurdish
been gen
of Egypt; by 1174 he had eral,Saladin, made himself master secured Damascus, and by 1183 Saladin's territories surrounded A united the Latin kingdom on the north, east, and south.
Mohammedanism At
Hattin
had
the
Latin
loss of Jerusalem
lowed.
The
news
and of
now
to
be met.
Results
soon
followed.
July, 1187. The of most of the Holy Land speedilyfol this catastropheroused Europe to the
army
was
defeated
in
LATER
Crusade
Third
CRUSADES
(1189-1192). None
243
of the Crusades
was
more
led by the elaboratelyequipped. Three great armies were (1152-1190), the first soldier Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of his age, by King PhilipAugustus of France (1179-1223), and by King Richard "Cceur de Lion" of England (1189-1199). was* accidentallydrowned in Cilicia. His army, Frederick deprived of his vigorous leadership,was utterly ineffective. The quarrelsbetween the Kings of France and England, and Philip'sspeedy return to France to push his own political rendered the whole almost abortive. Acre schemes, expedition was recovered, but Jerusalem remained in Moslem possession. Fourth
The
Crusade
(1202-1204)
engaged, but
of
consequences.
Its forces
were
France
as
as
numbers
known
of Jerusalem
was
small
affair
from
and
the
far
religious
districts of northern
Blois, and
that the true
as
from
Flanders.
to the recovery
route
the
therefore
Crusaders
a
and important political
Champagne convinced
had become
Men
was
preliminaryconquest of Egypt. The bargainedwith the Venetians for trans
portationthither. Unable to raise the full cost, they accepted the proposition of the Venetians that,in lieu of the balance due, Zara from Hungary for they stop on their way and conquer This they did. A much Venice. now greater proposal was made should and assist to them. at They Constantinople, stop in
dethroningthe imperialusurper, Alexius III (1195-1203). Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac II, promised the Crusaders and large payment help on their expeditionprovided they would
and the usurper, crafty Venice saw bright hatred Western of the Greeks prospects of increased trade. contributed. Though Pope Innocent III forbad this division overthrow
of purpose, the Crusaders easilydriven from his throne to
keep
his
tians, in
were
persuaded.
Alexius
; but the other Alexius
promises to the Crusaders, who
now
1204, captured Constantinople,and No
booty
was
III
was
unable
with the Vene
plundered its
eagerlysought than the relics in the churches,which now went to enrich the placesof worship of the West. Baldwin of Flanders made was Emperor, and a largeportion of the Eastern empire was divided, feudal fash Western ion,among knights. Venice obtained a considerable A Latin patriarchof Constanti part and a monopoly of trade. made nople was appointed,and the Greek Church subjectto the Pope. The Eastern empire still continued,though it was
treasures.
was
more
CRUSADES
LATER
244
regainConstantinopletill 1261.
not
to
was
disastrous.
It
greatlyweakened
This
Latin
conquest
the Eastern
Greek
empire, and Christianity.
and between augmented the so-called "Children's Crusade" A melancholy episodewas A shepherd boy, Stephen, in France, and a boy of of 1212. Cologne,in Germany, Nicholas,gatheredthousands of children. Stragglingto Italy,they were largelysold into slaveryin Egypt. Other crusading attempts were An expeditionagainst made. initial success, in but ended Egypt, in 1218-1221, had some failure. It is usually called the Fifth Crusade. The most Sixth the curious was (1228-1229). The free-thinking Emperor the hatred
Frederick
II
showed
haste to fulfilhis
but
no
in 1215, but At last,in 1227, he started,
(1212-1250), had
put back.
soon
He
seems
Latin
taken
vows.
to
the
cross
have been
Gregory IX (1227-1241), believinghim a other grounds of hostility, excommunicated
but Pope reallyill, deserter,and having him.
spiteof"
In
forward in 1228, and the next year ban, Frederick went secured, by treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, possessionof and a Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth path to the coast. the
Jerusalem
permanentlylost.
was
in Christian
more
once
was
The
spent, though Louis IX a
disastrous
taken
was
Edward, and
in 1271
of France
(St. Louis, 1226-1270) led
againstEgypt expedition a nd attack on an prisoner,
Palestine
was
continued
to
soon
In
1272.
in 1248-1250, in which he Tunis in 1270, in which
that of last considerable expeditionwas I of England (1272-1307), to be Edward
he lost his life. The Prince
keeping till1244, when it was now crusadingspirit well-nigh
1291, the last of the Latin holdingsin
lost. The talk of
new
Crusades
were
over,
though
for nearlytwo expeditions
men
centuries
more.
Viewed
from
the aspectof their purpose
the
Crusadesjvgre
failures^ Thgy_^made no permanent conquest of the Iloly be "doubted whether they greatlyretarded the LancL It may advance
of Mohammedanism.
and treasure costjnjjyes
Their
of devotion, high spirit their methods not those which modern at best were Christianity regards as illustrative of the Gospel, and their conduct was disgracedthroughout by quarrels,divided motives, and low standards of personalconduct. Whpnjfrpir indirect resistsare was^enormous.
Though initiated in
examinerljhowever orth.
a ;
^zery
a
is taJba-mad^-of
differentestimate
Civilization is the result of
so
complex
factors
245
CRUSADES
THE
OF
RESULTS
Europe that it is hard to assignprecisevalues to singlecauses. would have made progress during this periodhad there been no that remarkable the changes wrought are But so Crusades. that the largestsingleinfluence
is unavoidable
the conclusion
that of thd Crusades.
was
Itiie
which
commerce
and
of
great
the
stimulated
Crusades
the
trade route
the
cities
over
impnrtanpp JBy the sacrifices of political feudal lands and property which they involved, a new third estate ""was preatlv a element, that__oi.Jhglowns" and
the_J]hinp
down
r'."s^
t"
"
stimulated,
Thgjmpntal esp^iallyJnFrance.
of the
horizon
who
Thousands iVnorance
narrow-mindedness
and
were
period wit,npgse^ the
Thf
awakening. development,of It
the church.
the
"
"
highest theological
that of Scholasticism. It in and outside of movements, religious A
Middle
the
great popular
beheld
Kveryw^pr^
East.
civilization of the
UPS
"
the development of the universities.
saw
In it
transforming influence. to flourish. A-great artisvernacular literaturej)egan
study_ of RomarT
Modem
law
became
the national tic_develoipmerit,
a
architecture of northern
France,
The
Europe and enlightenedcom of the periodof the Crusades wras awake pared with the centuries which had gone before. Admitting but one factor in this result, that the Crusades were they were misnamed
worth
the'
Gothic, now
its glorious career.
all their cost.
II.
SECTION
The
ran
epoch of the
NEW
MOVEMENTS
RELIGIOUS
First Crusade
was
one
of
increasing religious
earnestness, manifestingitself in other-worldliness,asceticism, mysticalpiety,and emphasis on the monastic life. The long battle
againstsimony
and
Nicolaitanism
had
turned
popular ordinary religious
sympathies from the often criticised "secular,"or of the clergy,to the monks as the true representatives ideal. Cluny had, in a measure, spent its force. Its very associations had led to luxury of living. New religious success that of the important was were arising,of which the most Cistercians as
Cluny
"
an
order
which
had the eleventh.
dominated
the
twelfth
century
CISTERCIANS.
THE
246
Like Cluny, the Cistercians dictine with
BERNARD
were
of French
monk, Robert, of the monastery
of
origin. A Bene Montier, impressed
of contemporary ill-discipline
the
monasticism, founded a monastery of great strictness in Citeaux, not far from Dijon, in 1098. the first,the purpose of the foundation From of Citeaux
cultivate
to
was
a
life. self-denying
strenuous,
Its
the surroundingsof worship, were of buildings,utensils,even the plainestcharacter. In food and clothingit exercised great that of Benedict, but its self-denial austerity. Its rule was far beyond that of Benedictines was generally. Under its third abbot, Stephen Harding (1109-1134), an Englishman, the sig Four affiliated monasteries nificance of Citeaux rapidlygrew. founded were by 1115, under his leadership. Thenceforth its was rapid throughout all the West. By 1130, the progress houses numbered Cistercian thirty;by 1168, two hundred and and a century later six hundred and seventy-one. eighty-eight, Over all these the abbot of Citeaux had authority,assisted by a yearly assembly of the heads of the affiliatedmonasteries. Much devoted attention was littleto to agriculture, relatively The ideals were withdrawal from the teachingor pastoralwork. world, contemplation,and imitation of apostolicpoverty." Not a littleof the earlysuccess of the Cistercians was due to the influence of Bernard (1090-1153),the greatest religious force of his age, and, by common of the chief one consent, deemed of mediaeval saints. of knightly ancestry in Fontaines, Born near a Dijon, he inherited from his mother deeply religious With nature. some thirtycompanions, the fruit of his powers of persuasion,he entered the monastery of Citeaux, probably "
in 1112.
monastery
Thence
he went
forth in 1115
of Clairvaux, abbot
of which
to found
he
the Cistercian
remained, in spite
A preferment,tillhis death. his prime motive was of the utmost man self-consecration, a love in spiteof extreme monastic to Christ,which self-mortification, found so evangelical an expressionas to win the heartyapproval of Luther and The Calvin. mystic contemplation of Christ his highest spiritual was joy. It determined not merely his own type of piety,but very largelythat of the age in its nobler in Bernard admired force, a moral expressions.Above all,men a consistencyof character,which added weight to all that he of
splendidoffers
said and Bernard
of ecclesiastical
did. was
far too
much
a
man
of action to be confined
RADICAL
248
REFORMERS
influential till the accession Arnold remained city. There the only English IV of the vigorous Hadrian (1154-1159) who has Hadrian, in occupied the papal throne. ever man to expel Arnold 1155, compelled the Romans by proclaiming interdict forbidding religiousservices in the city ; and bar an German Barbarossa sovereign, Frederick gained with the new of Arnold the price of im as (1152-1190), for the destruction Arnold In 1155 hanged and his body perial coronation. was burned. Though charged with heresy, these accusations are the
"
and
vague
offense the
his attack
was
radical
more
had
in the
of
been
opening years whose origin or early
ceticism tion
he
combined
of the
Lord's
ceremonies the as
the
upon
riches
and
Arnold's
temporal
real of
power
church.
Far
of
little substance.
had
have
to
seem
and
the
also in St.
date, probably between
disciple,but Lausanne,"
hardly once
a
burned
1120 so
to
and
be
Benedictine
rather
Christ
dead.
the
himself
was
With
Bruys,
strict
a
as
baptism, the rejec form, the repudiation of all any buildings, and the rejection of
which
for
France, of
Peter
"
of infant
condemned
be
through
prayers
Gilles,he
in
of church
should
instrument
opposed
denial
the
even
century
southern
life little is known.
Supper
which
cross,
twelfth
the
in
preacher
a
had
Having by
the
mob
honored
than suffered.
Peter
burned at
crosses
uncertain
an
Reputed to Henry, regarded was monk, who preached, 1130.
be
Peter's
called with
"of
large
and following, from 1101 till his death after 1145, in western Above France. all, a preacher of ascetic especially southern spiritthe validity righteousness,he denied in ancient Donatist of sacraments administered by unworthy priests. His test of worthiness ascetic life and By this apostolic poverty. was standard he condemned the wealthy and power-seeking clergy. been have Arnold, Peter, and Henry proclaimed Protestants before Their carried
the
conception to
a
radical
extreme
manifestation
was
do
so
is to
misunderstand
them.
They essentiallymediaeval. criticism of the worldly aspects a con widely shared and had its more
of salvation
of clerical life which
servative
To
Reformation.
in the
was
life and
teachings of
Bernard.
WAL-
Empire, of which
later Roman
the
of
Manichseism
AND
INQUISITION
THE
DENSES.
The
CATHARI
SECTS.
ANTICHURCHLY
III.
SECTION
249
CATHARI
THE
adherent (ante,pp. 107, 176), seems an Augustine was f once in the West. It was stimu absolutelyto have died out never lated by;the accession of Paulicians and Bogomiles(ante, p. 235) whom the persecuting policy of the Eastern Emperors drove intercourse with the East fos from Bulgaria,and by the new Manichseism. The result was a new tered by the Crusades. called Cathari,as the "Pure," or Albigenses, Its adherents were from
Albi,one
of their chief seats in southern France.
enthusiastic
ascetic and
Cathari
Crusades, the
the
impulsewhich rose
to
With
the
caused and accompanied
great activity.Though
in many parts of Europe, their chief regionswere Spain. In Italy, and northern France, northern
to be found
southern
southern France, Bernard himself labored in vain for their con version. \Vith the criticism of existingchurchly conditions consequent upon the disastrous failure of the Second Crusade with great rapidity.In 1167 (ante,p. 242), they multiplied
they de
were
able to hold
Caraman,
near
Toulouse
; and
the support of a of the populationof southern
they had
won
princes. In northern Cathari
in Florence
the inhabitants.
France
alone in 1228 year
before the end of the century
largesection,possiblya majority,
Italy they
By the
council in St. Felix
widely attended
a
1200
and
were
the
very
counted
they were
of protection numerous.
its
The
nearly one-third of an exceedingperil the ascetic spirit
the movement and criticism of the wealth of the age found full expression, satisfaction in complete rejection and power of the church saw for the Roman
of its clergyand
Church.
In
claims.
dualists. The Like the ancient Manichses, the Cathari were of the Cathari of Italyheld that the good Bogomiles and many the elder re of whom God had two sons, Satanel and Christ the leader of evil. The Cathari of France belled and became "
generallyasserted two eternal powers, the one good,the other malign. All agreed that this visible world is the work of the evil power, in which souls,taken prisonersfrom the realm of the good God, are held in bondage. The greatest of sins,the and Eve, is human sin of Adam reproduction, whereby original is the number is of prison-houses increased. Salvation by re-
250
THE
CATHARI
pentance, asceticism,and
baptism
in the
the
"consolation."
This
rite,like
church, works
forgivenessof sins and restora It is conferred by laying kingdom of the good God. of hands on by one who has received it,togetherwith placing the Gospel of John the head of the candidate. It is the on succession. One who has received the "con true apostolical solation" becomes but lest he lose the grace, a perfectus; perfect, he must henceforth eschew marriage,avoid oaths, war, posses sion of property, and the eatingof meat, milk, or eggs, since they the sin of the of reproduction. The are product "perfect," called in France, the bons hommes good men or, as they were the real clergy of the Cathari, and there are notices of were of a "Pope" among "bishops" and even them, though exactly what the gradationsin authoritywere it is impossibleto say. By a convenient belief the majority of adherents, the credenti tion to the
"
or
allowed
"believers,"were
joy
the
good
to
hold
marry,
"
property, and
things of this
en
world, even outwardly should Church, that, they receive the "consolation" before death, they would be saved. Those who died unconsoled would, in the opinion of most of the Cathari, be reincarnated in human, or even animal, bodies till at last to
the
Roman
to conform
assured
The they, too, should be brought to salvation. not always to have been fullyinitiated into seem the system. The Cathari
made
"believers" the tenets
of
which they trans Scripture, lated and in which they claimed to find their teachings. Some rejectedthe Old Testament entirelyas the work of the evil others accepted the Psalms and the prophets. All be power, lieved the New Testament from the good God. to come Since all thingsmaterial are of evil,Christ could not have had a real body or died a real death. They therefore rejectedthe cross.
great
use
of
The
evil. The sacraments, with their material elements, were good God is dishonored by the erection of churches built and ornamented
with
services of
the
material Cathari
creations
were
simple.
the Gospel of John, read, especially
all. A
of the
as
The the
evil power.
The
Scriptureswere of most spiritual
then knelt preached. The "believers" and adored the "perfect" as those indwelt with the divine Spirit. The "perfect,"in turn, gave their blessing.Only the Lord's Prayer was used in the service. A common meal, at which the bread was held in many consecrated, was places sermon
was
THE
once
a
month,
as
a
WALDENSES
Supper. The student of the extremely interestingsurvivals of
kind of Lord's
will find in it
movement
251
ancient Christian rites and
ceremonies, orthodox
heretical.
and
and women the "perfect"seem to have been men general, moral steadfast of uprightness! earnestness, and courageous in persecution.Of their effectiveness in gainingthe alle ness walks of life, from the humbler gianceof thousands, especially be no question. there can in no conscious Unlike the Cathari, the Waldenses originated In
to the church and, had they been treated with skill, hostility have separatedfrom it. In 1176 Valdez, would probablynever of Lyons, impressedby the song of Waldo, a rich merchant or wandering minstrel recounting the sacrifices of St. Alexis, a The clergy asked a master of theology"the best way to God." man quoted that golden text of monasticism : If thou wouldst be perfect, go, sellthat thou hast,and giveto the poor, and thou "
shalt have
treasure
in
heaven; and
come,
follow Me."1
Val
into practice.Providingmodestly dez put this counsel literally for his wife and daughters,he gave the rest of his means to the He determined to fulfil the directions of Christ to the poor. the raiment there desig Apostles2absolutely. He would wear He would live by what was nated. given him. To know his duty better he procured a translation of the New Testament. his friends. Here, they His action made a deep impressionon true "apostolicpoverty." By 1177 he was thought, was and the little company and women, joinedby others, men further Christ's directions by preaching undertook to carry 3 in Spirit." repentance. They called themselves the "Poor appealed to the Third Lateran Council, in 1179, for They now permissionto preach. The council did not deem them heret ical. It thought them ignorantlaymen, and Pope Alexander
(1159-1181) refused
III
This
consent.
led to decisive action.
of his later historyas Valdez, who appears in what is known determined,not to say obstinate,felt that this refusal was the He and his associates con voice of man againstthat of God. tinued preaching. As disobedient,they were, therefore, ex communicated, in 1184, by Pope Lucius III (1181-1185). These unwise acts of the papacy not only forced the Wal denses out of the church againsttheir will,they brought to
them 1
a
Matt.
considerable accession. 1921.
2
Matt.
10.
The
Humiliati 3
were
a
company
Probably from Matt.
53.
THE
252 of
in and of penance to hold separate
and
associated themselves
had
who
lowly folk
about
Milan.
meetings, or
excommunicated
were
WALDENSES
for
These, too, to
in 1184
a
life
common
forbidden
were
preach, by Alexander for disobedience.
III,
A
very
Humiliati considerable part of these Lombard now under the control of Valdez. Waldenses, and came
joined the The early characteristics of the Waldenses now rapidlydeveloped. Chief the New that the Bible, and especially the principle of all was Testament, is the sole rule of belief and life. Yet they read it to them a through thoroughly mediaeval spectacles.It was book
of law
"
of minute
to prescriptions,
be
followed
to
the
In accordance learned by heart. letter. Large portionswere with what they believed to be its teachingsthey went about,
by two, preaching,clad in a simple woollen robe, bare footed or wearing sandals, livingwholly on the giftsof their hearers,fastingon Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,reject ing oaths and all shedding of blood, and using no prayers but the Lord's and a form of grace at table. They heard confes sions,observed the Lord's Supper together,and ordained their members as ministry. As unbiblical,they rejectedmasses a for the dead, and denied purgatory. They held and prayers invalid if dispensedby unworthy priests.They the sacraments effective than in church. believed prayer in secret more They and defended women. They had lay preaching by men and deacons, and a head, or rector, of the bishops,priests, Valdez himself; later appointment society. The first was the societyproper, by election. Besides this inner circle, was they soon developed a body of sympathizers, friends" or "be the societywas recruited,but who re lievers,"from whom with the Roman Church. mained outwardly in communion of this development seems to have been immediately sub Most two
"
to
sequent
their excommunication
in 1184.
Much
of it
was
Cathari
and example, yet they opposed justlyregarded themselves as widely different. Certain conflicts of opinion,and a feelingthat the govern led to the secession of the Lom of Valdez was ment arbitrary, that attempts at reunion in breach bard branch a by 1210 due
to
the
Catharite
"
1218, after Valdez's
death, failed
to
heal.
The
two
bodies
estranged. The able Pope, Innocent III (1198-1216), improved these disputesby countenancing in 1208 the organ
remained
ization of pauper
es
which catholici,
allowed
many
of the prac-
Waldenses
tices of the
siderable numbers
253
strict churchly oversight. Con
under thus
were
CATHARI
THE
AGAINST
CRUSADE
back
won
to
the church.
Never
to be body spread. Waldenses were found in northern Spain, in Austria and Germany, as well as in their original homes. gradually repressed,till They were of their chief seat came to be the Alpine valleys southwest At the Reformation Turin, where they are stillto be found. and became fullyProtes they rea'dily accepted its principles, freedom Under modern tant. they are laboringwith religious of heroic in many success parts of Italy. Their story is one honorable history and they endurance of persecution a most still survives,though with the only mediaeval sect which are
theless,the Waldensian
"
"
wide modification the
By ern
and
Spain
and
methods.
the thirteenth century the situation of the in southern France, northern Italy,and north
dubious.
was
Waldenses
measures
ideals original
openingof
Church
Roman
of their
had
Missionary efforts largelyfailed. It was A
needed.
were
crusade
was
to convert
felt that
ordered
as
Cathari
sharper early as
(1159-1181), againstthe viscount of Beziers as a supporter of the Cathari, but it accomplished broke. little. Under III (1198-1216) the storm Innocent of the the murder After having vainly tried missionaryefforts, papal legate,Peter of Castelnau, in 1208, induced Innocent to 1181
by Pope Alexander
III
against the heretics of southern France. The attack was agreeableto the French monarchy, which had These found the nobles of the regiontoo independent vassals. interests of Pope and King led to twenty years of combined of the destructive warfare (1209-1229),in which the power southern nobles was shattered and cities and provincesdevas tated. of the Cathari defenders rendered impo The were tent or compelled to joinin their extermination. The termination of the strugglewas followed by a synod of proclaim
much
crusade
a
importanceheld
Waldenses
had
fore, forbad
made
the
in Toulouse
much
use
in 1229.
Cathari
and
synod, there the Scriptures,except the contained in the breviary,
of the Bible.
laity to possess portions as are
The The
psalterand such and especiallydenounced all translations. The decree was, indeed,local,but similar considerations led to like prohibitions in Spain and elsewhere. No universal denial of Bible reading by the laitywas issued duringthe Middle Ages. A second act of significance the synod of Touwhich marked
THE
254
louse
the
was
INQUISITION
beginningof
a
The systematicinquisition.
tion of the
punishment the earlier Middle Ages. There of death, generallyby fire, at the
or
The
had
ecclesiastics of
mob, but
been
been
a
the hands
identification of the Cathari
good
of
the
in
instances
many
rulers,churchmen,
high standing had with
ques
undetermined
opposed.
Manichseans, against
Emperors had denounced punishment the sanction of
the
later Roman
the
whom
had
of heretics
death
Roman law. penalty, gave such of heretics Peter II of Aragon, in 1197, ordered the execution by fire. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) held that heresy,as of even than treason against God, was greater heinousness of heresy was not treason againsta King. The investigation as yet systematized. That task the synod of Toulouse under took. Its work was speedilyperfectedby Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241), who intrusted the discoveryof heresy to inquisi order tors chosen a body formed chieflyfrom the Dominican As speedilydeveloped,the inquisi with very different aims. formidable Its proceedingswere tion became most a organ. of his accusers not given to the prisoner, were secret, the names liable to torture. who, by a bull of Innocent IV, in 1252, was "
The
of the convict's
confiscation
property
was
of its most
one
economically destructive features,and, as these this feature undoubt shared by the lay authorities, spoilswere edly kept the fires of persecutionburning where otherwise they and other would have died out. Yet, thanks to the inquisition, more shortlyto be described,the Cathari praiseworthymeans than a of a little more were utterlyrooted out in the course greatly repressed. This earlier century, and the Waldenses for the tenacitywith which success accounts, in largemeasure, in the Reformation the Roman Church clung to the inquisition odious
and
age.
SECTION
THE
IV.
DOMINICANS
AND
FRANCISCANS
profoundly affected the medi them Out of an aeval church. by preachers attempt to meet of and and of equal devotion,asceticism, zeal, greater learning, the In the order of the Dominicans. same atmosphere grew of "apostolicpoverty" and literal fulfilment of the commands The
Cathari
of Christ
had
and
in which
their birth.
Waldenses
the In
Waldenses
these
two
flourished,the Franciscans orders
mediaeval
monasticism
DOMINIC
256
THE
DOMINICANS
that of the followingyear, the constitution of the "Or
ter, or der of
AND
Preachers/'or Dominicans, At
the
as
head
they
popularlycalled, "master-general,"chosen were
was a developed. for life. The field was di by the generalchapter,originally vided into "provinces,"each in charge of a "provincialprior," elected for a four-yearterm by the provincialchapter. Each The general monastery chose a "prior,"also for four years. the "master-general," the "provincial chapter included priors,"and an elected delegate from each province. The that combined ingeniouslyauthority system was one, therefore, and representative It embraced monasteries for government. and nunneries for women, not to though the latter were men, preach, but ultimatelydeveloped largeteaching activities. Dominic died in 1221. The order then numbered sixty divided the of Tou houses, Provence, eight provinces among louse, France, Lombardy, Rome, Spain, Germany, and Eng land, and for years thereafter it increased rapidly. Always zealous for learning,it emphasized preaching and teaching, became sought work especiallyin universitytowns, and soon widely representedon the universityfaculties. Albertus Mag and Thomas and Tauler, nus Aquinas, the theologians ; Eckhart the mystics; Savonarola, the reformer, are but a few of the that adorn the catalogue of Dominicans. Their great names learningled to their employment as inquisitorsa use that formed no part of Dominic's ideal. The legendswhich represent him as an inquisitor did baseless. He would win men, are as his example, Paul, by preaching. To achieve that result he would sacrifice or asceticism that would undergo whatever his preachers acceptable to those whom make they sought. Yet it is evident that lowly,self-sacrificing and democratic as Dominic's were aims, the high intellectualism of his order tended to give it a relatively aristocratic flavor. It represented, however, an emphasis on work for others, such as had ap Its ideal was not peared in the Waldenses. contemplation was
"
apart from Great it
as
the was
access
to
men
the honor paid to Dominic
in their needs. and
the
Dominicans,
by the popular homage given to the Francis arid especially The austere to their founder. preacher, cans, of blameless youth, planning how he may and best reach men, to that end, is not so winsome adopting poverty as a means a that of the careless all who sacrifices man figureas gay, young was
exceeded
world, but
OF
FRANCIS his fellows,and
for Christ and
257
ASSISI
adopts poverty the only means as
of his message, but mendation In Francis of Assisi is to be his Master.
saints,but
greatestof mediaeval
Bernadone
Giovanni
being like merely the
not
seen
in
universal.
church
1182, the
or
Assisi,in central
of
cloth merchant
recom
through his absolute all thingshumanly pos
born in 1181
was
a
as
of
who
one,
of desire to imitate Christ sincerity sible,belongs to all ages and to the
not
To
of
son
the
a
the
Italy. boy and Francesco Francis nickname was soon given, sup planted that bestowed on him in baptism. His father,a seri of business,was littlepleased to see the son man leading ous and in the mischief revelry of his young companions. A in Perugia,followinga year'sexperiencesas a prisonerof war defeat in which he had fought on the side of the common people of Assisi,againstthe nobles,wrought no change in his life. A serious illness began to develop another side of his character. He joined a militaryexpeditionto Apulia, but withdrew, for His conversion was is not evident. what reason a gradual proc "
"
"
When
ess.
look
to
I
the
upon
them, and
among
easy."l which
This
of
note
to
he
Rome
cloth from
thought
of God.
Assisi.
near
compassion was first responded.
he heard
his father's warehouse
Damian,
When
them.
bitter had become
me
nature
the fallen house
restore
to
lead
did
Himself
bitter
too
me
me
I left and
sweet
that
Christ-like
Francis's renewed
grimage
of St.
seemed
to
seem
lepers,but the Lord I had compassion upon
had
them, that which
sins it did
yet in my
was
On
a
the divine command
to
pil to
he sold Taking it literally, to rebuild the ruined
church
father,thoroughly dis
Francis's
took him before the gusted with his unbusinesslike ways, now bishop to be disinherited;but Francis declared that he had
henceforth
father
no
probably in
was
For
the next
1206
two
but or
years
the
the
was
to action. 1
He
Testament
poses. 2
to
him, would
107-14.
event
in and
about Assisi, restoringchurches, of which his
Francis wandered
of Christ to the
the
Apostles,2read
they had to Valdez, preach repentance and
as
Highly illuminative of Francis. Robinson, Readings, 1 : 392-395.
Matt.
This
Portiuncula, in the plain outside
There, in 1209, the words service,came
in heaven.
1207.
aiding the unfortunate, and favorite
Father
as
to
as
a
the his
town.
in the
trumpet-call kingdom of spiritand
pur
FRANCIS
258
God, without
might
be
Christ's
before
him.
deference
Most
plainestof garments, eatingwhat He would imitate Christ and obey
in absolute
commands,
in humbled "The
in the
money,
set
ASSISI
OF
the
to
poverty, in Christ-like love,and
priestsas
His
representatives. that I ought to live to me holy Gospel." Like-minded as
revealed
High Himself
according to the model of the For them he drafted a "Rule," sociates gathered about him. composed of little besides selections from Christ's commands, and with it,accompanied by eleven or twelve companions, he appliedto Pope Innocent III for approval. It was practically the same request that Valdez had preferredin vain in 1179. of the Waldenses for But Innocent was now tryingto win some church, and
the
Francis
called themselves
1216, Francis
had
substituted
they
Francis's association love and
henceforth
were
was
a
Assisi,a
that of the
union
The
associates for
name
Minor, to
utmost
or
now
which, by Humbler,
be known.
of imitators of
the practising
thus, he believed,could the world followed.
refused.
the Penitents of
Brethren, by which
togetherby
not
was
Christ,bound
poverty, since only
be denied
and
Christ really
by two, they went about preachingrepentance, singingmuch, aidingthe peasants in their work, caringfor the "Let those who know trade learn one, no lepersand outcasts. of receivingthe priceof their toil,but but not for the purpose for their good example and to flee idleness. And when we are let of the the table not given the priceof our resort to work, us bread door Soon widefrom to door." 1 Lord, begging our formed, which the rapidgrowth reachingmissionaryplans were of the association made possibleof attempting. Francis him self,prevented by illness from reaching the Mohammedans through Spain,went to Egypt in 1219, in the wake of a crusading expedition,and actuallypreached before the Sultan. littleof an organizer. The free associa Francis himself was tion was were increasingenormously. What adequate rules for a
Two
handful
a
of like-minded
ing
in any talents
ory
IX
(1227-1241), who
appointment Under
several
were
insufficient for
soon
Change would have It was event. hastened, however, by the organiz of Cardinal Ugolino of Ostia, the later Pope Greg
body numbering
come
brethren
Francis
thousands.
had
secured
and influence, Ugolino's 1
befriended as
Francis, and
"protector"
that of Brother
Testament.
of the
whose
society.
Elias of Cortona,
FRANCISCANS
THE
the transformation
of the association
259 into
full monastic
a
order
From the time of Francis's absence in rapidlyforward. Egypt and Syria in 1219 and 1220, his real leadershipceased. A new rule was In the adopted in 1221, and a third in 1223. latter,emphasisfwas no longer laid on preaching,and begging established as the normal, not the exceptional, was practice. Already,jn 1219, provinceshad been established,each in charge of a "minister." in 1220, had prescribedobe Papal directions, went
dience
to the
costume,
and
established officers,
order's
irrevocable
a
novitiate,a fixed
vows.
of these
inevitable. They were Probably most changes were unquestionablya griefto Francis,though whether so deeply as has often been contended is doubtful. He was always deferen tial to ecclesiastical authority,and to have seems regarded with regret than with actual opposi these modifications more tion. He withdrew from the world. He was much increasingly in prayer and singing. His love of nature, in which he was far in advance
of his age,
body, he longed
to
was
manifest.
more
never
be present with
Christ.
He
Feeble bore
in
what
How believed to be the reproductionof Christ's wounds. have been received is an unsolved, and perhaps they may insoluble,problem. On October 3, 1226, he died in the church
men
of Portiuncula.
Two
years
later he
proclaimed a saint by Christian historyhave more was
in Few Pope Gregory IX. men richlydeserved the title. In organization, by Francis's death, the Franciscans were like the Dominicans. At the head stood a "minister general" chosen for twelve years. Over each "province" was a "pro vincial
each group minister,"and over a "custos," for, unlike the Dominicans, the Franciscans did not at first possess houses.
As
the Dominicans, provincialand generalchapterswere held by which officers were chosen and legislation achieved. with
Like
the
had almost from Dominicans, also, the Franciscans the first, their feminine branch the so-called "second order." That of the Franciscans instituted by Francis himself,in was "
1212, through his friend and
(1194-1253). The
growth of rapid, and though they soon scholars, they were always more
Clara disciple, the
Franciscans
counted
many
democratic, more
the poor, than the Dominicans. The and Dominicans Franciscans,known
Sciffi of
Assisi
extremely distinguished
was
the order of
respectivelyas
THE
260
TERTIARIES
exercised an Gray Friars in England, soon almost unbounded popular influence. Unlike the older orders, they labored primarilyin the cities. There can be no doubt that their work resulted in a great strengtheningof religion the laity. At the same time they undermined the in among fluence of the bishops and ordinary clergy,since they were absolve privileged to preach and anywhere. They thus strengthenedthe power of the papacy by diminishingthat of the ordinary clergy. One chief influence upon the laitywas the development of the "Tertiaries" "third orders" or a first in connection with the which phenomenon appeared the tradition which it with connects Franciscans, though Francis himself is probably baseless. The "third order" per mitted men and women, stillengaged in ordinaryoccupations, life of fasting, to live a semi-monastic prayer, worship,and be nevolence. A conspicuousillustration is St. Elizabeth of Thuorders de ringia(1207-1231). Ultimately all the mendicant the system tended to on veloped Tertiaries. As time went become almost complete monasticism, from which the mar an ried were be regarded as a very successful It must excluded. the religious ideals of an age which regarded attempt to meet Black
Friars
and
"
the monastic
as
the true
Christian
life.
The
pietyof the twelfth and thirteenth centuries found many and Francis expressionsother than through the Dominicans One important manifestation,especially in the Nether cans. lands,Germany, and France, was through the Beguines associ ations of women fashion,but not bound livingin semi-monastic received their name to have by irrevocable vows. They seem from those hostile to them in memory of the preacherof Liege, Lambert le Begue, who was regarded as having been a heretic; and the Beguine movement undoubtedly often sheltered antichurchlysympathizers. It was in the main orthodox, however, and spread widely,existingin the Netherlands to the present. Its loose organizationmade effective discipline difficult, and, in general,its course of deterioration. A parallel, was one that of though less popular,system of men's associations was the Beghards. The divisions in the Franciscan order, which had appeared in Francis's lifetime between those who would emphasize a simplelifeof Christ-like poverty and those who valued numbers, "
power,
and
influence,were
but intensified with
his death.
The
The
astical
FRANCISCANS
261
Leo, the looser in Elias papal policyfavored the looser,since ecclesi
stricterparty found of Cortona.
THE
AMONG
DIVISIONS
leader in Brother
a
be
politicswould
by
advanced
solidation of the order
the
and
growth
con
lines of earlier monasticism.
the
along The use of gifts embittered. The quarrelbecame increasingly secured by the laxer party on the claim that and buildings was they wene held not by the order itself but by "friends." Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254),in 1245, allowed such use, with the the property of the Roman reservation that it was Church, not tendencies
These
of the order.
stricter party itself fell into dubious
that party
opposed.
But
full power
in 1260.
the
vigorously
orthodoxy. of Floris,in extreme southern Italy (1145?-1202),a Joachim Cistercian abbot who had been reputed a prophet,had divided the historyof the world into three ages, those of the Father,the in to come Son, and the Holy Spirit. That of the Spiritwas "the
eternal
It
Gospel" allyinterpreted.Its sixth decade
Franciscans
was
be
a
new
not
"
of the
to
age of
these
men
who
understood
Gospel,but the old, spiritu
of life was
form
thirteenth
adopted
an
to
be monastic.
century many
views
and
of the
In the
stricter
persecuted not merely by the laxer element, but by the moderates, who ob tained leadership when chosen generalmin Bonaventura was These stricter friars of prophetic faith were ister in 1257. nicknamed "Spirituals."Under Pope John XXII (1316-1334) of the party were burned by the inquisitionin 1318. some the further quarrel arose to whether as a During his papacy complete. John XXII poverty of Christ and the Apostleswas decided in 1322 in favor of the laxer view, and imprisonedthe great Englishschoolman, William of Occam, and other asserters The of Christ's absolute poverty. irreconcilable, quarrelwas and finally X (1513-1521) formally recognizedthe Pope Leo division of the Franciscans in 1517 into "Observant," or strict, and "Conventual," or loose sections,each with its distinct officersand generalchapters. SECTION
The
V.
educational work
alreadybeen banus Maurus imitative and
noted
EARLY
SCHOLASTICISM
of cathedral and
in connection
(ante, pp.
were
monastic
schools has
Bede, Alcuin, and Hra200, 207, 210). It was long simply
reproductiveof
the
with
teachingof
the
Church
Fa-
BEGINNINGS
THE
262
of Augustine and thers,especially the
of John
case
SCHOLASTICISM
OF
Scotus
the Great.
Gregory
Erigena (ante,p. 210), it
Save
showed
in
little
original. Schools, however, increased,especiallyin in the eleventh century, and with their multiplication France of logic,or of dialectics, an came applicationof the methods of theologicalproblems which resulted in to the discussion fresh and fertile intellectual development. Since it originated that
was
schools,the
in the Most
of the
rived
from and
ings
movement
was
known
"Scholasticism."
as
of dialectic method
knowledge
first de
at
was
portionsof Aristotle's writ Porphyry's Isagoge,both the work of Boetius
scanty translations of
of
(480?-524).
development of Scholasticism was inaugurated and ac of "universals" companied by a discussion as to the nature and species a debate that is as to the existence of genera occasioned by Porphyry's Isagoge. Three positionsmight be The taken. extreme "realists,"followingPlatonic influences The
"
"
existed
(ante,p. 3), asserted that universals antecedent
the individual
anterior to and
was
man
to
objects "
under "realists,"
and
i. e., the genus of the individual man.
ante
determinative
apart from
rem,
guidance of Aristotle (ante, with p. 4), taught that universals existed only in connection The individual objects in re. "nominalists," followingStoic for only abstract names precedent,held that universals were moderate
The
the
"
of
individuals,and
had
other
existence
the
resemblances
than
only real existence for them This quarrel between "realism" the "nominalism" continued throughout the scholastic period conclusions. profoundly influenced its theological
was
and and
thought post rem. individual object.
in
The of the
"
dispute once
Ratramnus
as
to
held
in Tours
ceptionthat actual body
Paschasius
was
about
blood
1049, attacked are
changed
of Christ.
as
the to
a
renewal
Radbertus
of Christ's presence Berengar (?-1088), head
the elements and
between
controversy
and
in the Lord's
the nature
Supper (ante,p. 211). dral school
The
scholastic
first considerable
no
of the cathe
prevalent con
substance
into the
His
positionwas essentially nominalist. immediately opposed by Lanfranc Berengar was (?-1089), then prior of the monastery of Bee in Normandy, and to be William the Conqueror's celebrated archbishop of at the Roman synod of Canterbury. Berengar was condemned 1050.
He
conformed
and
was
restored in 1059.
About
ten
ANSELM
264
AND
ABELARD
to make times, has nothing wherewith good past disobedience. Yet, if satisfaction is to be made at all,it can
all
at
ence
rendered
be
Himself
Such
yet
shares
God
as
being is the
a
blessedness
eternal
theory
rests
there is such
could
has
an
of His
human
Not
reward.
brethren.
is
of infinite value
something
God-man. a
nature, who
only is His
That
Anselm's
sacri
reward
is the
widely influen
ultimately on the realistic conviction that objectiveexistence as humanity which Christ
assume.
Anselm
of devout
was
explanation could "I
who
one
it deserves satisfaction,
a
tial
and
man,
to offer.
fice
only by
but
believe,that I
buttress
the
doctrines
understand," is
may
The
his attitude.
spirit, fullyconvinced
that dialectic of the that
motto
a
church. expresses
realist
maintained positionwas by William of Champeaux (1070 ?-1121),who brought the school of St. Victor, near Paris, into great repute, and died as bishop
high
same
of Chalons. The
ablest
made
was
in
Abelard
by
vanity,and
of the dialectic method
use
(1079-1142), a
critical spirit, but
by
Pallet,in Brittany,he studied
Champeaux, both of whom surpassedin ability. On the he took a positionintermediate of
and
teacher
the realism
the nominalist
side.
was
's life
was
teaching with
1115
he
was
such
as
no
Heloise
"
a
canon
niece
under
irreligion.Born
Roscelin
and
William
he
opposed and undoubtedly far vexed question of the universals the nominalism
between
of
one
other, though leaningrather to Only individuals exist,but genera and Hence
he
is
universals
gave
usually called
greater value
of Notre
Dame,
had
enjoyed.
yet
of his fellow
with
canon,
a
He
a
than
By the age of twenty-two stormy. Paris. great followingin Melun, near
lecturer
the
of
means
of the
than names. speciesare more though he "conceptualist," mental mere conceptions. Abelard
no
man
in the twelfth century of irritating method,
he
By
followingin
Paris
fell in love
with
Fulbert
"
a
of
woman
With her he entered into a secret singulardevotion of nature. marriage. The enraged uncle, believinghis niece deceived, emasculated, and thus revenged himself by having Abelard barred
from
monk.
To
resumed
clerical advancement. teach
was
his breath
lecturing. A reply to
far in the
other direction that
Abelard of
now
became
however, and he life,
Roscelin's his enemies
tritheism
charged
a soon
leaned him
so
with
ABELARD his views
Sabellianism,and Soissons
in
made
St. Denis
His
1121.
of that hostility,
Yet
of
gaged head
of
founded
His
at
a
traditional
criticisms had
in
career
of
uncomfortable life. Students
little settlement
a
synod
which
he
aroused,however, the
leader of the age, the powerful religious traditionalist Bernard, and he now sought refuge as the rough monastery in Rhuys, in remote Brittany. most
he left this retreat in
criticisms of the
and
called the Paraclete.
abbot
condemned
were
the monastery of St. Denis an and he now sought a hermit's
place of abode, gathered about? him
orthodox
265
lecture for
correspondencewith
a
a
to
little nunnery
record teresting
at
the
of affection
while in Paris,and
a
Heloise,who
had
Paraclete,which
become
en
the
is the most
in
the part of Heloise on especially which the Middle Ages has preserved. Bernard procured his condemnation at the synod of Sens in 1141, and the rejec tion of his appeal by Pope Innocent II. Abelard a was now "
"
broken
He
man.
the abbot
made
submission
and
found
a
friend in
Peter,
he died in
of
of the monasteries Cluny. In 1142 one under Cluny jurisdiction. Abelard 's spiritwas critical. Without essentially rejecting the Fathers or the creeds,he held that all should be subjected to philosophical examination, and not lightlybelieved. His Yes and No work, Sic et non settingagainst each other "
contrary passages without attempt
"
from at
the
harmony
Fathers or
on
the
great doctrines,
explanation,might
well
arouse
of doubts. His doctrine of the feelingthat he was a sower almost Sabellian. His teachingthat man has in Trinitywas herited not guiltbut punishment from Adam was contrary to the Augustinian tradition. His ethical theory that good and evil inhere in the intention rather than in the act, disagreed with current feeling. His belief that the philosophersof an a
tiquitywere
sharers of divine
with
Christian
ancient
revelation,howrever
consonant
opinion,was not that of his age. Nor Abelard less individual,though decidedlymodern, in his was Like Anselm, he rejectedall conception of the atonement. to the devil; but he repudiated Anselm's doctrine of ransom satisfaction no less energetically. In Abelard 's view the in carnation and death of Christ are the highest expressionof God's love to men,
the effect of which
is to awaken
love in
Abelard, though
open
of his age,
profoundlystimulatingspirit.His direct
was
a
to
much
criticism from
the
us.
standpoint fol-
AND
HUGO
266 lowers
few, but his indirect influence
were
impulse given by him inquiryfar-reaching. A combination
of St. Victor
Hugo was
of
uneventful.
to
Paris,where
Victor,near
quiet,modest
is to
be
seen
(1097?-1141). A German 1115 he
of
the
theological
of the dialectic method
use
mysticism
About
great, and
was
dialectic method
the
moderate
a
Neo-Platonic
intense
LOMBARD
PETER
in the
with
work
by birth,his
of life
he entered
the monastery of St. of its school. A to be head
rose
of profound learningand piety,his influence
man,
remarkable.
enjoyed the intimate friendshipof Ber works were his commen nard. Probably his most significant tary on the CelestialHierarchy of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (ante,p. 171) and his treatise On the Mysteriesof the Faith. In true mystic fashion he pictured spiritual progress in three the of formation as stages cogitation, sense-concepts; meditation, their intellectual investigation; contemplation,the intuitive penetrationinto their inner meaning. This last at tainment is the true mystical vision of God, and the compre hension of all things in Him. No of originalgenius,like Abelard and Hugo, but a man was
He
"
great intellectual service to his
own
age,
and
held in honor
till
the
Peter of the Reformation, was Lombard, "the Master Sentences" in humble in circumstances (?-1160?). Born northern Italy,Peter studied in Bologna and Paris,in part at least aided
the
In Paris he became generosityof Bernard. ultimatelyteacher of theology in the school of Notre Dame, and near the close of his life, in 1159, bishop of the Parisian he was Whether see. ever a pupil of Abelard is uncertain; but he was evidentlygreatlyinfluenced by Abelard's works. Under Hugo of St. Victor he certainlystudied,and owed that teacher which
by
much. his fame
well-accustomed and
the Fathers
fresh
that
Between rests
"
1147 the Four
and
1150
Books
of
he wrote
the work
Sentences.
fashion,he gathered citations from on
he
the several Christian
doctrines.
After
on
the
the creeds What
was
proceeded to explainand interpretthem by the dialectic method, with great moderation and good sense, and with constant reference to the opinionsof his contempo raries. He showed the influence of Abelard constantly, though critical of that thinker's extremer He more was even positions. indebted to Hugo of St. Victor. Under the four divisions, God, Created Beings, Salvation,Sacraments and the Last Things, was
handbook
which
remained
till the
of
round
he discussed the whole
fully met
so
267
UNIVERSITIES
THE
OF
RISE
Reformation
result
theology. The
the
needs
the
main
of the basis
age
of
was
a
that
it
theological
instruction. of the
middle
the
Witn
Scholasticism but activity,
was no
over.
twelfth century the first periodof The schools continued in increasing
creative
geniusesappeared. however, by distinguished,
the century was to the West, which
The the
last half of
introduction
Aristotle,of the greater part of his works and of much Greek philosophybesides, by the Jews of Spain and southern France, who, in turn, derived had
far had
thus
little of
Latin conquest of Constantinople, in 1204 (ante,p. 243), led ultimatelyto direct translations from and greater out the originals.The result was to be a new the Arabs.
The
them
from
burst
of scholastic activityin the thirteenth century.
SECTION
VI.
Cathedral and monastic than
in the twelfth
gatheringabout
UNIVERSITIES
THE
schools
century.
Teachers
were
flourishing multiplyingand
more
Anselm, Abelard, William
students.
them
never
were
of
sim were Champeaux, Hugo of St. Victor,and Peter Lombard ply the most eminent of a host. Students flocked to them in from all parts of Europe. Paris and Oxford large numbers for theology,Bologna for church and civil law, famed were Salerno
for medicine.
sities developed in
a
these
Under manner
which
circumstances
the univer
it is difficult exactlyto date.
of change which they implied was not the establishment had been before,but the association of teaching where none students and teachers into a collective body, after the fashion of a trade guild,primarilyfor protectionand good order, but also for more efficient management and the regulationof ad mission to the teachingprofession. In its educational capacity, such a group often called a studium was generate. The begin nings of universityorganization which must be distinguished of teaching may be placed about from the commencement
The
"
"
the year 1200. By the close of the twelfth two
"universities,"or
dents.
The
for northern
mutual
organizationin
Europe.
century there
were
in
Bologna
protectiveassociations Paris
became
of stu
normal, however,
Its earliest rules date from
about
1208,
THE
268 and
its recognition as
UNIVERSITIES a
III of about
Innocent
legalcorporationfrom In Paris there
1211.
the union
formed by originally versity," and the more private schools into
struction
four
"arts," in which
faculties
the
of the
letterof Pope a
single"uni
of the cathedral school
city,and
divided
preparatory, that
one
"
was
a
for in
the
of
trivium
(grammar, rhetoric,and logic) the quadrivium (astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and and music) were taught; and the three higherfaculties of theology, Over each facultya dean presided. law, and medicine. canon Besides this educational organizationstudents and professors also grouped, for mutual aid, in "nations," each headed were in the several institu by a proctor. These varied in number four the French, the Picards, the tions. In Paris they were Normans, and the English. by lecture and by constant debate, Teaching was principally which, whatever its shortcomings,rendered the stu a method of his knowledge, and dent ready master brought talent to similar to an light. The first degree,that of bachelor, was second admission to apprenticeshipin a guild. The degree, in workman that of master or doctor, resembling the master carried with it full authorityto teach in the institution a guild, for the graduates of the it was where conferred, and soon, to teach anywhere. The use of Latin as largeruniversities, the sole language of the classroom made possiblethe assembly of students from all parts of Europe, and they flocked to the "
famous
more
The
needs
universities in immense of these
students,many
poverty, early aroused '
the
influential and
the
most
was
that formed
in Paris
oldest
by
provided a home dents, under the guidance 1252.
interest
It
known
of whom
were
of extreme
of benefactors.
foundations
Robert and
numbers.
de Sorbon
thus
of
established
(1201-1274) in
specialteaching for
of "fellows"
One
poor
of the house.
stu
Such
"colleges," rapidlymultiplied, shelter to the great majority of students, rich and and gave The system still survives in the English universities. poor. identified with theological the Sorbonne So prominently was instruction that its name to be popularly, came though errone in That uni Paris. the of attached to faculty theology ously, the leader of Europe, as versityranked till the Reformation in the theological studies. especially of which were short-lived, Universities, sprang up many
establishments,soon
as
SCHOOLMEN
GREAT
THE
269
regarded as ecclesiastieal authorization by the Pope being almost essential. The most conspicuousearlylay approval was that of Naples, in 1225, by tli"Emperor Frederick II. great rapidity. In general,they
with
were
"
SECTION
The
HIGH
VII.
of the mendicant
and the devotion versities, ushered
in
tury, and Middle it
as
a
period of Scholasticism
new
The
and
development.
Platonic
series of great
Yet
much
Aristotle,made
much to
Aristotle
met
even
of
use
the
Alexander
mately
a
of Haies
Franciscan, who
of theology in the the Scriptureis to him ment
period of Scholasticism is apparent than in the nominalism realism and ander
was
the mind
a
of
moderate
God, in
a
(?-1245),
of the
theology," opposition,especially the Augustinian Neomuch hostility.A orders, made
mendicant
171, 266).
Englishman
an
taught in Paris, was lightof the whole of the only final truth. broader
due
and
ulti
the treat
Aristotle. With
Yet
this
new
of intellectual interest
range
earlier, though the old problem between continued realist.
re
cen
they, while relyingprimarilyon Plato as reflected in Augustine
the Pseudo-Dionysius (ante,pp.
To
learning,
in the thirteenth
this "modern
adherents
thinkers,all from
his victorysecure. and
without
not
traditionalists
from
toward
movement
called,was
was
orders to
the highestintellectual achievement
marked
Ages.
THEOLOGY
ITS
of Aristotle,the rise of the uni
of the whole
recovery
AND
SCHOLASTICISM
its
pre-eminence.
Universals
exist ante
Alex in
rem
things themselves, and -post rem followed by Albertus this he was
in the
understanding. In Magnus and Aquinas. and a Dominican, Albertus Magnus (1206?-1280), a German studied in Padua, and taught in many places in Germany, but principally in Cologne. He served as provincialpriorfor his order,and was, for a few years, bishop of Regensburg. The learned man of his age, his knowledge of science was most really remarkable. His acquaintance not merely with Aristotle,but with the comments of Arabian scholars,was profounder than in
our
that
of Alexander
piler and
of Hales.
He
was,
however,
a
great
com
originaltheological genius. That which he taught was brought to far clearer ex Aquinas. pressionby his pupil,Thomas commentator
rather
than
an
THOMAS
270
AQUINAS
Thomas
Aquinas (1225?-1274) was a son of Landulf, count about Rome and half-way between Aquino, a small town
of
Connected
Naples.
with
and
staufen
againstthe
was
with the German
Dominican
that
of
imperialhouse
Tancred, the Norman
of Hohen-
Crusader, it
of his parents that Thomas entered the in 1243. His spiritual aware superiorswere
wishes
order
promise,and sent him to Cologne to study under Albertus took his pupil to Paris. On receivingthe Magnus, who soon Thomas returned to Cologne in degree of bachelor of divinity, 1248, and now taught as subordinate to Albertus Magnus. These into were years of rapid intellectual growth. Entrance the Paris facultywas of jealousy long refused him on account of the mendicant orders,but in 1257 he was given full standing there. From 1261 for some years he taught in Italy,then once from 1272, in Naples. He died, on in Paris,and finally, more of Lyons, in 1274. his way In these crowded to the Council of teaching Thomas was constantly consulted on im years active in portant civil and ecclesiastical questions,and was as preaching; yet his pen was busy with results as voluminous was they were important. His great Summa Theologies begun about 1265, and not fullycompleted at his death. Personally he was Intellectually a simple, prayerfulman. deeplyreligious, his work marked and a a. logical was by a clarity, consistency, the few great breadth of presentation that places him among of his
of the church.
teachers has
ceased.
never
1 903)
,
In the Roman
Ms
communion
influence
^Pope_Leo XIIJ (1878JSyldeclaratioji^Qf -is-theJbasis._pj pre_s_ejit_JJieoJogi
in_1 871L_hi a work
instruction .
Closelyassociated with
Aquinas in friendshipand
for
a
time
teaching activities in the Universityof Paris,was John Fidanza Bonaventura. Born in as (1221-1274),generallyknown Bagnorea, in the States of the Church, he entered the Franciscan order in 1238, risingto become A year its "general" in 1257. in
before his death he
was
made
a
cardinal.
Famed
as
a
teacher
in
of for his administration distinguished the Franciscan Much order and for his high character. less influenced by Aristotelian than Aquinas, he was an especially the Neo-Platonic teachingsof Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius. He was a essentially mystic. By meditation and prayer one rise into that union with God which brings the highest may knowledge of divine truth. Yet, though a mystic, Bonaven-
Paris,he
was
even
more
272
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
and
"spirit."The
and
will.
and
enjoyment
soul of
his natural
a
Man's
It is immaterial. As
of God.
is
man
intellect unit,possessing highestgood is the vision
created originally
had, in
man
superadded giftwhich en abled him to seek that highestgood and practisethe three Christian virtues lost by faith,hope, and love. This Adam sin,which also corrupted his natural powers, so that his state became but a posi not merely a lack of original righteousness, Sin is,therefore,more lower aims. tive turning toward than merely negative. In this fallen state it was impossiblefor this corruptionwas Adam transmitted to to please God, and still has the power all his posterity. Man to attain the four natural virtues,prudence, justice, and self-control; courage, but of temporal these, though bringing a certain measure honor and happiness,are not sufficient to enable their possessor addition
to
a
powers,
"
attain the vision of God.
to
restoration is possibleonly through the free and
Man's
merited sins
of
grace
God, by
forgiven,and
infused.
No
act
power
of his
which
to can
man's
practisethe win
of Christ
could
God
it. That a
won
love.
was
choose, and involved
work
merit
which
and
wisest
whole
man's
a
virtues
redemption
reward.
developed and
Anselm
"
efficient method
most
satisfaction for man's
deserves
thus
Aquinas
the
three Christian
differed from
"
work
changed, his
this grace. While God could sins and granted grace without
conceivablyhave forgivenman's here Aquinas the sacrifice of Christ the
is
nature
un
is based
sin,and
It also
combined
moves
on
Christ men
to
views
presented Christ's satisfaction superabounds by Anselm and Abelard. man's sin,and the reward which Christ cannot personallyre to the advantage ceive,since as God He needs nothing,comes Christ does for men what of His human brethren. they can not
do for themselves.
Once now
redeemed, however, the good works
enables
to
man
do
deserve
has power of the Gospel
(ante,p. 103). He
tion,of which
the chief would
now
monastic can
add
of Christ
by
to
fulfilnot
life. He his mite and
the grace
the
can
not
and
that
receive
a
only the precepts
God's
reward.
but
grace
Man
the counsels
of supereroga be the faithful fulfilment of the can
merely
do works
fit himself
for heaven
; he
the treasury of the superabundant merits saints. Yet all this is made possibleonly
to
of God.
Aquinas
thus
finds
full
room
for the
piety
mediaeval
dominating conceptionsof
two
273
THEOLOGY
AQUIXAS'S
and
grace
"
merit. does
Grace
not
Here
alone.
of definition than
all sacred
that
actions
placed five in
were
Peter this
Whether
seven.
The
sacraments
ancient
Abelard
and
of St. Victor
the
defined
Lombard
clearly category
sacraments
him
originalwith
reckoningwas
feeling
stillalive in the
was
conspicuously sacramental
more
a
others, and
than
has its
are
previouslyexisted.
had
century, but Hugo
twelfth
It indiscriminately.
men
the sacraments, and the sacra Scholasticism attained far greater clearness these
definite channels and ments
to
come
as
is still
it at once unsolved problem ; nor was universally accepted. the day. As influence of his Sentences ultimatelywon The an
are Lombard, the sacraments extreme confirmation, the Lord's Supper, penance,
by
enumerated
matrimony. All were through the Apostles,and
ordination, and
directlyor
Christ the head church.
/livery
baptism,
Peter
Without
to
sacrament
in Aristotelian terms
all convey from grace of His mystical body, the
the members
them
there is
no
consists of two of form
and
unction, instituted by Christ,
union
true
elements
matter
with
which
Christ,
are
defined
a
material
(ante,p. 4) "
portion(water,bread,and wine, etc.); and a formula conveying its sacred use ("I baptizethee," etc.). The administrant must have the intention of doing what Christ and the church ap of have, at least in the case pointed,and the recipientmust sincere desire to receive the those of years of discretion, a the sacra These conditions fulfilled, benefit of the sacrament. ment by the fact of its reception that is ex grace conveys "
is the this grace God itselfis the instrumental cause.
operate. Of
opere
sacrament
which
It is the
means
the
by
the virtue of Christ's passionis conveyed to His members. baptism the recipientis regenerated, and originaland
By previouspersonal sins sin is not use
principal cause;
obliterated.
are
Man
pardoned, though the tendency to is now given the grace, if he will
it,to resist sin,and the lost power
virtues.
to
attain the Christian
baptism had become the universal practice, but in the time of Aquinas immersion was stillthe more preva lent form, and had his approval. in The sole recognizedtheory regarding Christ's presence the Supper was that which had been taught by Paschasius Radbertus (ante,p. 211) and Lanfranc (ante,p. 262), and had Infant
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
274
since the firsthalf of the twelfth century
been known
It had
as
transub-
given full dogmatic authorityby the Council in 1215. Fourth Lateran Aquinas but added clear of consecration by the priest of definition. At the words ness of God, so that while the the miracle is wrought by the power "accidents" (shape,taste, and the like)remain unaltered, the is transformed into the very body and blood of "substance" stantiation.
been
Christ. also
accepted (Aquinas body blood
and
and
developed the view that the whole
of Christ
is present in either element. It was with the increasing him, but had grown
originalwith of the laityto partake of the bread only. A withdrawal custom of the cup instigated by the clergy did not take place. The of the cup was rather a layman's practicedue to abandonment fear of dishonoringthe sacrament by misuse of the wine. Such itself as early as the seventh century anxiety had manifested of dippingthe bread in in the adoption of the Greek custom the wine a practicerepeatedlydisapproved by ecclesiastical By the twelfth authority,but supported by lay sentiment. avoiding the use of the wine altogether, century the laitywere apparentlyfirst of all in England. By the time of Aquinas in the bread alone had become prevalent. lay communion Similar considerations led to the generalabandonment by the far from
"
Church, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of the practiceof infant communion, which had been universal,and Western
which
continues
Supper.
of repetition the
the
in need
passion,the
to God, pleasing
on
earth
the present. reach their highestpointin the to
It is the continuation
the evidence of recipient,
rificewell
Church
pietyand worship
Mediaeval Lord's
in the Greek
and
Penance, though
of
source
his union
Him inclining
of the
the incarnation, spiritual upbuilding to
with
Christ,and
to be
a
sac
graciousto those
in purgatory.
not
reckoned
a
sacrament
of
equal dignity
reallyof great, if not baptism or the Lord's Supper, was prime, importance in mediaeval practice. Mediaeval thought regarding the personalreligiouslife centred about the two conceptionsof grace and merit. Baptism effected the forgive of previous sins ; but for those after baptism penance was ness has always been inclined to view The Latin mind necessary. in terms of definite acts rather than as sin and righteousness with
states, and
therefore to look upon
man's
relations to God
under
275
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
the aspects of debt and credit though holding that the only These tendencies basis of credit is the effect of God's grace. than in the scholastic period. They marked more never were "
representedwide-spreadpopular views which the rather than originated. explainedtheologically,
schoolmen
involves four elements, conAccording to Aquinas, penance Contrition Itrit and absolution. is satisfaction, ion,"confession, for the offense againstGod and a determination sincere sorrow
J
not
to
convey
repeat it. Yet grace,
a
penance
that, as all sacraments begun in "attrition,"that is,in fear
Aquinas
holds
by infused grace become a real contrition. Private confession to the priesthad made gradual progress since its advocacy by the old British missionaries (ante,p. 197). of opinion that a true con Abelard and Peter Lombard were without priestly followed by divine forgiveness, trition was even confession, though they thought such confession desirable. The Fourth Lateran Council, in 1215, required confession to of all laymen of age of discretion. the priestat least once a year Alexander of church law. confession thereby became Such and Aquinas gave it more Hales argued its necessity, logical exposition. It must be made to the priestas the physicianof the soul,and include all "deadly" sins the catalogueof which much was now largerthan in the earlychurch (ante,p. 100). Though God forgivesthe eternal punishment of the penitent, of sin. certain temporal penaltiesremain as a consequence This distinction was clearlymade by Abelard and became the These current temporal penalties property of the schoolmen. far as it is in his the offense God sinner's so against satisfy to do so. They also enable him to avoid sin in the future. power They are the "fruits of repentance." It is the business of the which, if not adequate in priestto impose these satisfactions, will be completed in purgatory. this life, for sin,confession,and a willing On evidence thus of sorrow the priest, God's minister or agent, to givesatisfaction, as ness
of
punishment, may
"
absolution.
pronounces
the
Church
guiltyafter
one
was
the
great control of
laitytillthe Reformation, and in the to the present. Without priestlypardon no of baptism of a "deadly" sin has assurance
priesthoodover
Roman
Here, then,
the
salvation. A
great modification
rapidlygrowing in
the
of these
century and
satisfactions a
was,
half before
however,
Aquinas.
A
276
remission of
of all of these
portion or
a
could be obtained.
Such
remission
Bishops had long exercised where
cases
circumstances
services to the church Peter
Damiani
astery
or
a
not
have
were
the
was
rightto
"temporal" penalties an indulgence." in satisfactions abridge "
called
indicated unusual held to deserve
contrition. such
church full
affordingsuch occasions. indulgence system, however.
as
originatedin southern
undisputed,instance
France,
is about
and
the year
Great
consideration.
(1007 ?-1072) regarded giftsof land for
constitute the to
THEOLOGY
AQUINAS'S
These
a
mon
did not
That
seems
the earliest, though Their
1016.
first
II conspicuous employment was by a French Pope, Urban (1088-1099),who promised full indulgenceto all who engaged in the First Crusade, though Pope Alexander II had given similar privileges on a smaller scale for battle againstthe Sara in Spain about Once 1063. cens begun, the system spread with great rapidity. Not only Popes but bishops gave indul constantlyeasier terms. Pilgrimagesto sacred gences, and on placesor at specialtimes, contributions to a good work, such as deemed de a bridge or a road, were buildinga church or even The financial possibilities of the sys servingof such reward. tem were soon perceived and exploited. Since "temporal" included those of purgatory, the value of an indulgence penalties was though undefined, and the tendency to substi enormous, human to which tute it for a real penance nature readily was one responded. Such was the practiceto which Aquinas now gave the classic interpretation.Following Alexander of Hales, he taught that the superabundant merits of Christ and of the saints form a treasury of good works from which a portionmay be transferred to by the authorityof the church, actingthrough its officers, the needy sinner. It can, indeed,avail only for those who are in whole in part, reallycontrite,but for such it removes, or the "temporal" penaltieshere and in purgatory. Indulgences sin. They were amelioration were never a license to commit an of penalties and regretted. justlydue to sins alreadycommitted be no doubt to the But, however interpreted,there can as moral
harmfulness
of the system, of which it was an
or
that it grew
worse
tillthe
Reformation, immediately inducing cause. At their deaths, according to Aquinas, the wicked pass im mediately to hell,which is endless,and from which there is no release.
Those
who
have
made
full
use
of the grace
offered in
the church who
to
once
The
heaven.
of Christians
mass
of imperfectlyavailed themselves of the means in purga undergo a longeror shorter purification
but
have must
grace
at
go
277
SCOTUS
DUNS
1
tory. church
The
is
gatory. ; When
whether
one,
heaven,
when
in pur does one
unity of
the church
earth, or
on
suffers,all suffer
member
one
in
On
well,all share in his good work.
this
;
bases prayers to the saints and for those in purgatory. To be subjectto visible church requiresa visible head.
Aquinas The
for salvation. To the Pope, Pontiff is necessary definitions of faith,and also, belongs the right to issue new the
Roman
Aquinas impliesthe doctrine of papal infallibility. It was Aquinas'sgood fortune that his philosophyand his in the greatest of medi theology alike found a hearty disciple eval poets, Dante (1265-1321),whose Divina CornAlighieri media in these respects,almost wholly in Aquinas's moves, realm of thought. Aojiinaswas_j^nmiriiVa.n, and their natural rivalrysoon drew
his system the criticism of Franciscan scholars, critic was Such of English birth. of whom were a
upon
many
Richard
famons-of (?-1300?); but the most grpn.fpstnf the-schoolmen, w^as-lohn-Huas
of Middletown
all,angLon"-nf
^
spiteof
In been
an
he appears to have Oxford, where he became
Educatedjn Eriglishjnan.
name
teacher, hfi remn'vftd_"Q _Par4S~in-1304. Four lajer the generalof the order sentjiim to Cologne, where
its most years
his
famous
he died justas his work there had be^un. The keejiest-critic ablest diale^jciajXjoLjtlLthe schoolmen, he -attacked arid the
Aquinas^vvith the
the worYof
utmost
He
acumen.
positiona~si authoritative teacher in the
Franciscan
ilar to that of Aquinas in the Dominican,
and
the
rivalriesjof the-Thomists and-Scotists^ontinucd
to
attained order
a
simf
theological
rage-till^the
Reformation.
Aquinas had,
held that
is arbitrar
will.
the
essence
The
did what
of God
will in God He
saw
is being. Xo and man is free.
.to be
right. -To
fact of willing. right by the mere Scotus_what_Godwills_is^ modified realist, .he laid ThoughTTTkeAquinaTTScotus was a
CTiphasisonthe
individual
rather
than
on
the uniyjersal. To
theTncTTvi^ualis the more perfectform. God is absolute Since will,the sacrificeof Christ has the value
Kim
278 which
God
with
say,
had
the
that
"
held that
fit
seen
so
regard it.
to
Christ's death
was
be to limit God's chosen
the way
by
have been suffi Nor
can
the wisest way will. All we can
God.
"
the infusion of grace became contrition. Scotus "attrition" is sufficient by divine appointment to
by
fitness for
secure
other act would
Scotus Similarly, for salvation. Aquinas repentance necessary "attrition" contrition or an fear of punish
demanded
ment
God
would
That
affirm is that it was
minimized
Any
Aquinas, that
of salvation.
has
it.
puts upon
cient for salvation we
SCOTUS
DUNS
pardon.
It is followed
and by forgiveness,
the infusion of grace by which a man is enabled to'do has been pleased to attach merit. certain acts to which God
that
by
The
sacraments
conditions
do
of themselves
not
appointed by
God
convey
but
grace,
the
are
which, if fulfilled, grace
upon
is
bestowed. The
is one
of attitude.'
ment
between
the
difference between
fundamental
most
latter to
Aquinas
Aquinas there could be no theology and philosophy,however To
all the
reach
truths
of the
and Scotus
real
disagree inadequate
former.
To
Duns
in
improbable, yet must theology is philosophically accepted on the authorityof the church. The breakdown had been to show Scholasticism had begun, for its purpose much
dispute which and
Thomists
roused
church
Yet
it "
Scotists
was
doctrine
that
Pius
(1846-1878) in 1854.
IX
radicaHn
Scotus's
was
a
by Pope more
the
loudest controversy between
the
regarding the "immaculate ception" of the Virgin Mary. Aquinas had taught that shared in the original sin of the race. Scotus held that she
free from
of
of Christian truth.
reasonableness The
be
to
was
his divorce
of
orOccam pupil^Wiliiam
be
declared
that
she was
of the
philosophy from theojngy (7=1349?). AnJEnglish
lype, he o"-Ghrist Paris, defendejd_"he-complete-^""er-ty taughtjin mnst
con
parr^st
and
(ante,p. 261), Buffered Pope John XXII Apostles~agajnsjt ijytoo escape_Jn 1328 and Jind refuge with miy Louis of Bavaria^jhgnIn gnarrplwifTT thp Pgpp. Por the rest lifehe defended the indepejgidejijre-^"4he-st^^ qfjhis the
siasticalauthoritywitff the
steadfastness.
utmost
~
"
~~~
dividual
is
objects exist.
Any
purelymental, having no
association in genera
objectivereality. It
Only inor
is
species simply a
ECKHART
280
AND
TAULER
Air ..important ret"F4^euLtatLve of
tin's mystical
spirit
"
Dominican, Mebter-'-LKckhart ^3^1327)^ a, German studied in Paris, served as provincialprior of the Saxon
trict,lived for At
time,. in
a
and Strassburg.
tn
declared
for
his readiness
to
judgment of the church, but two of his teachings wrere condemned true
Neo-Platonic
fashion
real in all thingsis the divine.
In
He
heresy.
opinions to
after his death
years
Eckhart
his
submit
dis
lightin Cologne
th^QS"_oLhis4i"eJ""^
himself
who
the
number
a
In by Pope John XXII. taught that that which is the soul of man is a spark
All individual realityin all men. are izingqualities essentially negative. Man should,therefore, lay them aside. His struggleis to have God born in his soulj
of God.
that
That
is to enter
is the true
into full communion
with
the control of the
and
to
under
come
this effort Christ is the
pattern and
In indwellingGod. Godhead example, in whom
all fulness.
With
soul is filled with
dominant
God
the
dwelt
righteousness.Churchly observances value, but the springsof the mystic life are and
union
with God It is the
eous.
in
may
in
humanity be
of
love some
far
deeper and its direct. Good works do not make right already righteousthat does good works.
more
soul
is all-importantmatter of union with God. privilege Perhaps the most eminent The
that
the
soul enters
of Eckhart's
into its full
was disciples
John
(?-1361), a Dominican
preacher who worked long in Strassburg,of which he was probably a native,in Cologne and in Basel. times in Germany The were peculiarlydifficult. The long contest for the empire between Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria, and papal interferences therein,wrought confusion. The bubonic well as political as religious plague of in England as the "black death/' devas 1348-1349, known tated the population. To his distressed age Tauler was a whose sermons have been widely read preacher of helpfulness, since. In them ever are thoughts,which "evangelical" many Tauler
aroused
claim
the that
admiration he
was
a
of
Luther, and
Protestant
have
before
often
led to
Protestantism.
the He
and condemned emphasized the inward and the vital in religion, His real dependence on external ceremonies and dead works. positionwas that of a follower of Eckhart, with similar mystic emphasis on union with the divine,on "God being born within,"
though
he
avoided
the extreme
statements
which
had
led to
281
MYSTICS
OTHER
of Eckhart's opinions. A less practical churchlycondemnation tendencies of the same but widely influential representative writ the ascetic Dominican, Henry Suso (?-1366), whose was further this mystic point of view. ings did much'to Through these influences a whole group of mystic sympa raised up in southwestern thizers was Germany and Switzerland, called themselves
who
"Friends
of
God."
These
included
and a considerable clergy,but nuns the laymen, Rulman of laity. Among number Merswin, influential. Origi the most of Strassburg (1307-1382), was intimate with Tauler, nally a banker and merchant, he was
only
not
of the
many
all the latter part of his mystifiedhis contemporariesand
views he shared, and life to religious labors. He
devoted
whose
posterityby to
letters and
from
come
a
which
books
"great Friend
he set forth purporting in the
of God"
Highlands (i.e.,
whose existence was long believed real,but now Switzerland), is practically proved to have been a fiction of Merswin himself. the The most important work of these Friends of God was "German Theology," written late in the fourteenth century and unnamed priestof the Deutschby an otherwise unknown Haus
Herrn be
to
of Frankfort, which
printedby
in 1516
him
and
was
to
influence Luther, and
1518.
mystics all leaned stronglytoward pantheism. They all,however, representeda view of the Christian life in a transformingpersonalunion of the its essence which saw soul with God, and they all laid little weight on the more ex ternal methods of ordinarychurchly life. This mystical movement furthered in the Netherlands was influenced by by John of Ruysbroeck (1294-1381), who was of Tauler Eckhart's writingsand enjoyed the personalfriendship of God. and other of the Friends Ruysbroeck's friend,in German
These
turn, who
Gerhard
was
his
upon
Groot
brilliant scholar, the most influ 1374, became
(1340-1384)"
conversion, about
a
A more conserva popular preacher of the Netherlands. much less tive churchly thinker than Ruysbroeck, Groot was of great practicalgifts, radical in his mysticism. A man led shortly after his death the foundation Groot's work to Florentius Radewyn (1350-1400), of the Breth by his disciple,
ential
ren
of the Common
house
Was
Groot's
association,of which the first in Deventer, grew of the union of out
Life.
established
converts
for
a
This
warmer
religiouslife. They grouped
BRETHREN
282
OF
themselves
in houses
all.
houses
COMMON
THE
of brethren
and
LIFE
of
who lived es sisters, life under common a monastic rules,but without per sentially manent exercises,copying books of engaged in religious vows, a nd i n edification, especially teaching. Work was requiredof These
teenth
much
wide-spreadin the Netherlands to promote popular piety in
and
in
the fif
century.
The the
did
and
Germany,
were
of the
Brethren of
Common
Life
non-monastic
were
in
Groot's
preaching led to an influential for those who preferredthe monastic movement life, though it, full form till take his did after not death. This also, shortly foundation the of the famous was monastery of Windesheim, which of affiliatedconvents about it, soon gathered a number and became a reformatory influence of power in the monastic and Germany. In both these move life of the Netherlands the mystic influence was ments stronglypresent, though in a much the immediate more ehurchly form than among disciples matter
vows.
of Eckhart. The
noblest product of this simple,mystical,ehurchly piety is the Imitation of Christ a book the circulation of which has "
exceeded
that
of
other
any
of
product
the
Middle
Ages.
its
Though
authorship has been the theme of heated contro it was unquestionably the work of Thomas a Kempis versy, A of the Brethren the of Common Life (1380?-1471). pupil of his long life was in Deventer, most spent in the monastery St. Agnes, near This of Mount foundation Zwolle. was a of the Windesheim member congregation,of which Thomas's older
brother, John,
outwardly the
was
understood,
as
did
was
most
of the
one
uneventful
founders. conceivable
Thomas's ; but
few
life have
he, the languageof simple,mystical devo
tion to Christ.
The which Such
mysticalmovement broke was
with
that
all
had
its reverse
ehurchly
of Amalrich
and
side in
even
of Bena
all
pantheism moral teaching.
(?-1204),
a
a
teacher
in
led by the writingsof John Scotus Paris, who was Erigena Neo-Platonic (ante,p. 210) and the extreme opinions of the Spanish Mohammedan expositorof Aristotle,Averroes (11261198), to the conclusions that God is all,that He is incarnate in the believer as in Christ, and that the believer cannot sin.
He
also held that
as
the Jewish
law
ished by the coming of Christ, so
and
ritual had
been
abol
that of earlier Christianity
EXTRAVAGANCES
MYSTICAL was
done
now
Amalrich left
Similar
the
coming by Pope
recant
of the
Holy Spirit.
Innocent
III,but he
of followers.
extravagances and
Germany
by
compelled to
was
number
a
with
away
283
the
kept cropping out
Netherlands, where
the
its chief
described had
regionsof mysticism already it was simply ways in the
following. In many It was that mysticism carried to a pantheistic extreme. usu with one believingthat the soul could become ally quietist, God of that union its by contemplation,and in consequence acts could no longer be sinful,since it is controlled by God. and penances, All sacraments even superfluous. prayer, become These
views
united into
not
were
constitute
their holders
a
a
compact
system,
sect, though they have
did
nor
often been
so
the "Brethren and Sisters of the Free regarded and named rather fre Spirit.'1Undoubtedly, however, such notions were quently to be found in monasteries and nunneries,where mys the Beguines, ticism was practisedextravagantly,and among whom not only they brought into doubtful repute. They were but were opposed by the greater repressedby the inquisition, has been given. account an mystic leaders of whom
SECTION
The of
one
IX.
MISSIONS
periodbetween the gainsand losses for
AND
Crusades
and
Christendom.
DEFEATS
the Reformation In
tian forces
was
Spain the Chris against the Mo
struggledwith increasingsuccess hammedans. Gradually,four Christian states dominated in 1085, defeated peninsula. Castile conquered Toledo Moslems
Las
at
Leon
into
both
sides of the
a
Navas
strong
state
de
Tolosa
in 1230.
Pyrenees.
in 1212, and Little Navarre
In the East
the
with
stretched
on
Aragon on the east winning their independence, the peninsula was on power
Portugal on the west were that by 1250 Mohammedan so confined to the kingdom of Granada, whence in 1492. The Spanish Christian kingdoms real power of Spain was not to be manifest and
the
Meanwhile
and
of Ferdinand
united
the
it was
to be driven
were
weak.
The
tillthe
jointreign Aragon in 1479. great Mongol empire, which began with the
Isabella united
conquest of northern
Castile and
China
in 1213, stretched across northern of what is now European Russia between
Asia, conqueringmost 1238 and 1241, and reachingthe borders
of Palestine in 1258.
tral Asia
(ante,p. 149)
was
first rush
of conquest
was
control
till the
be
to
accessible
was
TO
MOSLEMS
nineteenth
Church
annihilated.
almost
central Asia
over,
it had
as
and
AND
Nestorian flourishing
the
this devastation
By
CHINA
TO
MISSIONS
284
century.
About
Polo, made
cen
Yet
after the
under
Mongol
before and
been
never
in
1260
two
not
was
Venetian
the
long journeyby well received by the Mongol land to Peking, where they were Khan, Kublai. Returning in 1269, they started again in 1271, entered the famous Marco, who taking Nicolo's more son, merchants, Nicolo
Khan's
service.
in Venice. John
It
established
for
a
Pope
archbishopwith
had
six
China
return
that the Polos an
Italian
V
were
back
Franciscan,
Peking,where 1300. Christianityflourished (1305-1314) appointed John an
started in 1291
about
Clement
end, however, when
pelledfrom
their
church
a
till 1295
not
Corvino,
he
time.
was
before
Even
of Monte
Maffeo
for
The work came to an bishopsunder him. the Mongols and other foreigners were ex by the victorious native Ming dynasty in
1368. Efforts tle
was
Francis
success.
Egypt
made
were
to reach
the
Mohammedans,
of Assisi himself
preached to
but with the Sultan
lit in
famous as a missionary (ante,p. 258). More Lull (1235?-1315), a native of the island of Ma
in 1219
Raimon
converted in 1266, wholly worldly life he was and now studied Arabic, as a missionarypreparation,writing also his Ars Major, which he intended as an irrefutable demon stration of Christianity.In 1291 he began missionary work He labored in Tunis, only to be expelledat the end of a year. to induce the Pope to establish schools for missionarytraining. His He went to Africa and was more once again driven out. eloquence persuaded the Council of Vienne in 1311 to order teaching in Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, in Avignon, Paris,Salamanca, Bologna, and Oxford, though this remained he went Back to Tunis a missionaryin 1314, as a pious wish. He had and met a martyr's death by stoningthe next year. of mission little to show of missionaryachievement, but much ary inspiration. the loss of The prevailingcharacteristic of this period was
jorca.
once
From
Christian
a
territories.
The
last of the
conquests of the
A passed out of their hands in 1291. Turks. Mohammedan force was new arisingin the Ottoman Sprung from central Asia, they attained an independent posi-
Crusaders
in Palestine
TURKS
THE
OF
SPREAD
285
they invaded the Euro portion of the Eastern empire, capturing Adrianople in pean lands. the Balkan 1361, and graduallyspreadingtheir rule over Con till 1453, when of the empire remained But a fragmeiit The end. at an stantinoplefell and the Eastern empire was victorious
In
in 1300.
tion in Asia Minor
of the Turks
career
1354
them, in the Ref
to carry
was
Europe. Christians ruled by nearly half across them rights,though Christian wor deprived of political were ship and organizationcontinued, under conditions of much oppression. The Greek Church, which had stood higher in cul till the thirteenth century, was ture than the Latin, certainly now largelyrobbed of significance.Its daughter in Russia was not conquered,however, and was growing rapidly in strength and importance. With it lay the future of the Eastern Church. ormation
age,
SECTION
The ended
between
contest
by
PAPACY
THE
X.
quarrelhad involved The later disputeswere
a
ITS
DECLINE
by
empire was
thereafter
one
means
Hildebrand's
far less.
purification.
great question of church
plaincontests for supremacy. Frederick "Barbarossa" (1152-1190),of the house
staufen,was
no
(ante,p. 234). The religious
of Worms
strugglewas
AND
HEIGHT
ITS
and
papacy
the Concordat
interest in the
AT
of the ablest of the
of Hohen-
Holy Roman aspiredto a
Emperors.
similar con Charlemagne, and he trol of churchlyaffairs. A vigorousruler at home, no sovereign In of Germany than he. had been more thoroughly master controlled the he practically of Worms spiteof the Concordat bishops. On the other hand, his appointment of German resistance from the cities of northern claims met with energetic induced by growing strong on the commerce Italy,which were he at first successfully This hostility the Crusades. overcame.
His
With
model
was
Alexander
mounted
III
(1159-1 181) Frederick's
most
The cardinals were papal throne. minority elected a an imperialistic
the
choice,and
called himself
Victor
IV, and whom
bishopspromptly supported.
Frederick
Alexander's
difficult. In 1176, however, Frederick
was
able enemy divided in the
rival and
Pope, who
the German
positionwas long at Legnano
defeated
forced to by the Lombard league of Italian cities,and was Frederick's attempt to control the papacy recognizeAlexander. the German had been shattered,but his authorityover bishops
HENRY
286
II AND
scarcelydiminished.1 the papacy, in 1186, by the heiress of Sicilyand papal states from north
Frederick
was
Alexander II
III
also
THOMAS
BECKET won
a
further
success
over
the
marriage of his son Henry with southern Italy,thus threateningthe
and
won
south. at
least
an
apparent
success
over
of the ablest of
EnglishKings. That the English monarch, in order to strengthen his hold over church, secured the election of his apparentlycomplaisantchan cellor,Thomas Becket, as archbishop of Canterbury, in 1162. Once himself a determined in office, Becket showed upholder of ecclesiastical claims. Henry now, in 1164, secured the en of the Constitutions of Clarendon2, limitingthe right actment of appeal to Rome in ecclesiasticalcases, restricting the power of excommunication, subjectingthe clergyto civil courts, and putting the election of bishops under the control of the King, do homage. Becket to whom now openly broke they must with the King. In 1170 a truce was brought about, but it was of short duration, and a hasty expressionof anger on the part of Henry led to Becket 's murder just at the close of the year. used the deed skilfully.In 1172 Becket Alexander was can Henry
(1154-1 189),one
till the
continued
onized, and
popular of English saints. Constitutions Yet
Reformation
Henry
Clarendon, and do
of
was
forced
penance
of the
one
to
most
abandon
at Becket's
the grave.
in
spiteof this apparent papal victory,Henry continued his control of English ecclesiastical affairs much before. as Frederick He
"Barbarossa"
the Third
Crusade.
(1190-1197),who, in by 1194, obtained full possessionof his wife's inheritance in Sicily and southern Italy,and developed ambitious plans of greatly with both ends of The papacy, extending his imperialsway. in great sovereign,was Italy in the possessionof the German relieved by the early political danger; but the situation was in death of Henry VI in 1197, and the accession to the papacy Innocent III of its ablest mediaeval representatives, 1198 of one was
succeeded
died in 1190, on his son, Henry VI
(1198-1216). "Innocent and
III
piety,but
1See
"Peace
was no
of
of personalhumility unquestionablya man Pope ever had higherconceptionsof the papal
Venice," Henderson,
Select Historical
Documents,
pp.
425-430. 2
Gee
68-73.
and
Hardy,
Documents
Illustrative of English Church
History, pp.
288
THE
AT
PAPACY
ITS
HEIGHT
OF
TOWER
humiliatingsubmission to the Pope, in 1213, but acknowledged his kingdom a fief of the papacy, agreeingto pay a feudal tax marks to the Pope of a thousand annually.1 Yet when the barons and clergy wrung Magna Charta from John in 1215, denounced it as an injuryto his vassal. Innocent Innocent's In the internal affairs of the church policy was He claimed for the the stronglycentralizing. rightof papacy He asserted sole decision in all disputed episcopalelections. authorityto sanction the transfer of bishops from one see to another. His crusade against the Cathari has already been noted
The
(ante,p. 253).
great Fourth
Lateran
Council
of
declared an article of was 1215, at which transubstantiation also was faith,and annual confession and communion required, The
Constantinopleby the Fourth Crusade (ante,p. 243), though not approved by Inno of the Greek Church to promise the subjection to cent, seemed papal authority. reached the summit of its worldly In Innocent III the papacy The succeeding Popes continued the same struggle, power. but with decreasingsuccess. The Emperor Frederick II,ruler of Germany, as well as of northern and southern Italy and of much political abilityand of anything but Sicily,a man mediaeval piety,though put in office largelyby Innocent III, soon proved the chief opponent of the world pretensionsof the Under Gregory IX (1227-1241), the organizerof the papacy. and the patron of the Franciscans (ante, inquisition pp. 254, 258), and Innocent IV (1243-1254) the papal contest was carried on bitterness and with very againstFrederick II,with the utmost Frederick was excommunicated, and rivals worldly weapons. raised up against him in Germany by papal influence. were seemed convinced that only the destruction of the The papacy Hohenstaufen line,to which Frederick belonged,would assure its victory. On Frederick's death in 1250 it pursued his son, Conrad IV (1250-1254), with the same and gave his hostility, of England, heritagein southern Italy and Sicilyto Edmund A new of King Henry III. influence,that of France, was son making itselffelt in papal counsels. Urban IV (1261-1264) was cardinals. He now Frenchman and appointed French a gave, brother Charles of in 1263, southern Italyand Sicily to Anjou, This of King Louis IX of France (1226-1270). was. a turninga
papal triumph.
1
conquest
Henderson,
pp.
of
430-432.
POWER
PAPAL
LIMITING
FORCES
NEW
289
and with it the dependence of the papacy pointin papal politics, also a Frenchman, France reallybegan. The next Pope was on IV Clement Conradin, the (1265-1268). During his papacy of Conrad IV, asserted his hereditary claims to son young He was southern excom Italy and Sicilyby force of arms. municated by Clement IV and defeated by Charles of Anjou, in Naples, in 1268. With beheaded by whose orders he was the line of Hohenstaufen, which the Popes had so him ended to think that strenuouslyopposed, though there is no reason the Pope was responsiblein any way for Conradin's execution. These long quarrels and the consequent confusion had of the Holy Roman Empire. greatly enfeebled the power
Thenceforward,
to
of far more the Reformation, it was a group effective single an sovereignty. It was able
feeble states than to offer little resistance to papal demands.
however, arisingthat would a
world
sovereigntyas
Other
inevitablymake
Innocent
III had
forces were, such impossible,
exercised.
One
such
which caused men nationality, feel that, as Frenchmen or Englishmen, they had common Such the Pope himself. terests against all foreigners, even of unity had not existed in the earlier Middle Ages. sense especiallyin France and England was rapidly developing,
force
was
the
new
of
sense
the latter half of the thirteenth the
rise in
middle
wealth, intelligence,
A
century. and
second
cause
x
to
in a
It in
was
influence of the political
in the cities. These class,especially
\vere
restive under
ecclesiastical interference in temporal affairs. Closely asso the growth of a body of lay ciated with this development was law. These lawyers and the renewed study of the Roman were men graduallydisplacingecclesiastics as royal advisers, and developingthe effectiveness of the royal power by prece the Roman which knew nothing of dents from a body of law mediaeval ecclesiastical conditions. There was also a growing conviction that such thoughtful and religiousmen among had followed were incon worldly aims as the recent papacy "
"
sistent with
the
true
interests of the
growing forces with which of the papacy,
the papacy
must
church. reckon.
These The
were
weak
that it worldly point of view, was had no adequate ph$*icalforces at its disposal. It must bal off one ance competitoragainstanother, and the wreck wrought in Germany left the door open to France without forces which could be matched againsther. ness
from
a
Papal X
VIII
BONIFACE
290
in
interference
(1271-1276) ordered
AND
PHILIP
Germany
the German
THE
continued.
FAIR
Pope Gregory
in 1273, electors,
to choose
King, under threat that the Pope himself would make the appointment if they failed. They chose Rudolf I, of Habsthe concessions to burg (1273-1291), who promptly renewed made which had been once the papacy by Otto IV and Fred a
erick II.
Quite otherwise
it speedilywith France.
was
The
power
of
rapidlygrowing, and in Philip IV, had a King of absolute un"the Fair'' (1285-1314), France obstinacy,and high conceptionsof royal au scrupulousness, held was thority. In Boniface VIII (1294-1303) the papacy there of as loftyaspirations to world-rule as had ever by a man been represented. Neither participantin the strugglecom had arisen between much mands France, sympathy. War Scotland, and England which compelled the English King, Edward I (1272-1307), to rallythe support of all his subjects of the Commons to take a place by invitingthe representatives in Parliament, in 1295, thus giving them a permanent share The in the English national councils. strugglealso induced and England to tax their clergyto meet the Kings of France The its expenses. clergycomplained to Pope Boniface, who, in 1296 issued the bull Clericis laicos,1 excommunica inflicting demanded tion on all who or paid such taxes on clerical prop erty without papal permission. Philiprepliedby prohibiting from France, thus striking the export of money at the revenues The latter moved of the Pope and of the Italian bankers. Boniface to modify his attitude so that the clergycould make allowed that, in great neces voluntary contributions,and even It was the King could lay a tax. a royalvictory. sities, Philip and Boniface Comparative peace prevailedbetween In 1301 the struggleagain began. Philip for a few years. the Pope had had Bernard Saisset,bishop of Pamiers, whom recentlysent to him as nuntius, arrested and charged with The high treason. Pope ordered Bernard's release and cited the French bishops,and ultimatelyKing Philip himself, to Statesthe first French Rome. In reply,Philip summoned were General, in which clergy,nobles, and commoners rep This body, in 1302, sustained the King in his atti resented. tude of resistance. The Pope answered with the famous bull, that
monarchy
1
had
been
Henderson,
pp.
432-434
;
Robinson,
1
:
488-490.
It affirmed
civil powers.
over
acy
of
sanctam,1the high-watermark
Unam
AVIGNON
TO
REMOVES
PAPACY
THE
291
papal claim
that
to suprem
temporal
powers
are
authority,which is judged in the per subjectto the spiritual It declared,followingthe opin of the Pope fby God alone. son ion of Aquinas (ante,p. 277), "that it is altogethernecessary human to salvation for every being to be subjectto the Roman affirmation the exact
pontiff" an "
has led to
of which
scope
with new a subsequent discussion. Philip answered charged with an absurd series assembly, where the Pope was of crimes, involvingheresy and moral depravity,and appeal much
issued for
was
Pope might be
therefore
He
Nogaret,
sent
his
Pope
consent.
to
juristvice-chancellor,William
able
himself
joined to
who
the
force
would
He
threat.
mere
no
the
that this should
determined
Philipwas
be tried.
before which
of the church
generalcouncil
a
Boniface's
ancient
family
Together they gathered a force and about to Boniface made a prisonerin Anagni, just as he was proclaim Philip'sexcommunication, in 1303. Boniface was Sciarra Colonna.
enemy,
him, but
freed
soon
would
He
courageous.
make
friends
His
concessions.
later he died.
month
a
no
temporal claims that Philip's It was of the papacy. not primarily representa tives had held Boniface for a short time a prisoner. A new force had arisen,that of national sentiment, to which the King the spiritual and against which had appealed successfully, had been of little avail. The of the papacy papal weapons in temporal affairs had proved impos hope of world-rulership These
events
were
a
to the
realization.
sible of permanent for the
Worse
staggeringblow
death of Boniface's
follow.
speedilyto
was
papacy
After
the excellent Benedict
successor,
the
XI
(1303de Gouth,
Frenchman, Bertrand of weak who took the title of Clement V (1305-1314). A man moral faults,he was of character and grave fullyunder ness He declared Philip the influence of King PhilipIV, of France. innocent of the attack on Boniface VIII, and cancelled Boni face's interdicts and excommunications, modifying the bull 1304), the cardinals chose
Unam
sanctam
to
please the King.
domination
that
of the seat
of the papacy,
Rhone
"
town
a 1
patent
was
not
a
to
pp.
in 1309, to
435-437
evidence
all the world
belongingindeed
Henderson,
An
;
to
Robinson,
the removal
was
Avignon
"
on
the French 1
:
of French
346-348.
the river
kingdom,
of the
establishment
to the
popularestimate amounting
in
but
Undoubtedly the troubled state of Italian At Avignon something to do with this removal. its seat till 1377 to have a period so nearly was
in France.
papacy
had politics
the papacy equal to the traditional
"
exile of the Jews
Babylonish Captivity.
of the
Nor
to
as
the
was
the
earn
name
of Clement's
cup
King compelled him the cruel destruction of the Templars (ante,p. 242). V's pontificate is interesting marking the con as
humiliation
cold-blooded
yet filled. The
join in
to
LAW
CANON
292
Clement
clusion,to the present, of the official collections of church law.
"canon"
The
their
Middle
famous
was
teacher
of
decisions,the decrees of synods of which collections, Ages had seen many
canon
1241) caused
ing
and
that
of
em
Popes.
the most
gathered, probably in 1148, by Gratian, a law in Bologna. Pope Gregory IX (1227-
officialcollection to be formed, in 1234, includ
an
decrees
new
product
early councils,and
since the
of the historyof the church braced
the
great body of authoritywas
That
or
to
up
his time.
Pope
Boniface
VIII
(1294-
in 1298, and Clement V 1303), published a not pub (1305-1314) enlargedit in 1314, though his work was similar
lished till 1317, under The
addition
his successor,
John
XXII
(1316-1334).
erected through the great structure, thus laboriously
turies,is domains from
a
of ecclesiastical jurisprudenceembracing all
mass
of ecclesiasticallife.
Clement
church
Pius X
V
to
century, the
twentieth
the
officialcollections ceased
Though
creation
in all ages, and the recent (1903-1914), in 1904 ordered the codification and
law
cen
has
of the plification
continued
whole
body
of
law by
canon
a
of
Pope, sim
commis special
sion.
SECTION
XI.
THE
PAPACY THE
The
Popes, while the
Frenchmen.
It seemed
IN SCHISM
papacy
was
if the papacy association caused as
CRITICISM.
AVIGNON,
in
Avignon,
had
become
were a
all
French
greatly increased rest in nations which, lessness in view of papal claims, especially of this like England, were with France at war during much period,or Germany on which the still continuinginterference of the papacy bore hard. The ablest of the Avignon Popes double was (1316-1334). The unquestionably John XXII institution.
This
CRITICS
OF
imperialelection
Germany,
supporters of Louis
between
of Austria.
Frederick
*
in
THE
PAPAL
CLAIMS
in 1314, had the Bavarian
293
divided
that land
(1314-1347), and
John
XXII, supported by King Philip V of France (1316-1322),thought the occasion ripeto diminish German influence in Italyfor the benefit of the States of the He declined to recognize either claimant, and Church.; deq^redthat the Pope had rightto administer the empire during Louis interfered in Italian affairs the Pope When vacancies. him, and
excommunicated
lasted tillLouis's death.
which
issued the famous
tors
confirmed the
by
empire
needs
same
year,
approval
was
that
from
continuation
or
elec
Rense, which
the
no
on
ensued
papacy
the German
of 1338, in
for full entrance
whatever
papacy
declaration
of the
the
In its course
Reichstag in Frankfort
the
head
chosen
with
contest
a
the
in the
duties of his office. These
attacks
the state
upon
aroused of these
considerable
significance.One Alighieri(1265-1321). poet, Dante Monarchy, is not surelydated, but was and
Dante
1318.
It
mankind.
holds
that peace
defenders literary the
was
His
Latin
great Italian
treatise,On
composed between is the
best
of
1311
condition
of
is most
effectivelysecured by an Emperor. The power of empire rightfully It is as neces to Rome. came for man's is to guide temporal happinessas the papacy sary Each is directlyfrom to eternal blessedness. men God, and neither should interfere in the province of the other. Dante the papal interpretation of the Bible carefullycontroverts and
texts
the
state
Dante
was
historical instances were no
based.
on
which
All this is the
free-thinker but
claims more
of theologically
to
control
over
impressivesince most
impeccable
orthodoxy. Much
radical
than
vastly influential on later political theories were several treatises produced in France. The Dominican, John of Paris (1265?-1306), taught that both based the sovereigntyof the papal and royal powers are on people,and neither has a rightto interfere with the sphere of the other. The most important of these works was the Defensor Pacts
more
of Marsilius
(?-1328)~ It
is the
of Padua
Dante, and
"1-1342?)
and
John
of Jandun
modern treatise that the startlingly produced. Its principalauthor, Marsilius, was long a age teacher in Paris,where he was of the university in 1313, rector and was The DefensorPacis regarded as learned in medicine. most
MARSILIUS
294
PADUA
OF
in 1324, in the controversy between Pope John the Emperor Louis the Bavarian. Its radical views
written
was
and
XXII
caused its authors
to
protectionfrom
seek
the
Emperor, which
hesitation,for the rest of their they enjoyed,though with some excommunicated lives. They were in 1327, by John XXII VI declared,in 1343, that he had never and Pope Clement a
heretical book.
worse
According to Marsilius,who was deeply versed in Aristoi the basis of all power is the people; in the state the whole body of citizens ; in the church the whole body of Christian believers. rulers in church and They are the legislative ; by them power state
appointed,and
are
to
them
these
executive
officers
are
responsible.The
only final authority in the church is the of physicalforce New Testament; but priestshave no power sole duty is to teach,warn, to obey it. Their to compel men and reprove. The Testament New teaches that bishops and priestsare equivalentdesignations, yet it is well, as a purely human constitution,to appoint some clergy superintendents This others. over appointment gives no superiorspiritual has nor one bishop spiritual authorityover another, or power, all. Peter had no the Pope over higher rank than the other evidence that he was Apostles. There is no New Testament The New Testament in Rome. to ever gives no countenance the possessionof earthlylordshipsand estates by clergymen. No bishop or Pope has authorityto define Christian truth as contained
in the be
New
Testament,
or
binding laws.
make
done
body of the only by the legislative of Christian believers, church the whole company represented in a generalcouncil. Such a council is the supreme authority
These
acts
can
"
in the
church.
church
are
as
Since the Christian
the Christian
and
state
coterminous, the executive of the Christian state, representinga body of believers,may call councils,appoint
bishops,and
control church fruit in the
to bear
were
Revolution age.
; but
Their
time
silius himself. could
they
Reformation, and
were
too
later,and
was
He
property.1 Here
was
a
Because
of 1
a
zeal which
See, for
some
even
in the French
greatlyto impress their something was lackingin Mar
radical
cool thinker
theory into action largeleadership. translate
ideas that
were
rather
in such
than
fashion
Marsilius lacked, and
extracts,Robinson,
1
:
491-497.
a
man
as
to
who create
of ideas not
THE
296 No cism
PAPAL
TAXES
feature of the Avignon papacy so
Crusades
largelyas had
of money,
been
and
its offensive
contributed
taxation
accompanied by great increase
in
a
of church
much
to its criti
life. The
readier circulation
Europe was passingrapidlyfrom barter to money Money taxes, payments. rather than receiptsin kind, were everywhere increasing. It natural that this cha"ngeshould take place in church ad was ministration also ; but the extent to which taxation was pushed the of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by Popes was a it and much when the removal of the scandal, was aggravated to Avignon largelycut off the revenues from the papal papacy estates in Italy without diminishingthe luxury or expensiveof the papal court. This period saw the extensive devel ness of the annates, opment, in imitation of secular feudal practice, that is a tax of one less,from each new or year'sincome, more appointment. Since the reservation of posts to exclusive papal time immensely extended, this at the same appointment was became of revenue. The income of vacant bene a largesource of papal receipts. Taxes fices, also,became a significant source for bulls and other papal documents, also rose rapidlyin amount and productivity. These were but a portionof the papal exac the impressionthat the papal tions,and the total effect was administration was heavily and increasinglyburdensome on the clergy,and through them the This on people. feelingwas the ruthless in which manner augmented by churchly censures, such as excommunication, were imposed on delinquent tax The seemed extravagant in expenditure and payers. papacy offensive grow
worse
in
a
taxation, and
commerce.
its repute in both
respects
was
to
tillthe Reformation.
The
in Italy,for which the collapseof the imperialpower and the transfer to Avignon, was largelyresponsible, papacy left Italyto the wildest political confusion. Nowhere the was situation
worse
than
in Rome.
In 1347
Cola
di Rienzi
headed
popular revolution against the nobles and established a driven out, but parody of the ancient republic. He was soon in 1354 was in power in the parti again,only to be murdered san struggles.Innocent VI (1352-1362) sent the Spanish car dinal Albornoz (?-1367) as his legateto Italy. By Albornoz's militaryand diplomatic abilities the papal interests in Rome and much V Italy generallywere improved, so that Urban (1362-1370) actually returned to the Eternal City in 1367. a
THE
The
death
in 1370
of Albornoz
the papacy
once
XI
by Gregory (1347-1380) urged
distracted
The
papal
state
interests
ferred the papacy
to
of his chief support, and in Avignon. Urban V was
more
(1370-1378), whom in the
of the to
were
297
deprived him
was
succeeded Siena
SCHISM
of God
name
St. Catherine to return
of
to Rome.
cityalso counselled his presence preserved. Accordingly he trans
be
Rome
in
1377, and
there died the
if
next
year.
The
sudden A
Rome.
turned
to
death
of
found
XI
Gregory
French, and
majority were Avignon. The
Roman
the
would
cardinals
gladly have
re
determined
people were
in
to
in Rome, and to that end to have an Italian keep the papacy Pope. Under conditions of tumult the cardinals chose Bartolommeo Prignano the archbishop of Bari, who took the name Urban nate
VI
(1378-1389). A tactless
French
influence
man,
who
desired to termi
the papacy, and effect some reforms had the hostility of all the cardinals.
over
papal court, he soon They now got together,four in the
months
election,declared their choice void since dictated by mob violence,and elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII (1378-1394).
A
few
months
later Clement
VII
after his
and
his cardinals
were
settled
rival Popes before, but Avignon. There had been many Here two were they had been chosen by different elements. body of cardinals. The Popes, each duly elected by the same objectionthat Urban VI had been chosen out of fear had little force,since the cardinals had recognizedhim without protest for several months; but they had done all they could to undo the choice. Europe saw two Popes, each condemning the in
other. and
There
was
no
power
the several countries
that
followed
could the
one
decide or
between
the other
them, as
their
affinities dictated. The acknowl Roman political Pope was edged by northern and central Italy,the greater part of Ger Scandinavia, and England. To the Pope in Avignon, many, France, Spain, Scotland, Naples, Sicily,and some parts of It was Germany adhered. a fairly equal division. The great schism had begun. Europe was pained and scandalized,while the papal abuses, especially of taxation,were augmented, and Above two be maintained. courts must all,the profound now that the church must be visibly offended. The feeling was one sank enormously in popular regard. papacy In Rome Urban VI was succeeded by Boniface IX (1389-
WYCLIF
298
1404), and he by Innocent VII (1404-1406), who was followed VII was by Gregory XII (1406-1415). In Avignon Clement followed by a Spaniard, Peter de Luna, who took the name Benedict
XIII
(1394-1417). SECTION
The
WYCLIF
has also
been
already working in
the
HUSS
AND
the encroachments
Englishoppositionto
papacy were
XII.
noted
of the
(ante,p. 295).
island.
Of
these
Avignon
Other
that
forces
of Thomas
Bradwardine
of the most (?-1349) was one potent in the in tellectual realm. Bradwardine, who was long an eminent the ologianin Oxford, and died archbishop of Canterbury, was a leader in the revival of the the decline
of
study and Scholasticism,
of
Augustine,which
was
to
marked
in influence till
grow
it
He taught predesti profoundly affected the Reformation. nation in most positiveform; like Augustine,he conceived re of God and the soul, ligionas primarilya personalrelationship and emphasized grace in contrast There were to merit. now,
therefore,other nominalistic
intellectual
Scholasticism
traditions
in the
besides
Oxford
of
those
of later
Wyclif's student
days. John
born in Hipswell in Yorkshire. Wyclif (?-1384) was details of his early life are known. Few He entered Balliol ultimatelyfor a short College,Oxford, of which he became time "master." In Oxford he rose to great scholarlydistinc tion, lecturingto large classes,and esteemed the ablest theo he was in con a realist, logianof its faculty. Philosophically nominalism of his age. He was trast to the prevailing deeply influenced by Augustine, and through Augustine by Platonic known outside of Ox conceptions. Wyclif graduallybecame ford. In 1374 he was presented,by royal appointment, to the rectory of Lutterworth, and the same one year was King's commissioners probably theologicaladviser "
in
"
of the to
at
of Pope Gregory XI Bruges with the representatives an adjustment of the dispute regarding "provisors" (ante, far these appointments were due to the pow p. 295). In how erful son of King Edward III,John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancas ter, is uncertain,though he probably regardedWyclif as likely church to be useful in his designs on property; but Wyclif's if entertained in 1374, cannot then have been widely opinions,
tempt
WYCLIF known.
There
abuses
his trust
299
Pope yet looked on him that his re has shown with distrust,and recent investigation formatory work did not begin in 1366, as formerlysupposed. By 1376, however,it was the wealth of the church and cleri that of the Popes, in political cal interference, life, especially his He lectured that in Oxford that afoused opposition. year On Civil Lordship. Wyclif's view of ecclesiastical office and He was curiouslyfeudal. God is the great overlord. privilege civil and spiritual, fiefs,to be held on as gives all positions, condition of faithful service. They are lordships,not prop erty. God gives the use but not the ownership. If the user loses all claim
is no
evidence
that the
he forfeits his tenure. the
a
bad
ecclesiastic
temporal possessionsof un worthy clergymay well be taken from them by the civil rulers, God has given the lordshipof temporal things,as He to whom has that of thingsspiritual This doctrine,ad to the church. vanced in all simplicity and sincerity, was undoubtedly pleas of nobles who hoped ing to John of Gaunt and his hungry crew less satis for enrichment from church spoliation.It was no who had long been critical of the factoryto many commoners, and often lack of character of the too wealth, pretensions, not to the mendicant orders, who clergy. It was displeasing had always,in theory at least,advocated apostolicpoverty." Wyclif'steachingaroused the oppositionof the high clergy, the property-holding In 1377 he orders, and of the papacy. summoned before the bishop of London, William to answer was Courtenay. The protectionof John of Gaunt and other nobles rendered the proceeding abortive. The same Pope year Gregory XI issued five buj^ orderingWyclif'sarrest and ex amination.1 the protectionof a strong Yet Wyclir"enjoyed popular favor, so that further pro party at court and much ceedingsagainsthim by the archbishopof Canterbury and the frustrated in 1378. bishop of London were Wyclif was now rapidlydevelopinghis reformatoryactivities in a flood of treatises in Latin and English. The Scriptures, he the The church itself is taught,are only law of the church. not, as the common man imagined, centred in the Pope and the cardinals. It is the whole company of the elect. Its only certain head is Christ,since the Pope may be one of the not elect. Wyclif did not rejectthe papacy. The church may to
office,and
Hence
"
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
105-108.
WYCLIF
300
earthlyleader,if such a one is like Peter, and strives for the simple conditions of earlyChristianity.Such a Pope would be presumably one of the elect. But a Pope who worldly power and is eager for taxes is presumptively grasps non-elect,and therefore antichrist. With his deeper knowl attacked the mendicant orders, edge of the Bible, Wyclif now him which had supported in his assertion of apostolic poverty, and the main regardingthem as without Scripturalwarrant He was now pillarsof the existingpapacy. fightingcurrent churchly conditions all along the line. constructive efforts. Con Wyclif now proceeded to more vinced that the Bible is the law of God, Wyclif determined to 1382 and give it to the people in the Englishtongue. Between translated from the Vulgate. What 1384 the Scriptures were is impossibleto say. share Wyclif had in the actual work It has been usuallythought that the New Testament from was well have
an
of Hereford. his pen, and the Old from that of Nicholas At all events, the New translation was Testament vivid,readable, and
forceful,and
did
service of fundamental
importance for the English language to say nothing of English piety. The whole revised about was 1388, possiblyby Wyclif s disciple, John Purvey. Its circulation was large. In spiteof severe and fifty repressionin the next century, at least one hundred manuscripts survive. To bring the Gospel to the peopleWyclif began sending out his "poor priests." In apostolic poverty, barefoot,clad in long two robes, and with staff in the hand, they wandered by two, Franciscan had the earlyWaldensian or as preachers. Unlike Their the latter,they were bound by no permanent vows. a
"
success
great.
was
But
events
lamed
soon
the Lollard
movement,
as
the follow
that the elect ing of Wyclif was popularlycalled. Convinced true are a priesthood,and that all episcopalclaims are unof exclusive human scriptural, Wyclif saw in the priestly power what
he
tacked
deemed
this doctrine have
substantiation.
It
seems
in 1381. been was
was
His
own
main He
buttress of therefore at
of Christ's pres later known as con-
view
that essentially his positiveassertions,but not
attack,however, that aroused substantiation
a
priestlyclaim.
erroneous
to
ence
of transubstantiation
in the miracle
agency
to touch
one
resentment, of the most
for to
oppose
his tran
popularlycherished
WYCLIF.
LOLLARDS
THE
301
Ages. That attaek cost Wyclif many action. followers and roused the churchlyauthorities to renewed This tide of oppositionwas strengthenedby events in 1381, for in no which responsible.The unrest of the Wyclif was way had been growing since the dislocation of lower orders,which of 1348-1350, culminated black death the labor market by the with difficulty in 1381 in a great peasant revolt,which was put This bloody episode strengthened the party of con down. In 1382 the archbishop of Canterbury held a servatism. by which twenty-fourWyclifiteopinionswere synod in London condemned.1 Wyclif was no longerable to lecture in Oxford. He was arrested. His "poor priests"were too strong in popu lar and courtlysupport, however, to be attacked personally, in of his pastorate Lutterworth and he died still possessed on the last day of 1384. that he was No small element in Wyclif s power was thought scholastic equal in contemporary to have no England. Men hesitated to cross intellectual swords with him. Equally con and his his intense deep piety. He patriotism spicuouswere of foreignpapal taxation and voiced the popular resentment Biblical greed, and the popular longing for a simpler,more beliefs of the later Middle
"
"
It
faith.
his misfortune
was
to carry spicuousability out the reignof Richard
he left
that
his work
on
II
in
follower
no
England.
Yet
(1377-1399) the Lollard
of
con
through
movement
of the
usurping house of Henry IV (1399-1413),the King, in the person of Lancaster the pas anxious to placatethe church, was persuaded to secure continued
sage
to
in 1401
of Lollards
number
in
highlaystation. their most
Cobham,
De
of the statute
a
der him
the accession
With
grow.
a
man
dition and
his son,
so
conspicuousleader,Sir John Oldcastle,Lord whom of the sternest religious tra principles,
dramatic
license
into
rebellion,and
figureof executed
of Lollard y significance political in England was in continued at an end, though adherents secret tillthe Reformation. Wyclif's chief influence was to be in 1417.
in Bohemia
Bohemia cal
With
his death
into the
transformed
condemned, driven
FalstafT,was
which
Henry IV spared Lollards Henry V (1413-1422). Un
burned.
were
Not
hasreticocomburendo,2under
rather had
and
in the land
undergone
development
'Gee
than
the
Hardy,
a
remarkable
in the fourteenth pp.
108-110.
of his birth.
intellectual and
century.
The
Holy
politi Roman
-Ibid.,pp. 133-135.
BOHEMIA.
302
Emperor, Charles IV and
(1346-1378)
for that land.
did much
HUSS
JOHN
also
was
he secured
In 1344
of Bohemia,
King
the establish
of
Bohemia from ec releasing Prague as an archbishopric, clesiastical dependence on Mainz. Four years later he procured of a universityin Prague. In no the foundation country of largelya landholder,or the clergy Europe was the church more Charles IV was not unfriendly more worldlythan in Bohemia. reform. to moral During and followinghis reign a series of preachersof power stirred Bohemia, attackingthe seculariza ment
tion of the church.
Such
Milicz
(?-1374), Matthias
of Kremsier
were
Conrad
of Waldhausen of Janov
(?-1369), (?-1394), and
Stitny (1331-1401). These all opposed clerical cor ruption,emphasized the Scripturesas the rule of life,and sought a more frequent participationin the Lord's Supper. Milicz and Matthias at hand, and taught that antichrist was in an manifest had little was unworthy clergy. These men direct influence on Huss, but they stirred Bohemia to a readi to accept his teachings. ness Bohemia was torn, furthermore, by intense rivalrybetween the Germanic and the Slavonic (Czech) elements of the popu lation. The latter was marked by a strong desire for racial of
Thomas
and
supremacy
Bohemian
autonomy.
Curiously,also,Bohemia, England, was brought into the marriage of the Bohemian ard
II, in 1383.
Bohemian
hitherto
so
connection
little associated with with
that
princess,Anna, students
were
to
attracted
country
King to
by
Rich
Oxford,
brought Wyclif s doctrines and writingsinto their native land, especially to the Universityof Prague. The great of Bohemian in be John to Huss, Wyclifism was propagator to have an whom, also, all Czech national aspirationswere and pa ardent advocate. this combination of religious It was triotic zeal that gave Huss his remarkable of leadership. power and
thence
John whence
Huss he
was
derived
completed in the Universityof Prague, where he became of Bachelor of Theology in 1394, and Master Arts two he was ordained to the priest years lateiVr::^n-'1401 hood, still maintaining a teaching connection with the univer Huss had sity,of which he was "rector" in 1402^ Meanwhile become intimately acquainted with Wyclif's philosophical with the "realism" of which he sympathized. Wyetreatises, 1373.
His studies
born, of peasant parentage, in Husinecz, his name by abbreviation,about the year were
lifiteopinionsin to
AT
HUSS
304
them
root
CONSTANCE
by whom protested,and
Bohemia, and Huss
out.
he
commissioned
was
excommunicated
was
The result was by Zbynek in 1410. great popular tumult in than national hero. more ever a Prague, where Huss was In 1412 Alexander V's successor, King Wenzel supported him. (1410-1415), promised indulgenceto all who Pope John XXIII should take part in a crusade againstKing Ladislaus of Naples. Huss opposed,holdingthat the Pope had no rightto use physi cal force,that money payments effected no true forgiveness, the indulgencecould be of no and, unless of the predestinate, value to a man. The result was The Pope's bull an uproar. burned was by the populace. Huss, however, lost many strong supporters in the universityand elsewhere, and was excommunicated, while Prague was more placed under once persuaded Huss, late in 1412, to papal interdict. Wenzel now into exile from Prague. To this period of retirement is go due the composition of his chief work a essentially reproduc tion of Wyclif" the De Ecclesia (On the Church). In 1413 a synod in Rome formallycondemned Wyclif s writings. The great Council of Constance (seep. 308) was approaching, "
in Bohemia
the confusion
and
sideration.
Huss
asked
was
was
to
certain
demand
to
present himself
its
before
con
it,and
promised a "safe-conduct," afterward received, by the Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund. Huss, though he felt his life in to go, partly believingit his duty to peril,determined grave the truth,and partlyconvinced bear witness to what he deemed that he could bring the council to his way of thinking. Shortly he was after his arrival in Constance imprisoned. Sigismund his His Bohemian enemies safe-conduct. promised disregarded On May 4, 1415, the council laid bitter chargesagainsthim. condemned Wyclif, and ordered his long-buriedbody burned. could hope for no favorable hearing. Yet, in the end, Huss the struggleresolved itself into a contest of principles.The council to
maintained
its decisions.
papal sisted was
schism
error.
every
Only by
which
so
the
was
Christian
was
holding could
of heroic Some
accusations
positionshe could He
would
not
not
submit
he
modify
hope
to to
of Christendom.
scandal
The complete submission. mould. He would play no of the
bound it
Bohemian
Huss's
on
science. Other
that
tricks with
declared
false
unless convinced
his conscience
to
submit end
the
It in reformer his
con
charges. of their
the overruling
BOHEMIA
IX
REVOLT
305
judgment of the council. On July 0, 1415, he and burned, meeting his death with the most
condemned
was
steadfast
cour
age.
While
prisoner in Constance his followers in Prague began administeringthe cup to the laityin the Lord's be Supper" an action which Huss approved and which soon the badge of the Hussite movement. The news of Huss's came the utmost death aroused in Bohemia, to which resentment fuel
was
Huss
*vas
added
when
of the cup
a
the Council
by laymen;
and
of Constance
caused
Huss's
Bohemia Prague, to be burned in 1416. Two partiesspeedilydeveloped there an its principalseat in Prague, and known (communion in both bread and wine),and its
use
Jerome disciple,
of
in revolution.
was
aristocratic, having
"
called from
forbade the
the
as a
Utraquists
radical, democratic,
the Taborites. fortress,
The
Utraquistswould forbid only those practiceswhich they deemed prohibitedby the "law of God," i. e., the Bible. They demanded free preaching of the Gospel, the cup for the laity, apostolicpoverty, and strict clerical life. The Taborites re could not be pudiated all practicesfor which express warrant found in the "law of God." Fierce quarrel existed between these factions,but both united to resist repeated crusades directed againstBohemia. Under the leadershipof the blind Taborite general,John Zizka, all attempts to crush the Huss ites were bloodily defeated. Church largely property was confiscated. successful
Great
Nor
after
the
Some
of the
opponents
Zizka 's death
Hussites
Bohemia.
the
were
in
carried the
compromise
1424.
seemed
Under
beyond
war
Hussites
more
Prokop the
the
borders
unavoidable.
The
of
Coun
cil of Basel
(see p. 310), after long negotiation, therefore,met
the
wishes
of the
use
of the cup,
above.
The
and
in 1433, granting the the other demands outlined
Utraquistspart in
Taborites
a
measure
resisted and
way
were
almost
swept away
by the Utraquists,in 1434, at the battle of Lipan, Prokop was killed. The triumphant Utraquistsnow an
with
agreement
terms
were
Yet, in void.
1462
The
Bohemian
the Council
of
Basel, in 1436, and
in which came on
to
these
communion. nominally given place in the Roman Pope Pius II (1458-1464) declared this agreement Utraquists,nevertheless,held their own, and the
Parliament, in 1485
equalitywith
the Catholics.
and
1512, declared
At the Reformation
a
their full considera-
ble
portionwelcomed
the
ideas ; others then returned to
newer
the were representativesof Wyclifite principles of the general rather than the Utraquists. Out
real
The
Taborites Hussite
with
movement,
ites there
from
grew,
much
absorbed
about
that
the
became
elements
most
was
from
drawn
rather than
quists,and Waldenses,
and
HUSS
Church.
the Roman
pp.
AND
WYCLIF
306
Taborites,Utra
from exclusively
1453, the
Unitas
the Tabor
Fratrum, which
vital in the Hussite
movement, of the later Moravians (see
ancestor spiritual
502, 503).
Wyclif
and
styledforerunners of the designationis true if regard is had to their have
Huss
Reformation.
The
often been
protest againstthe corruptionof the church, their exaltation of the
their contribution
Bible, and
the
to
total of
sum
agita
their doctrines When ultimatelyresulted in reform. to belong rather to the examined, however, they appear are Middle Ages. Their conception of the Gospel was that of a "law." Their no place for faith was greater than in the Their thought of the church was communion. Roman a one sided development of Augustinianism. Their conception of the relation of the clergy to property is that common to the tion that
and
Waldenses
founders
the
of the
deep admiration, but in pointsof agreement with
Their
commands earnestness religious spiteof Luther's recognitionof many
owed
Huss, the Reformation
XIII.
SECTION
The
papal schism
termination ment
not
was
that
was
no
is answerable. must
and
THE
was
easy.
power
Yet
the
good
little to their efforts.
COUNCILS
REFORMING
scandal The
of
be
"
desired
fications
were
moral
were as
and
yet unwished
Wyclif might proclaim them esteemed
a
heretic.
Foremost
develop
to which the papacy on everywhere felt that the schism
earth
ended, and that the church must members" that is, in the papacy
forms
Christendom, but its
logic of mediaeval
exists men
orders.
great mendicant
be reformed
and
clergy.
in head The
re
Doctrinal modi
administrative.
by Christendom in England, but among
"
as
he
a was
whole.
A
generally
set themselves
those who
the teachers of to the task of healingthe schism were seriously the age, especially those of the Universityof Paris. Marsilius of
Padua
had there
proclaimedthe
supremacy
of
a
generalcoun*
OF
GROWTH cil in his
his arguments
tion rather than
It
conclusion. of
were
1390), who
advised
and
written treatises of 1379 a council,if calling
1380, to
doctor
a
(1320?-
(1364-1380),in unite with other princes
without
necessary,
by
of France
V
King Charles
clearness
of Gelnhausen
law, then in Paris,Conrad
canon
in
necessities of the situa rapidlyleadingto the same
presented first with
was
307
The
of 1324.
DefensorPacis
IDEA
CONCILIA!!
THE
the
of the
consent
Popes. Conrad went no further than to hold that such council was a by the necessities of an anomalous justified in such fashion situation. Conrad's proposal was reinforced, to rob him of the popular credit of its origination, by the as rival
treatise of another
German
scholar
at
the
Universityof
Paris
set forth in 1381. Langenstein (1340?-1397), of healing The thought of a general council as the best means the schism,thus launched,made speedy converts, not only in of Paris,but in the great school of canon law in the University
Heinrich
of
Bologna, and
even
the cardinals.
among
To
call
a
council
however, and the leaders at Paris difficulties, Peter of Ailli (Pierre d'Ailli) (1350-1420)and John Gerson famed for their mastery (Jean Charher de Gerson)(1363-1429),
presented many
of nommalistic
mystics,were vainlymade
tian were
1
theology,and
ranee
withdrew
the latter eminent
among
Chris
for years
the conciliar plan. Efforts to induce the rival Popes to resign.
from
Avignon Pope, without recognizing
slow
to
the
adopt
again in 1408; but its ex elsewhere. By 1408 d'Ailli and slightfollowing Gerson had come to see in a council the only hope, and were supported by Nicholas of Clemanges (1367-1437),a former who had been papal secretary teacher of the Parisian university Roman, ample found
the
in
Avignon
evil
in
The
from
1398
to
1403, and
from
1397
to
of 1405, to whom one great source the general neglectof the Scriptures.
the church
seemed
cardinals of both
Popes
were
now
convinced
of the
necessityof a council. Meeting togetherin Leghorn, in 1408, for such an assembly issued a call in their own names they now m Pisa,to gather on March 25, 1409. There it met with an the heads of the great attendance not only of cardinals, bishops, orders,and leadingabbots,but also of doctors of theologyand canon law, and the representativesof lay sovereigns. Neither its rightfulness. Both were Pope was present or acknowledged declared a deposed. This was practical assertion that the council was Its action,however,was superiorto the papacy.
COUNCILS
308 too
hasty,for
the person
OF
PISA
CONSTANCE
AND
instead of
of the
ascertaining, as proposed new Pope
the cardinals ceptable,
d'Ailli advised, whether would
generallyac Philarges, archbishop
elected Peter
now
be
of
Alexander V (1409-1410). The Milan, who took the name council then dissolved, leaving the question of reform to a future In
council.
respects the situation
some
Council
of Pisa met.
was
than
worse
before
Rome, Naples, and considerable
the
sections
of
Germany clung to Gregory XII. Spain,Portugal,and Scot land supported Benedict XIII. England, France, and some portionsof Germany acknowledged Alexander V. There were three Popes where before there had been two. Yet, though mark of progress. It mismanaged, the Council of Pisa was a had shown that the church was one, and it increased the hope that a better council could end the schism. This assembly had been called by the cardinals. For such invitation history had no precedent. A summons by the Emperor, if possible with the consent of one of the Popes, would be con or more with the practiceof the early church. that end To sonant those supportingthe council idea now labored. The new Holy Roman Emperor-elect,Sigismund (1410convinced of the necessityof a council. He recog 1437), was nized as Pope John XXIII (1410-1415), one of the least worthy of occupants Alexander V
culties with
jointaction to
meet
of that
who office,
in the
Pisan
had
been
chosen
successor
to
Sigismund used John's diffi from him King Ladislaus of Naples, to secure by which Emperor-electand Pope called a council
in Constance
brilliant and
line.
November
on
1, 1414.
There
the most
largelyattended
gathering of the Middle Ages assembled. As in Pisa, it included not only cardinals and of monbishops,but doctors of theology and representatives without votes. archs,though the lay delegateswere Sigismund present in person,
was
John
XXIII
To
this end
To
neutralize
the
hoped he
had
and to
also John
secure
brought
their votes
XXIII.
the indorsement with
him
the council
many
of the council. Italian
bishops.
organizedby "nations,"
English,German, and French, to which the Italians were forced to join as a fourth. Each "nation" had one vote, and one was assigned also to the cardinals. Despairing of the council's approval,John XXIII attempted to disruptits ses sion by flight, in March, 1415. Under Gerson's vigorouslead-
THE
CONSTANCE;
SCHISM
ershipthe council,however, declared
HEALED
309
April 6, 1415, that
on
as
"representingthe Catholic Church militant [it]has its power immediately from Christ,and every one, whatever his position if it be the papal dignityitself, is bound to obey rank, even or it in all those thingswhich pertainto the faith,to the healing of the schism, and to the generalreformation of the Church of On May 29 the council declared John XXIII God."1 deposed. XII 4 On The council had rid the Gregory resigned. July church of two Popes by its successful assertion of its supreme all in the church. It is easy to see authority over why its leaders insisted and p.
martyrdom 304).
Benedict
a
on were
full submission
from
contemporary with
Huss, whose these events
trials
(ante,
XIII
difficult. Sigismund himself, proved more therefore,journeyed to Spain. Benedict he could not persuade and that obstinate pontiffasserted himself tilldeath, to resign, in 1422 or 1423, as the only legitimate Pope. What Sigismund unable to effect with Benedict he accomplished with the was Spanish kingdoms. They and Scotland repudiated Benedict. The Spaniardsjoined the council as a fifth "nation," and, on July 26, 1417, Benedict, or Peter de Luna, as he was once more called,was formallydeposed. The careful action of the coun
cil,in
considerable
no
former
One
the haste in
to
contrast
Pisa, had
made
section of Christendom
it certain that
would
support
the
Popes. main
ministrative
purpose
of the council had
reform.
Here
been
moral
the
and
ad
of the several inter jealousies ests prevented achievement of real importance. The cardinals desired no changes that would materiallylessen their revenue. situation. England Italy,on the whole, profited by the existing had relative self-governmentalready in ecclesiastical affairs, thanks to its Kings. France with England, and at war was indisposedto unite with that land. So it went, with the result that the council finally referred the questionof reforms to the next Pope "in conjunctionwith this holy council or with the that is"each nation was left deputiesof the several nations" the best bargain it could. to make The council enumerated list of subjectsfor reform a discussion,which relate almost entirelyto questionsof appointment, taxation,or administra tion.2 As a reformatoryinstrument the Council of Constance "
1
Robinson, 1
:
511.
*
Ibid.,1
:
513.
AND
CONSTANCE
OF
COUNCILS
310
BASEL
was bitter disappointment. Its one great achievement In November, 1417, the cardinals, that it ended the schism. each nation, elected a Roman from with six representatives
a
was
cardinal,Otto Colonna,
took
He
Pope.
as
the
Martin
name
V
had Christendom more a once single (1417-1431). Roman the In April,1418, the council ended, new head. Pope prom isingto call another in five years, in compliance with the de of the council.1
cree
of Constance
Council
The
was
a
most
ecclesiasti interesting
cal experiment. It secured the transformation of the papacy The absolute into a constitutional monarchy. from an Pope to
was
lated by
church, but
the executive of the
remain
body, meeting legislative
a
at
to be regu
was
frequent intervals
and
in Christendom.
all interests representing
this great constitutional change had really council to meet accomplished. Martin V called the new that
It seemed
been
plague prevented any considerable of The attendance. Pope would gladly have had no more distressed Europe, however (ante, councils. The Hussite wars brought to bear on him that in was p. 305), and such pressure Pavia
in
in
The
1423.
January, 1431, Martin and
summoned
V
it.
Less
than
months
two
in
council to meet
Cesarini his
Giuliano
appointed Cardinal
duct
a
later Martin
V
Basel,
legateto was
dead
con
and
Pope. The council opened in Eugene IV (1431-1447) was Eugene ordered it adjourned,to July, 1431, but in December The council refused,and re-enacted in Bologna in 1433. meet superiorto the Pope. the declaration of Constance that it was the Thus, almost from the first,bad feelingexisted between be Mindful that jealousies Council of Basel and the papacy. had frustrated the reform plans in Constance, "nations" tween the council rejectedsuch groupings,and instead organizedfour largecommittees, on reform,doctrine,publicpeace, and general questions.It began its work with great vigor and promise of apparent reconciliation with the moder unity seemed re ate Hussites in 1433 (ante,p. 305). Roman stored. The Pope found little support and, before the close It made
success.
of 1433, assured. The
and
formally recognizedthe council.
Council
moral
an
of Basel
reforms
now
which 1
proceededto had
Its future
those administrative
failed of achievement
Robinson,
1
:
512.
seemed
at
Con-
FAILURE
312
OF
COUNCIL
THE
OF
BASEL
priestlymarriage, while the disputedfilioque clause of the creed was acknowledged by the Greeks, though add with the understanding that they would it to the not ancient symbol. Mark, the vigorousarchbishopof Ephesus, re fused agreement, but the Emperor and most of his ecclesiastical followingapproved, and the reunion of the two churches was joyfullyproclaimed in July, 1439. An event so happy greatly increased the prestigeof Pope Eugene IV. The hollowness of worship
of
the
and
achievement
not
was
at
apparent.
once
Reunions
with
Armenians, and with certain groups of Monophysites and also announced in Florence Nestorians, were or speedilyafter
the
the
council.
the occasion
The of
reconciliation of the Armenians famous
a
trine of the sacraments. On
opposed.
were
the
hero
of the
cardinal,had
papal bull definingthe Yet
the Greeks'
hour.
from
in 1439 mediaeval
the first the Oriental
return
Mark
Bessarion, whom he
of
Ephesus Eugene had
was
doc
monks became made
have
a
distin
to was a fly to Italy,where and ecclesiastical effi of literary service. No guished career cient militaryhelp came from the West, and the to the Greeks capture of Constantinopleby the Turks in 1453 permanently frustrated those political hopes which had inspiredthe union to
efforts of 1439. Meanwhile action able
under
and
the the
radical majority in Basel proceeded to more leadershipof its only remaining cardinal,the
excellent
but
dictatorial
Louis
d'Allemand
(1380?-
his as Eugene half-monastic Amadeus of Savoy, successor a layman, Duke who took the name Felix V. By this time, however, the Coun cil of Basel was fast losingits remaining influence. Eugene IV had won, and was succeeded in Rome by Nicholas V (1447The in 1449. 1455). Felix V laid down his impossiblepapacy council put the best face on its defeat by choosing Nicholas V his successor, and ended its troubled career. Though the coun cil idea stilllived and was to be powerful in the Reformation reallyruined the hope of trans age, the fiasco in Basel had forming the papacy into a constitutional monarchy or of effect ing needed reform through conciliar action. Yet if the council thus failed,individual nations profitedby its quarrelwith the papacy, notably France, where the mon archy was coming into new through effective resistance power to England under impulses initiated by Joan of Arc (1410?-
1450).
In 1439
it voted
IV
deposed, and
chose
BARGAINS
NATIONAL
313
1431). In 1438 King Charles VII (1422-1461),with the clergy of Bourges, by and nobles,adopted the "pragmatic sanction" the greater part of the reforms France enacted into law for France. which
from
-had
freedom
previousto
not
a
little to
the Reformation
with
do
in Basel
therefore
secured
and
pressingpapal taxes
the most
attempted
were
relief
and this interferences,
the
attitude of the land
age.
Germany. There the nobles in the of 1439 adopted an "acceptation" much Reichstag in Mainz resemblingthe French "pragmatic sanction"; but the divisions of the country gave room to papal intrigue, and weakness so Concordat limited the that its provisions were by practically Certain privileges of Aschaffenburgof 1448. were granted to princes;but Germany, as a whole, remained under particular the weight of the papal taxation. Throughout the periodof the councils a new force was mani festingitself that of nationality.The Council of Constance It had authorized the nations to make had voted by nations. had dealt with its religious Bohemia with the papacy. terms had asserted its national rights. France situation as a nation. With the failure of the councils Germany had tried to do so. to effect administrative reform, men began asking whether what they had sought might not be secured by national action. It to increase till the Reformation, and was a feelingthat was of that struggle. greatlyto influence the course Not
fortunate
so
was
"
XIV.
SECTION
The
most
THE
ITALIAN
outlook cedents. were
not
the
has
It is
treated
coming
uncharacterized
trol of the church
was
be
by
never
POPES
contemporary was
with
the be
great alteration in mental
That
too
to
ITS
Avignon and the schism
in
Renaissance.
been
AND
intellectual event
remarkable
the story of the papacy
ginning of
RENAISSANCE
often
as
without
recognizedthat
mediaeval the Middle
individual
that the initiative,
such
make
as
to
ante
Ages con
other-worldliness
of Latin wholly dominant, and that the literarymonuments The revival of Roman at least, were widely known. antiquity, law had begun contemporaneously with the Crusades, and had feature of attracted increasingattention to that normative ancient thought,firstin Italyand later in France and Germany. Yet when it remains true that all these elements are recognized,
OF
RISE
314
THE
the Renaissance
involved
world, in which
emphasis
and
satisfaction
on
hell,and
and
heaven
"
man
an was as man
on
RENAISSANCE outlook
new essentially
laid man
on "
as
an
its present rather than
object of
the
on
life,beauty, on
future
a
salvation
or
of
was by which this transformation wrought reappreciationof the spiritof classical antiquity,espe was a ciallyas manifested in its great literarymonuments. first found Renaissance The place in Italy. Its rise was which three,at least,were favored by many influences, among conspicuous. The two great dominating powers of the Middle and empire, were suddenly lamed, as far as Ages, the papacy Italywas concerned, by the collapseof the imperialpower in the
loss.
The
means
latter part of the thirteenth century and to Avignon earlyin the fourteenth. pacy
the removal The
commerce
of the pa of It
aly,fostered by the Crusades and continuingafter their close, had led to a higher cultural development in the peninsulathan intense division of Italian politics in Europe. The elsewhere elsewhere existent,ren to the cities a qualityof life not gave dering local recognitionof talent easy, and tending to empha size individualism. The
earliest Italian
in whom
force
Petrarch
dominating Avignon, and
was
the
Renaissance
spiritwas (1304-1374). Brought up
a
in
in the orders, his real interest was revival of Latin literature, especiallythe writingsof Cicero. he was the of letters, A diligent student, and above all a man in clerical
Scho and a figureof international influence. princes, lasticism he despised. Aristotle he condemned. Though really however in feeling, religious lacking in practice,his point of
friend of
view
was
very
unlike
the mediaeval.
He
had,
that
moreover,
vanity and profound seriousness,that egotistical worship of form rather than of substance which were
lack
of
characteristic
of much
of Italian
humanism;
but
he
that to
be
aroused
world-outlook. antiquityand a new Boccaccio Petrarch's friend and disciple (1313-1375), now was remembered for his Decameron, but greatlyinfluential in chiefly his own age in promoting the study of Greek, in unlocking the mysteriesof classical mythology, and in furtheringhumanistic studies in Florence and Naples. Greek have died out in southern never Italy,but its may humanistic cultivation began when, in 1360, Boccaccio brought About 1397 Greek Leontius Pilatus to Florence. was taught, men
to
a
new
interest in
city,by government of the same and translated Homer Chrysoloras (1355?-1415), who The Council of Ferrara and Florence (1438-1439) (ante,
the auspices of the
under Manuel Plato. p.
315
RENAISSANCE
THE
311) greatlyfostered this desire and
by bringing Greeks
the East
to
Latins
of
the treasures
master
together.
Bessarion
To the influence of (ante,p. 312) thenceforth aided the work. this Plethon (1355-1450),another Greek attendant Gemistos on due the founding of the Platonic Academy, reunion council,was de' Medici about 1442, by Cosimo (1389-1464), the real ruler There
of Florence.
later,under the Ficino,who became with his
pursued ardently, study of Plato was leadershipof Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499). combined earnest an Christianity a priest, the
platonicenthusiasm.
He
believed
a
return
to the Chris
feelingnot shared by the majority of Italian humanists, but to be profoundly influential beyond the Alps, as propagated by his admirers, Jacques Le Fevre in France and John Colet in England. Colet, tian
the
sources
in turn, transmitted Pico della Mirandola
knowledge
of the time
chief need
Almost
it to Erasmus.
(1463-1494), whose
of the Kabala
were
to
a
"
as
influential
zeal for Hebrew
influence
was
and
Reuchlin.
developed by Lorenzo Valla (1405of the Donation of Constantine 1457), who exposed the falsity (ante,p. 204) about 1440, and denied the composition of the Apostles'Creed by the Apostles. He criticised the rightfulness Historical
of monastic
criticism
vows,
was
and
laid the foundation
of New
Testament
comparison of the Vulgate with the Greek. that the An examination of the dates just given will show in full development before in Italywas Renaissance movement the fall of Constantinople,in 1453. By the middle of the fif teenth century it was dominating the educated class in Italy. of indiffer In general,its attitude toward the church was one It revived widely a pagan ence. point of view, and sought to reproducethe life of antiquityin its vices as well as its virtues. Few periodsin the world's historyhave been so boastfully cor studies,in 1444, by
rupt
as
a
that of the Italian Renaissance.
given wings by a great in that of printing from movable 1440-1450 vention, about Mainz or Strassburg,in Germany, or Haarlem type. Whether in Holland was of learned dispute. is stilla matter its birthplace The art spread with rapidity, and not only rendered the posses The
Renaissance
movement
was
"
sion of the
manv
the
books
which
had
heretofore
been
the
PATRONS
POPES
THE
316
property of the few, but, from made
thirtythousand
than
mention
No
of the Renaissance
Beginnings of
to
art.
in
Italybefore
RENAISSANCE
of copies, multiplication
the
indestructible. More learningpractically issued before 1500. publicationswere
results of
the
THE
OF
Giotto" (1267?-!337), and
was
Era
fail to note
things had
better
its influence
could
its services
been
made, indeed, felt. Cimabue (1240?-1302?), Angelico (1387-1455) belong to
is their work. With as pre-Renaissanceepoch, remarkable Masaccio (1402-1429), Filippo Lippi (1406-1469), Botticelli (1444-1510), and Ghirlandajo (1449-1494), painting advanced through truer knowledge of perspective,greater anatomical and more effective grouping to the full noonday of accuracy, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), a Raphael Sanzio a (1483their 1520), a Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), and mighty associates. Sculpture received a similar impulse in the
the work
of Ghiberti
while architecture
Donatello
(1378-1455), and transformed
was
Bramante
(1444?-1514), and of these great artists, however
Brunelleschi
by Michelangelo. classical in
(1386-1466) ; (1379-1446), of the work
Most
motive,
wrought
was
in the service of the church. The
conspicuousearly seat of the Italian Renaissance cities. With the Florence,though it was influential in many
was
most
of Nicholas
(1447-1455), it found, for the first time, became mighty patron in the head of the church, and Rome
papacy a
its chief home.
To
due.
next
was
took
the
The name
manism,
and
V
him
the foundation
Pope, Alfonso
Calixtus
III
of the Vatican
library Spaniard, who
Borgia, a
(1455-1458), was
no
friend of hu
intent on earnestlythough fruitlessly, a crusade that should drive the Turks from the recentlycon quered Constantinople. In Enea Silvio Piccolomini,who ruled as
In
Pius II
was
(1458-1464), the
papacy
had
a
remarkable
earlylife a supporter
at the Council
of the conciliar movement, of Basel, he had won distinction as
occupant. and
a
active
humanistic
writer of decidedlyunclerical tone. Reconciled to Eugene IV, he became cardinal,and ultimatelyPope, now a opposing all the conciliar views that he had once supported,and forbidding future appealsto a generalcouncil. His efforts to stir Europe
againstthe Turks were unavailing. Yet, in spiteof his chang ing and self-seeking attitude,he had the most worthy concep tion of the duties of the papal office of any Pope of the latter half of the fifteenth century. The succeedingPopes, tillafter
THE the
of the
dawn
PRINCES
ITALIAN
AS
POPES
Reformation,
artists,great builders who
were
adorned
317
patrons of letters and and
Rome
felt the full
the Renaissance.
impulse of Meanwhile
a
change had
the ideals and
stay in Avignon and
The
of the papacy.
over
come
the schism
ambitions had
ren
impossible. distracted by the contests of the people of Rome, They were and especially by the rivalries of the noble houses, notably and the Orsini. those of the Colonna Italy had gradually consolidated iijtofive large states, Venice, Milan, Florence, it was called, as Naples, or the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, smaller territories and the States of the Church, though many remained outside these largergroups, and were objectsof con of Italy became effort to The politics test. a kaleidoscopic and to match of the larger extend the possessions one powers, were murder, and duplicity againstthe other,in which intrigue, employed to an almost unexampled extent. of Italian politicsthe papacy Into this game now fully and the Its increase States consolidate desire to was plunged. Church and of the maintain political independence. Its ambi effective control in the States
dered
tions and
its aims
possiblythe
save
Pope
chosen
at
succeeded, in
a
The
like those of other Italian rulers.
were
secularized
became
papacy
of the Church
tenth
at
other
no
in
period in its history,
(1417-1431), the of Constance, himself a Colonna, Martin
century.
the Council measure,
as
V
papal authorityin restoring
Rome.
not so fortunate, Eugene IV (1431-1447), was in Florence. Nicholas and spent a largepart of his pontificate controlled Rome V (1447-1455),the humanist, effectively and con strengthened the papal authority a policy which was tinued by Calixtus III (1455-1458), Pius II (1458-1464), and Paul II (1464-1471). With Sixtus IV (1471-1484) political He ambition took almost complete control of the papacy. his warred with Florence,he sought to enrich and advance A he aimed to extend the States of the Church. relatives, he built extensively.The Sistine Chapel patron of learning, and his name. All these endeavors requiredmoney, preserves he increased papal taxation and the financial abuses of the
His
successor,
"
curia. that
He
made
into
indulgencesare
an
article of faith the
wide-spreadbelief
available for souls in purgatory by
a
bull
of 1476.1 1
Kidd,
Documents
Illustrative of the Continental
Reformation,p.
3.
POPES
THE
318 The
Pope, Innocent
next
ITALIAN
AS
VIII
PRINCES of weak
(1484-1492),was
notorious
the
and
in which
manner through pliant nature, open the fortunes of his children,his extrava he sought to advance and his sale of offices. He even received a gant expenditures, pensionfrom Sultan Bayazid II for keeping the latter'sbrother and rival,Jem, a prisoner. Innocent's Alexander successor, VI (1492-1503), a nephew of Calixtus III, and a Spaniard without not (Rodrigo Borgia), obtained the papacy bribery, unbridled of of and was considera man a immorality,though His his bas to advance ble political insight. great effort was his daughter,Lucrezia tard children,especially Borgia,by ad vantageous marriages, and his unscrupulous and murderous out a principality Borgia,by aiding him to carve son, Cesare His reign saw of the States of the Church. the beginning of the collapseof Italian independence through the invasion of
of France
Charles VIII
(1483-1498), in 1494, in claim
assert
the
French
King's
Sixtus
IV.
The
Orsini and
the
throne
an
attempt
to
of
Naples. In 1499 Louis XII of France (1498-1515), conquered Milan, and in 1503 Ferdinand the Catholic,of Spain (1479-1516), secured the wretched battleground of French Naples. Italy became and Spanish rivalries. Under the temporal power such circumstances to increase of the papacy achieved not easy ; but the task was was by the warlike of the Popes, Julius II (1503-1513), nephew of most Borgia their
driven
from
Venetian
to
Colonna
reconciled,Cesare
were
Italy,the cities of Romagna the
conquerors,
various
nations
freed
in
from
Europe
leagues,with the result that the French were, for Louis XII se the time, expelledfrom Italy. In this contest cured a parody of a generalcouncil in Pisa, which Pope Julius answered It by callingthe Fifth Lateran Council in Rome. from ordered it 1512 to 1517, and though reforms met were undoubt accomplished nothing of importance. Julius II was and edly a ruler of great talents,who led his soldiers personally, of animated by a desire to strengthenthe temporal power was in
grouped
the papacy, art and
Julius
the
name
tastes
he
a
rather than builder
II
he
to
was
among
succeeded
was
enrich
by
his relatives. the most
Giovanni
As
eminent de'
a
patron of
of the
Medici, who
Popes. took
(1513-1521). With all the artistic and literary of the great Florentine family of which he was a member, Leo
combined
X
a
love of
display and
extravagant
expenditure.
SAVONAROLA
320 His
outlook religious
invasion and
of 1494
Savonarola
was
led to
a
thoroughly mediaeval. The French popular revolution againstthe Medici,
became
now
the real ruler of
Florence, which
city. sought to transform into a penitential of inhabitants. the life was adopted by man}^
A semi-monastic
he
of 1496
seasons
burned.
were
and
1497, masks, indecent books the
For
At
time
being,the
the carnival and
pictures
life of Florence
was
aroused enemies. The radicallychanged. But Savonarola adherents of the deposed Medici hated him, and above all, Pope Alexander VI, whose evil character and misrule Savon him and de The arola denounced. Pope excommunicated manded his punishment. Friends sustained him for a while, but the fickle populace turned against him. In April,1498, he was arrested,cruellytortured,and on May 23 hanged and his Not the least of Alex body burned by the city government. ander VI's crimes his persecution of this preacher of was due death was righteousness, though Savonarola's quite as him much the of to Florentine reaction against to as hostility the Pope.
SECTION
XV.
THE
NEW
POWERS
NATIONAL
The
from 1450 to 1500 saw half-century a remarkable growth in royal authority and national consciousness in the western kingdoms of Europe. France, which had seemed well-nigh with England, from ruined by the long wars 1339 to 1453, with the monarchy greatlystrengthened, of them out came since these struggleshad been immensely destructive to the feudal nobility. Louis XI (1461-1483), by intrigue, and arms,
tyranny, with feudal
aid of commoners, nobilityand secured for the the
not
hitherto
was
able to lead the
possessed. His now
son,
broke crown
Charles
centralized
state
the
an
power
of the
authorityit had
VIII into
(1483-1498), a
career
of for
eign conquest in Italythat was to open a new epoch in Euro and give rise to rivalries that were to determine politics pean the political What background of the whole Reformation age. these Kings had attempted in centralization at home, and in carried yet further by Louis XII (1498conquest abroad, was 1515), and by the brilliant and ambitious Francis I (1515-1547). France was now a strong, centralized monarchy. Its church was largelyunder royal control,and to a considerable degree
THE
POWERS
NATIONAL
NEW
321 "
relieved of the worst papal abuses, thanks to the Pragmatic which grew Sanction" of 14"8 (ante,p. 313) ; and the custom the strengtheningof the monarchy in the fifteenth up with
century that
appeals could be taken from church courts to clerical those of the King. The control of the monarchy over in appointments, clerical taxation, and clerical courts was creased by the "concordat" of 1516 (ante,p. 319), which gave to the Pope in turn desired taxes. By the dawn of the Reforma tion the church In
of France the
Wars
Lancastrians,from
1455
England
of the
the power Parliament
for
been
a
a
in many
of the to
Henry
respects,a
Roses, between
state
church.
Yorkists
and
1485, resulted in the destruction of
high nobilityto
survived.
the power of of Tudor, was
was,
the
advantage of the crown. rule in legalform; but
The
King
VII
(1485-1509), the first of the house
must
greater than that of any English sovereignhad exercised with almost unlimited century, and was
abler absolutism, though in parliamentary form, by his even Henry VIII (1509-1547). The English sovereignshad son, before the Reformation, a large degree of au attained,even and, as in France, the church in thorityin ecclesiasticalaffairs,
England
was
largelynational
at
the close of the fifteenth
cen
tury. This
nationalizing process in ment as Spain,where it was ligiousawakening, which was the the the hold The
was
taking on to
make
of reform,often,though conception
Counter-Reformation
in
nowhere
full develop
the character
that not
so
land
very
a
of
a
re
pattern for
called correctly,
to oppose conception that was Teutonic ideal of revolution,and was ultimatelyable to the allegiance of half of Europe to a purified Church. Roman rise of Spain was the political wonder of the latter part of "
a
the fifteenth century. Aside from the main currents of medi aeval European life,the history of the peninsula had been
a
long crusade to throw off the Mohammedan yoke, which had been in Europe were imposed in 711. Nowhere patriotism and Catholic orthodoxy so interwoven. The strugglehad re sulted, by the thirteenth century, in the restriction of the Moors in the formation to the kingdom of Granada, and of four Christian kingdoms, Castile,Aragon, Portugal,and Na These states varre. limited were weak, and the royal power the feudal A radical when the pros by nobility. change came o f pectiverulership the largerpart of the peninsulawas united,
THE
322 in 1469,
by
the
1479-1516)
with
Under pean
SPANISH
REFORM
marriage of Ferdinand,
heir of
Isabella,heiress of Castile
Aragon (King,
(Queen, 1474-1504).
their jointsovereigntySpain took a new place in Euro life. The disorderlynobles were repressed. The royal
authoritywas Mohammedanism
asserted.
In
1492 The
overcome.
Granada same
was
year
conquered witnessed
and the
discoveryof a new world by Columbus, under Spanish auspices, of very considerable revenue which speedilybecame a source French invasions of Italy led to to the royal treasury. The which locjgedSpain firmly in Naples by Spanish interference, rendered Spanish influence predominant through 1503, and soon out Italy. On Ferdinand's death, in 1516, these great posses sions passed to his grandson, already heir of Austria and the the imperial title as Charles V. Netherlands, and to wear Spain had suddenly become the first power in Europe. Ferdinand The jointsovereigns, and Isabella,devoted them selves no less energetically to the control of the church than to the extension of their temporal authority. The "Spanish awakening" was in no sense unique. It did not differ in prin that had been ciplefrom much attempted elsewhere in the later Middle Ages. No nation with a history like that of Spain could desire doctrinal change. It was intenselydevoted the papacy head. the spiritual to the system of which was in administrative affairs But it believed that papal aggressions should be limited by royal authority,and that an educated, be encour moral, and zealous clergycould,by the same power, It was of the success with aged and maintained. by reason which these results were accomplished that the Spanish awak
ening became
the model
of the "Counter-Reformation."
minded religiously sovereignever ruled than Isabella, and if Ferdinand was primarilya politician, he was the quick to see political advantages of a policythat in subjectionto the crown. would place the Spanish church In 1482 the jointsovereignsforced Pope Sixtus IV to agree to a concordat to the higher ecclesiastical placing nomination The policythus begun was speedily posts in the royalcontrol. extended re by the energeticsovereigns. Papal bulls now courts were quired royal approval for promulgation. Church taxed for the benefit of the state. supervised. The clergywere Ferdinand and Isabella now proceeded to fillthe important stations in the Spanish church not only with men devoted to No
more
conscientious
or
XIMENES
AND
ISABELLA,
FERDINAND,
323
zeal. the royalinterests, but of strenuous pietyand disciplinary but chief of In this effort they had the aid of many men ability, de Cisthem stood Gonzalez (or Francisco) Ximenes among
the Spanish awakening had its (1436-1517),in whom typicalrepresentative. Ximenes went to Rome Born of a familyof the lower nobility, neros
after studies in Alcala and
he showed
in the seat of the papacy, talent business and much
after six years
in church
his return, in 1465,
On
Salamanca.
as
a
great ability
preacher. About diocese by Men-
of the appointed vicar-general doza, then bishop of Siguenza. In the full tide
he
1480
was
Ximenes monk
renounced
now
of the
all his honors
strictest observance.
and
became
Not
recommendation
of
Mendoza,
now
him
in affairs of state
Queen and
science.
confessor
as
these
1492, however,
become
archbishop of
well
worked
Franciscan
In
Toledo, Queen Isabella appointed Ximenes consulted
success
with
content
he adopted the hermit's life. austerities, on
a
of
her as
confessor,and
questionsof
in harmony, and
con
under
was vigorous action a thoroughgoingreform of discipline in the disorderly monasteries of the land. Ximenes's undertaken
their
influence ence,
was
and
increased when, in 1495, on Isabella's insist Mendoza's against his own protests, he became but
archbishopricof Toledo, not only the highest with which the grandecclesiastical post in Spain, but one his Here he maintained of Castile was united. chancellorship ascetic life. Supported by the Queen, he turned all the powers of his high office to rid Spain of unworthy clergyand monks. than a thousand No oppositioncould thwart him, and more in the
successor
monks to
his
are
said to have
The discipline.
left the
moral
peninsularather and
character
than
submit
zeal of the Span
ish
clergywere greatlyimproved. the need of an edu Ximenes, though no great scholar,saw influences in cated clergy. He had encountered Renaissance Rome, and would turn them wholly to the service of the church. In 1498 he founded the Universityof Alcala de Henares, to and which he devoted a largepart of his episcopalrevenues, four professors where he gathered learned men, them among of Greek counted
and seven
Hebrew.
thousand
A
quarter of
a
century later Alcala
Though opposed to general believed that the laity,Ximenes
students.
reading of the Bible by the Scripturesshould be the principal study of the clergy. The
THE
324
noblest
SPANISH of
monument
INQUISITION
this conviction
Polyglot(Alcala Complutum), =
from
1502
in Greek
Testament
and
Complutensian
he directed
on
Latin.
the labor
presentedin He
was
Latin, with the Targum
brew, Greek, and the New
which
Old Testament
The
1517.
to
on
is the
the Pentateuch
The
New
;
Testament
in
To Ximenes printby 1515. belongs the honor, there in Greek, though as Testament fore,of first printingthe New papal permission for publicationcould not be obtained till 1520, the Greek Testament, issued in 1516, by Erasmus, was was
earlier The in his
the market.
on
less attractive side of Ximenes's to willingness
medans. vast
death The
In
use
force for the conversion
affairs of state
service to
character
his firmness
and
Isabella,Ferdinand, and
is to be
seen
of the Moham wisdom
Charles
of
were
V, till his
in 1517.
intellectual
impulse thus inaugurated by
revival
ultimatelyto
a
Francisco
Vittoria
de
of the
led
Ximenes
theology of Aquinas, begun by
(?-1546) in Salamanca, and
continued
the great Roman by Vittoria's disciples, theologiansof the early strugglewith Protestantism, Domingo de Soto (1494-
1560) and Melchior Characteristic
Cano
(1525-1560).
of the
Spanish awakening was the reorganiza tion of the inquisition.The Spanish temper viewed orthodoxy and patriotismas essentially and regarded the mainte one, of their religions nance or relapse by Jews and Mohammedans, as by such of those dissenters as had embraced Christianity, perilsto church and state alike. Accordingly,in 1480, Ferdi nand and Isabella established the inquisition, entirelyunder royalauthority,and with inquisitors appointedby the sovereign. It was this national character that was the distinguishing and led to protests by Pope feature of the Spanish inquisition, Sixtus IV, to which the sovereigns turned deaf ears. Supported by the crown, it speedilybecame a fearful instrument, under the leadershipof Tomas Torquemada (1420-1498). Undoubtedly its value in breaking the independence of the nobles and re it to the the treasury by confiscation commended plenishing but its chief claim to popularfavor was its repres sovereigns, sion of heresy and dissent. Spain had, therefore,at the close of the fifteenth century, the most independent national church of any nation in Europe, in which
a
moral
and
intellectual renewal
"
not
destined
to
be
THE
CONDITION
325
GERMANY
OF
in more was vigorousprogress than elsewhere; permanent and yet a church intenselymediaeval in doctrine and practice, intolerant of all heresy. fiercely "
In
situation
the
Germany
lacked all real unity. The was
by
worn
1438
to
the
in
imperialcrown,
Emperors
The
different.
very
house of
of the Austrian
members
1740, but
was
had
empire theory elective, Habsburg from
as
power
of
possessors
hereditarylands, rather than as holders of imperialau the between thority. Under Frederick III (1440-1493) wars who princesand cities and the disorder of the lower nobility, lived too often by what was reallyhighway robbery,kept the land in a turmoil which the Emperor was powerlessto suppress. their
Matters
1519), and
better
somewhat
were
attempt
an
was
made
to
I
Maximilian
under
(1493-
give stronger central
au
thorityto the empire by frequent meetings of the old feudal court Reichstag, the establishment of an imperial supreme for the (1495), and the division of the empire into districts made better preservationof publicpeace (1512). Efforts were and collect imperialtaxes. These to form an imperialarmy reforms had little vitality.The decisions of the court could not
be enforced
nor
the taxes
collected.
The
Reichstagwas,
days, but it indeed,to play a was a clumsy parliament,meeting in three houses, one of the princes,and imperialelectors,the second of lay and spiritual the third of delegatesfrom the free imperialcities. The lower nobles and the common people had no share in it. The imperialcities were an important element in German life,owning no superiorbut the feeble rule of the Emperor. far from industrious and wealthy, but they were They were and in their government, democratic were thoroughly selfcon seeking as far as the largerinterests of Germany were cerned. Their commercial spiritled them to resist the exac tions of clergyand princesalike. In no the peasantry in a state of country of Europe was in southwestern Germany, where in greater unrest, especially great role in the
surrections occurred serfs
in
were
and
largelyin France.
worse
by
"
a
1476, 1492, 1512, and
condition that had
ants
Their
state
the substitution of the Roman
for slaves
Reformation
passed away had law
been "
The
1513.
a
made
law made
rapidly largely
legalcustoms, by the close fifteenth century they were profoundly disaffected. "
for the old
and
peas
in England,
of the
RIVALRIES
326
Yet
AND
FRANCE
OF
national life as
if German
THE
whole
a
HABSBURGS thus
was
the largerterritories of Germany dissatisfied,
disordered
growing stronger, and developing a kind of semi-independent local This national life in themselves. was notably true of Aus tria,electoral and ducal Saxony, Bavaria, Brandenburg, and of their rulers was and they were The power Hesse. increasing, con beginningto exercise a local authorityin churchly affairs, and of abbots, taxing the bishops trollingthe nomination ecclesiastical jurisdiction. extent clergy,and limitingto some This local territorialchurchmanship had not gone far,but that of the utmost it existed was importance in givinga framework and
Reformation
the
which
was
were
rapidlyto develop when
rejected. witnessed years precedingthe Reformation by the Habsburg rulers of Austria of the utmost for the political background of the Reformation
obedience
was
The
the death
of Charles
Bold, the ambitious
the
heirshipof his Burgundian Her to his daughter, Mary.
Maximilian who
I,
to
seized upper
the
Burgundy,
of
duke
In
1477
Burgundy,
the Nether
that
of Louis
XI
the seeds of
marriages importance
age.
marriage
dissatisfaction sowed
two
territories and
left the lands
Roman
year,
of
with
France,
quarrelbetween
Habsburg line which were largely o f till the politics Europe 1756. to determine Philip,the son and Mary, in turn married Juana, heiress of of Maximilian about that and Isabella of Spain. So it came Ferdinand Philipand Juana's son, Charles, became possessor of Austria, the Netherlands, and the wide-extended Spanish territories in World a largersovereigntythan had Europe and the New the been held by a singleruler since Charlemagne to which heir also added in 1519. Charles V became imperialtitle was the Habsburg line to which he belonged to the rivalrybetween That and the Kings of France. rivalryand the strugglefor reform were to interplaythroughout the Reformation religious age, constantlymodifying each other.
the
Kings
and
of France
the
"
"
SECTION
XVI.
RENAISSANCE NORTH
Though the fifteenth century in Germany versityfoundation into existence between
1409
and
ALPS
THE
OF
was "
INFLUENCES
OTHER
AND
a
less than
no
1506
notable
"
these
new
period of uni twelve coming creations
did
REUCHLIN
328
Vienna, wliere the semi-pagan Latin poet, Conrad Celtes (14591508), enjoyed the patronage of the humanisticallyinclined
By the first decade of the sixteenth was pressinginto the Universities of Basel, century, humanism It also found Tubingen, Ingolstadt,Heidelberg,and Erfurt. cities,notably in patrons in the wealthy commercial many were Nuremberg, Strassburg,and Augsburg. So numerous its sympathizers by the close of the fifteenth century that learned circles were being formed, like the Rhenish Literary Celtes in in the Association,organizedby Mainz, 1491, mem circulated each other's works, and bers of which corresponded, assistance. afforded mutual was By 1500 humanism becoming vital factor in Germany. a humanism German presentedmany types, but was, in gen serious-minded than that of Italy. eral,far less pagan and more sincere chruchmen, anxious to reform Many of its leaders were life. It is to be seen and purifyreligious at its best in its two Reuchlin and Erasmus. famous most representatives, Maximilian
Emperor,
I.
in humble
Born
circumstances,in Pforzheim, in 1455, Johann earlygained local reputationas a Latinist,and was
Reuchlin
of Baden companion to the young son of the margrave 1472. to the University of Paris, about Here, in Paris, he began the study of Greek, instruction in which had been offered In 1477 he received the master's degree in there since 1470. before his graduationhe Even Basel,and there taught Greek. publisheda Latin dictionary(1475-1476). He studied law in much Orleans and Poitiers,and in later life was employed in always primarily judicialpositions;but his interests were scholarly.The service of the count of Wiirttemberg took him in 1482 cities which he visited again and Rome to Florence sent
as
"
in 1490
and
quaintancewith and
At
1498.
Greek
influenced
was
by
(ante,p. 315), and from
acquired
that
Florence, even commanded the
on
his first visit, his
admiration.
scholars
of the
There
Platonic
Pico della Mirandola
strange interest in Kabalistic
ac
he met
Academy
(ante,p. 315) he doctrines
that
Germany. Reuchlin was regarded the ablest Greek scholar of the closingyears of the fifteenth as century in Germany, and his influence in promotion of Greek added
studies
much
to
was
most
Reuchlin and
had
his fame
in
fruitful. the Renaissance
this led him,
desire to return
first of non-Jewish
scholars
to the sources,
in
Germany,
to
ERASMUS make
the Old
understand this labor
"
that
speech to Christian students. the peace-lovingscholar was which
quarrel into will be
many,
dents
studies,and with him
of these Hebrew
reason
The
"
of
treasures
Testament.
the better
might
fruit of twenty years of the publicationin 1506 of a Hebrew grammar Rudimentis Hebraicis unlocked the De which
was
lexicon
and
that he
of Hebrew
profoundstudy
a
329
Lutheran
of the
in
described
treatingof
revolt.
the
Reuchlin
The
bitter
drawn
Ger
all educated immediate
was
by
antece
Protestant.
no
refused approval to the risingReformation, which he wit But he did a service of immense nessed tillhis death in 1522.
He
and his intellectual heir Biblical scholarship, the reformers, to be his grandnephew, that scholar among
importance was
to
PhilipMelanchthon. Desiderius
Erasmus
was
born
of wedlock
out
in
Rotterdam,
Gouda, probably in 1466. The school in Deventer awakened his love of letters (ante,p. 327). His poverty drove him into or
Steyn, but he had no taste for the monastic life,nor for that of the priesthood,to which he was ordained in 1492. By 1495 he wras studying in Paris. The he made him in England, where the helpful 1499 saw year friendshipof John Colet, who directed him toward the study Augustinian monastery
an
of the Bible
and
in
the Fathers.
chieflyin France
and
the
A
few
years
Netherlands,
saw
of studious him
once
labors, more
in
England, in 1505, then followed a three years'sojourn in Italy. In 1509 he again returned to England, and now taught in the University of Cambridge, enjoying the friendshipof many of the most of the kingdom. The years distinguishedmen 1515-1521 V
were
spent for the
in the Netherlands.
where
he
could
principalhome. Europe. Erasmus Greek
who letters, wit and
ample He
may
part in the service of Charles
1521
to his death
facilities for
thus
in 1536
Basel,
publication,was
be called
a
citizen of all
impeccable Latinist. His knowledge of above He rather superficial. of all,a man was,
was
\vas
From
have
his
most
not
touched
an
the
issues of his time
consummate
daring criticism of clergyand civil rulers,and withal was moved by deep sincerity of purpose. that the church of his day was Convinced over laid with superstition, corruption,and error, and that the monastic life was too often ignorantand unworthy, he had yet of expression;set brilliancy
forth
with
ERASMUS
330
wish to break
no
He
too
was
primarilyintellectual
revolution,the
Lutheran
not clear-sighted
too
was
with the church
neither
Hence
side in the
see
to
he
have
of which
excesses
to
that
freelycriticised. sympathy with the He repelledhim. so
the evils of the Roman
strugglethat opened
Church.
in the
latter
has been con him, and his memory and Catholic. His demned by polemic writers, Protestant of that education, return to the sources own thought was of ignorance and immorality Christian truth, and flagellation
part of his life understood
bring the church to purity. To this end he labored. His Handbook of the Christian Soldier of 1502 was a simple,earnest presentationof an unecclesiastical Chris His Praise of Follyof 1509 tianity, largelyStoic in character. the evils of his age in church and state. was a bitingsatire on of 1518 were His Familiar Colloquies witty discussions in which were fastings,pilgrimages,and similar external observances by
merciless
satire would
work of His constructive of his brilliant pen. was the first edition of his the highestimportance. In 1516 came the
butts
Testament, the pioneer publicationof the Greek text, stillinaccessible (ante,p. 324). This for that of Ximenes was followed by a series of the Fathers Jerome, Origen,Basil, was Cyril,Chrysostom, Irenseus,Ambrose, and Augustine, not all Greek
"
wholly from his pen, but all from his impulse, which placed on a new plane,and scholarlyknowledge of earlyChristianity springs profoundly aided a Reformation, the deeper religious of which
Erasmus
vice for the
understood.
never
Christian
much classics,
Erasmus
writers of Greece for the pagan did something more than Erasmus
of Christian To
sources.
In
a
measure,
of the
like that
humanists Yet
rendered
he had
and
a
ser
Italian
Rome.
revive
knowledge a positive theology. expressionthrough a
but the fullest Christianitywas the Mount, of universal, Christ, primarilyin the Sermon on ethical religion, of which the philosophersof an essentially tiquityhad also been bearers. He had little feelingfor the sacramental for the deeply personalelements in religion.A or universal ethical theism, having its highest illustration in little his idea. His way of thinking was to have Christ, was influence on the Reformation on whole, though much as a modern deal of that in and is Socinianism, represented a great ancestor. theology,of which he was thus the spiritual more Though Germany was largelyinfluenced by the Rehim
SERVICE
THE naissance
at
land
other
the
Alps, the
(hnte,p. 324).
In
reforms
and
London.
and
in Oxford
Erasmus
Biblical studies
He
in
Colet
(1467?-1519) the epis
lecturingon
His
influence in
considerable
was
any
stirring impulses were Spain have already been
John
tles of Paul to
same
England
introducingeducational
was
331
sixteenth century than
the
efforts of Ximenes
The
elsewhere. noted
beginning of tfye
beyond
HUMANISM
OF
of the interpretation rejectedall allegorical
turning
(ante,p. 329). criti Scriptures,
clerical celibacy and auricular confession,and desired to better the education and morals of the clergy. As the six humanism teenth century dawned was gaining constantlyin cised
creasingfollowingin England, and 1547)
deemed
was
The
situation
its patron. in France was
King Henry
similar.
The
VIII
(1509-
chief representa
was Jaques Le Fevre, churchlyreformatory humanism active years were of whose of Etaples (1455-1536), most spent of mystical A modest, kindly little man, Paris. in or near on piety,he publisheda Latin translation and commentary merits of denied the justifying in 1512, which Paul's epistles He never good works and held salvation a free giftfrom God.
tive of
a
however, perceived, the
self and a
body
be
Church;
he
but
pupils,destined to most Guillaume Reformation struggle,
of
Guillaume
Meaux;
instrumental
in
Bude, eminent
him
between
gatheredround
of devoted
tion in the
bishop
Roman
difference
fundamental
any
unlike
himself
participa
Briconnet, to be in Greek
founding the College de France;
and
to
Louis
de
Farel, to Berquin, to die a Protestant martyr; and Guillaume be the fieryreformer of French-speakingSwitzerland. the path of reform humanists To all these religious-minded similar. seemed Sound learning,the study and preaching of the Bible and the Fathers, and the correction of ignorance, would make abuses immorality, and glaring administrative the church
what
it should
be.
This
solution
did not
meet
the
rendered an deep needs of the situation; but the humanists led Reformation. for the men They indispensable preparation the discredited later afresh. to study Christian sources They and more natural scholastic theology. They brought in new life methods of exegesis. To a large degree they looked on from another They repre standpoint than the mediaeval. sented from
a
release of the
mediaeval
mind, in
traditionalism.
some
considerable
measure,
PUBLICATION
332
Partlyas
a
OF
THE
result of the Renaissance
BIBLE
emphasis on the sources, invention of printing, the
in consequence of the latter half of the fifteenth century witnessed wide a tion of the Bible in the Vulgate and in translation. but
more
even
than
ninety-twoeditions
1500.
Eighteen
before
1521.
tion of
a
pendent were
editions
The
1477; the whole
New Bible
versions
German
a
Testament ten
In
the
the
published between in printedin Bohemian
made
were
laity,since
its
be
the
1488.
Reformation,
to restrict the
doubt
publica
printingof two 1480
many
the
and
in
inde Psalms The
1507.
If
England had manuscripts of
in circulation.
seemed
use
French
the
saw
Netherlands
times
less
printed
were
printed in
later;1478
No
put forth before
version
was
years
in Italian.
Scriptureswere no printedBible before Wyclif'stranslation were
there
of
Vulgate were
Spanish translation;1471
seven
Efforts
of the
distribu
the
readingof
the Bible
of mediaeval
source
by the
heresies;but
that
with it much increased familiarity the less educated priesthoodand among laymen. Yet among the real question of the influence of this Bible reading is the problem^of Biblical interpretation.The Middle Ages never denied the final authorityof the Bible. Augustine and Aqui the Bible interpreted, nas so however, regarded it. It was the the and the councils the of church. Fathers, teachers, by Should that churchly right to interpretbe denied, there re mained but the voices only the rightof privateinterpretation; from
can
no
Bohemia
and
the mediaeval
sects
which
denied
the inter
pretingauthorityof the church, found no generalresponse as yet. The commanding word had yet to be spoken. The mere reading of the Bible involved no denial of mediaeval ideals. Only when those ideals were rejectedcould the interpreting authoritywhich supported them be denied and the Bible be the support of the newer come conceptionsof salvation and of the church. tantism
as
The was
Bible
was
not
Protestantism
so a
much new
the
cause
of Protes
interpretationof
the
Scriptures. The closingyears of the fifteenth century were, has been as betterment in Spain. No such cor rfeen, a period of religious responding revival of interest in religionis to be traced in France or England; but Germany was undergoing a real and pervasivereligious quickening in the decades immediately pre Its fundamental motive to seems ceding the Reformation.
have
in the
feaiyMuch
been
to increase the
of
sense
GERMANY
IX
UNREST
333
tended
popular life of Germany witchcraft
apprehension.The
delusion,
rapidlyspreading. A bull of VIII in 1484 declared Germany full of witches, Jakob the German and Sprenger and Heinrich inquisitors, Kramer, publishedtheir painfullycelebrated Malleus Malefithat added It was terror to in 1489. a superstition carum less to be shared by the reformers no popular life,and was The from 1490 to than by their Roman opponents. years The Turkish in Germany. 1503 were peril a period of famine has al The social unrest general was becoming threatening. ready been noted (ante,p. 325). All these elements contributed of of the realityand nearness to the development of a sense God. divine judgments, and the need of propitiating an angry Luther's earlyreligious congenialto the spirit experienceswere of this pervasivereligious movement. The religious spiritof Germany at the close of the fifteenth century found expressionin pilgrimages. A few of the more to Rome, went wealthy journeyed to the Holy Land, more that of but the most popular foreignpilgrimage shrine was St. James at Compostella in Spain. German pilgrim shrines made, no were thronged,and great collections of relics were tablyby the Saxon Elector,Frederick the Wise (1486-1525),to be Luther's protector, who placedthem in the castle church, to though by no Pope Innocent
the door
of which
intercession of
Luther
Mary
mother, St. Anna,
was
larlyregarded
a
tions
or
as
was
new,
means
was
was
to
nail his famous
sought, and
more
never
Christ
but littleless valued. strict
judge, to
be
Theses.
was
placated with
The
Mary's popu
satisfac
absolutions.
religious by side with this external and work-trusting the that saw spirit, Germany had not a little of mystic piety, of religion in the relation of the individual soul to God ; essence has been called "non-ecclesiastical and a good deal of what which showed itself not only in simple,serious lives, religion," like that of Luther's father,but in increasing attempts of lay princesto improve the qualityof the clergy,of towns to regu late beggary, to control charitable had foundations, which Yet side
been
in exclusive
vindicate
for
ecclesiastical
hands, and
in various
largershare
in the
ways
to
laymen, as such, a religious life of the community. its claims The active life was asserting against the contemplative. Theology, as such, had largely
lost
its
despised It
was
seething lems
TYPES
CONTRASTED
334
and
hold
by no
with
on
thought,
popular and
humanism, dead
unrest,
unfulfilled
age
to
OF
discredited
supplanted which
vexed
longings.
with
RELIGION
Luther
by was
multitudinous
by
nominalism,
mysticism. to
speak, unsolved
but
one
prob
CONSERVATIVES
AGAINST
HUMANISTS
336
korn, while Reuchlin defended Jewish literature as with slight exceptionsdesirable,urged a fuller knowledge of Hebrew, and substitution of friendlydiscussion with the Jews for the A storm of controversy was the confiscation of their books. accused trial by of heresy and put on result. Reuchlin was the
The
Hochstraten. till 1520, when of the
cates
new
proceedingas an ship,and rallied
to
was
Reuchlin's
support.
circle came, in 1514 and 1517, one of satires ever issued the Letters of Obscure
this humanistic
From the
appealed to Rome, and dragged it was decided The advo against Reuchlin. the whole learning,however, looked upon attack on scholar ignorantand unwarranted case
successful
most
"
Purporting to be written by opponents of Reuchlin and the new learning,they aroused wide-spread ridicule by their and their ignorance,and barbarous Latinity,their triviality, undoubtedly created the impression that the party opposed hostile to learningand progress. Their author to Reuchlin was (1480?-1539?) of ship is still uncertain, but Crotus Rubeanus Dornheim and Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523) certainlyhad parts in it. Hutten, vain, immoral, and quarrelsome, but brilliantly giftedas a writer of prose and verse, and undoubt to Luther to give support of dubious worth was edly patriotic, in the early years of the Reformation The effect movement. Men.
of the storm
raised
Reuchlin
over
unite German
to
was
ists,and to draw a line of cleavagebetween them the Dominicans the most servatives,of whom were It
while this contest
was
against tacular and
an
ecclesiastical
fashion,by
its
monastic
immediate
giganticrevolution Martin
in the
Luther, from of whom
it may profoundly altered
men
a
and
con
a
protest or
spec
recentlyfounded
university,on
response
the
conspicuous.
unusual
no
professorin
historyof
and
heightthat
abuse, made, in
German relativelyinconspicuous
31, 1517, found
few
a
at
was
human
launched
the Christian
October the
most
Church.
is one this protest came, of the be said that the historyof the world
whom
Not a great scholar,an by his work. he moved of a organizeror a politician, men by the power in trust profound religious experience,resultingin unshakable and personalrelations to Him, God, and in direct,immediate which for the brought a confident salvation that left no room was
elaborate hierarchical and sacramental
Ages.
He
spoke to
his countrymen
structures as
one
of the Middle
profoundly of them
LIFE
EARLY
LUTHER'S
337
by virtue of a vivid and compellingfaith,and a courage, physicaland spiritual, he of his race, heroic mould. Yet so largelywas of the most that he is understood with diffi in his virtues and limitations, an Italian,and even or culty,to this day, by a Frenchman Anglo-Saxons have seldom appreciatedthat fulness of sym Protestant speaks patheticadmiration with which a German But whether honored or opposed, none his name. can deny his pre-eminentplace in the historyof the church. born on November Luther was 10, 1483, in Eisleben,where and sympathies,yet aspirations
in
his father
peasant miner.
a
was
above
His
father
simple,unecclesiastical piety. The
of
ambitious
and few
an
son
competence,
to fitting
education
tory schoolingin Luther known The
and
and
birth,where was a
fired with career
he
to
ambition
and
energetic Mansfeld to
After
an
earnest, companionable,and
humanistic
movement
beginningto
a a
give his prepara
Eisenach, Martin
entered the Universityof Erfurt in 1501, where as
were
respect and
won
in the law.
Mansfeld, Magdeburg,
mother
father, more
peasants, removed
most
after Martin's
months
modest
than
them
he
was
music-lovingstudent. be felt in Erfurt
had
rather in the later, him. His interest was littleinfluence upon of the school nominalistic scholastic philosophy,representative of
Occam, though he read fairlywidely in the Latin classics.
of sinfulness which was stronglythat deep sense the ground note of the religious revival of the age in Germany. it necessary of arts in 1505, made His graduation as master He then to begin his specialpreparation in law. was pro and death sudden of the friend a foundly moved, however, by and he therefore broke off from lightning, by a narrow escape his career, and, in deep anxiety for his soul's salvation,en tered the monastery of Augustinian hermits in Erfurt,in July, The 1505. "German congregation" of Augustinians,recently under the Proles (1429-1503), and now reformed by Andreas supervisionof Johann von Staupitz (?-1524), enjoyed deserved at its popular respect and representedmediaeval monasticism best. posi Thoroughly mediaeval,in general,in its theological it and included made of much tion, men some preaching, and who with were sympathetic disposed to mystical piety the deeper religious apprehensionsof Augustine and Bernard. life In the monastic To Staupitz,Luther was much. to owe Luther won ordained to speedy recognition. In 1507 he was
Luther
felt
RELIGIOUS
338
LUTHER'S
the
priesthood.The
next
in
him
saw
year
of his
preparingfor a superiors, universitywhich had been there
command in the
Elector,Frederick
Saxon
DEVELOPMENT
III,"the Wise"
Wittenberg,at
future
the
professorship by the
established
(1486-1525), in 1502.
theology in 1509, but was sent back the same year to Erfurt, possiblyto study for the degree licensed expounder of that great mediaeval of sententiarius, or text-book of theology,the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard (ante, his order On of made memorable business he a journey p. 266). in in Back 1510. to Rome, probably more once Wittenberg, There
he
which
was
graduated bachelor
thenceforth
of
to be his
home, he became
a
doctor
of
the Bible, to lecture on theology in 1512 and began at once tilllate treatingthe Psalms from 1513 to 1515, then Romans in 1516, and thereupon Galatians,Hebrews, and His Titus. practicalabilities were recognizedby his appointment, in 1515, district vicar in charge of eleven monasteries of his order,and as the practiceof preachingin which, from he began, even earlier, he displayedremarkable the first, gifts. In his order he bore of singularpiety,devotion,and monastic the repute of a man zeal.
Yet, in spiteof all monastic soul.
of
peace
His
strenuousness, Luther found no him. of sinfulness overwhelmed
sense
Staupitzhelped him by pointingout that true penitencebegan But not with fear of a punishing God, but with love to God. if Luther could say that Staupitz first opened his eyes to the of his vision was a slow and Gospel,the clarifying gradual proc ess.
Till 1509
Luther
Biel.
and d'Ailli,
Occam,
devoted To
himself
them
to
he
the later
owed
scholastics,
permanently
his
to emphasize the objectivefacts of revelation,and disposition his distrust of reason. opening new Augustine, however, was visions to him by the close of 1509, and leadinghim to a rapidly of Aristotle in theology. toward the dominance growing hostility Augustine'smysticism and emphasis on the salvatorysignifi cance
of the
Anselm
lectured
and on
human
Bernard the Psalms
that salvation is of merit
on
promises,so
life and
a
new
helped
death him.
of Christ
By
the
fascinated him.
time
that
Luther
convinced (1513-1515), he had become relation to God, based not on any work
man's
part, but
that
the redeemed
on
absolute man,
trust
while not
in the
divine
ceasingto
be
and sinner,yet is freelyand fullyforgiven,and from the new in Christ, the new life of willing to God joyous relationship a
339
FAITH
BY
JUSTIFICATION
of a most conformityto God's will flows. It was a re-emphasis not wholly of the Pauline teaching. Yet it was important side* moral To Paul the Christian is primarilya renewed Pauline. being. ;To Luther he is firstof all a forgivensinner ; but Luther, salvation in essence like Paul, made a rightpersonalrelation The ground and the pledge of this rightrelation ship to God. of Christ ship is the mercy of God displayedin the sufferings Christ
behalf.
in man's
has
borne
sins.
our
in turn,
We,
mystics, imputed to us His righteousness.The German that the Luther conclusion to helped especiallyTauler, now this transformingtrust was not, as he had supposed, a work The had a part, but wholly the giftof God. in which a man have
preparatory to his lectures
work
He
intensified these convictions. mon
opinion that God
who
did
what
The basis of any Luther. thus
While
the nature
and
own
conviction
and
even
more
fidence that
the
became
assurance
of
certaintyhe
for
of sal
method
yet secured.
not
was
Pelagian.
overthrown
He
personal certaintyof his own had, with Augustine, denied.
the latter part of his lectures on Romans, of 1516, his con clearlyin the closingmonths
he labored
as
of soul
peace
That justification. Yet
to
com
into those
and
absurd
was
been
as
that the
grace
work-righteousnesshad
the further
needed
infuse infallibly
would
convinced
vation, Luther's
declared
now
in their power
was
(1515-1516) but
Romans
on
on
God-given
of faith involved
nature
conviction.
Thenceforth, in his
personal own
per
Gospel was the forgivenessof sins. It was the soul with peace, joy,and "good news," filling absolute trust in God. It was absolute dependence on the di vine promises,on God's "word." Luther had out a new not, thus far, consciouslyworked vital had of had He a experience. theology. deep, system in be It was to an no squared with experience,however, way sonal experiencethe
much
of current
and
satisfactions
siderations made force of
of the
sum
theories of salvation had
a
Luther
prominent part. a
profound inward
a
institutions which
he
saw
was
a
He
reformer.
about
him.
vital,transforming power,
a
theoretic
No
driven
test the
The be
be
acts, penances,
was
experienceto
nobilityof Luther's experiencecannot universal test may as a applicability faith
in which
by the
beliefs and
profundity and
doubted.
questioned. new
con
and
Yet To
its him
vivifying per-
however, while sincerelyde
sonal relationship.Many men, their and sirous of servingGod of
THESES
NINETY-FIVE
THE
340
have generation,
such
no personalforgiveness,
no
such
soul-stirring depth
of
sense
feeling,
They desire,with God's aid, to do For them "justification the best they can. by faith alone" is intellectual assent an either well-nighmeaningless,or becomes of Luther or truth. To enter into the experience to religious for all. of Paul is by no means possible By 1516 Luther did not stand alone. In the Universityof and Scholasticism to Aristotelianism Wittenberg his opposition much his Biblical theology found and sympathy. His col leagues,Andreas Bodenstein of Karlstadt (1480?-1541), who, childlike trust.
such
no
Aquinas,and his
older
representedthe
Luther, had
unlike
Nikolaus
Amsdorf
von
Scholasticism
of
became
(1483-1565),now
hearty supporters.
In
1517
had
Luther
an
opportunityto apply his
con
new
Pope Leo X had de cided in favor of the claims of Albrecht of Brandenburg to hold of Mainz, the archbishopric time the archbishopric at the same of Magdeburg, and the administration of the bishopricof Halberstadt, an argument moving thereto being a largefinancial To indemnify himself,Albrecht secured as his share payment. half the proceedsin his district of the indulgencesthat the had been issuing,since 1506, for building that new papacy ception of salvation
church
a
of St. Peter which
commissioner
A
to
crying abuse.
of the ornaments
is stillone
for this collection
Johann
was
of Rome.
Tetzel
(1470-
eloquence,who, intent on the largestpossiblereturns, painted the benefits of indulgences terms.1 To in the crassest Luther, convinced that only a rightpersonal relation with God would bring salvation,such teaching seemed destructive of real religion.As Tetzel ap allowed to enter electoral Saxonynot proached he was Luther preached against the abuse of indulgences and, on 1519),
Dominican
a
monk
of
"
31, 1517, posted on
October
church, in the universitybulletin board, his the door
of the castle
Wittenberg,which served as memorable ever Ninety-fiveTheses.2 Viewed 1
in
See extracts
themselves, it in
Kidd, Documents
may
well be
Illustrative
wondered
why
the
of the Continental Reforma
12-20.
tion,pp. 2 Kidd, pp. 21-26 Works, pp. 6-14. ^
;
English tr.,Wace
and
Buchheim,
Luther's
Primary
THE
CONTROVERSY
WIDENS
341
Ninety-fiveThesesproved the spark which kindled the ex intended for academic debate. They do plosion.They were not deny the rightof the Pope to grant indulgences.They questionthe extension of indulgencesto purgatory, and make of current evident the abuses teaching abuses which they imply the Pope will repudiate when informed. Yet though the full round of Luther's thought, they are far from expressing evident in them certain principles which, if developed, are would be revolutionaryof the churchly practiceof the day. The habit of mind. Repentance is not an act, but a life-long The true treasury of the church is God's forgivinggrace. Christian seeks rather than avoids divine discipline."Every Christian who feels true compunction has of rightplenary re without letters of pardon." In mission of pain and guilt, even of the utmost event the restlesscondition of Germany it was an if humble, religious leader had that a respected, significance spoken boldly againsta great abuse, and the Theses ran the length and breadth of the empire. Tetzel answered the excitement. Luther had not anticipated stirred Konrad at once,1 and Wimpina (?-1531) to make the able and disputa formidable opponent was reply. A more of theologyin tious Johann Maier of Eck (1486-1543),professor who answered with a tract circu the Universityof Ingolstadt, Luther was lated in manuscript and entitled Obelwci. charged "In his positionin a sermon with heresy. He defended on By the beginning dulgence and Grace" ;2 he repliedto Eck. had been lodged in Rome of 1518, complaintsagainstLuther The by Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and the Dominicans. ordered result was that the generalof the Augustinians was summoned before the the dispute and Luther was to end generalchapterof the order met in Heidelberg,in April. There Luther argued againstfree will and the control of Aristotle in of the most one adherents, of whom new theology and won Martin Butzer (Bucer). At about the same important was time Luther elaborate defense of his position put forth a more the Resolutiones. on indulgences, Luther He seems had desired no quarrelwith the papacy. believed that the Pope might see the abuses of indul to have he did, but the course of events was as leadingto no gences the sturdy maintenance of his views or submission. choice save "
*
Kidd, pp. 30, 31.
2
Ibid.,p.
29.
CAJETANUS
AND
342
LUTHER
In
June, 1518, Pope Leo X issued and
in Rome,
commissioned of
Silvestro Mazzolini
can
position. The
Luther's
his
a
citation to Luther of
censor
books, the Domini
Prierio,to draw and
summons
to appear
opinion on opinion reached
up
the
an
early in August. Prierio asserted that "the Roman the collegeof cardinals,and more Church is representatively and that "He the supreme who says is virtually over pontiff," Church do what it actuallydoes regard that the Roman cannot 1 Luther's case would apparently ing indulgencesis a heretic." had he not had the in his condemnation have speedilyended powerful protectionof his prince,the Elector Frederick, "the In how far Frederick sympathized with Luther's relig Wise." Luther
of controversy; ious beliefs at any time is a matter and he was events proud of his Wittenberg professor, almost
an
certain
in Rome.
condemnation
His
but, at all to
averse
skill political to the papal
court change of hearingfrom the Roman legateat the Reichstag in Augsburg, the learned commentator Vio (1469-1534),known from his on Aquinas, Cardinal Thomas birthplace(Gaeta) as Cajetanus. Cajetanus was a theologian of European repute and seems to have thought the matter ordered Luther his dignity. He rather beneath to retract, of in criticisms of the completenessof papal power especially dulgence. Luther refused,2and, on October 20, fled from Augs burg, having appealed to the Pope "to be better informed."3 satisfied with this,Luther Not appealed from Wittenberg, in little 1518, to a future general council.4 How November, is shown chance of a favorable hearing he had in Rome by the month bull issued the same by Leo X definingindulgencesin
effected
the
a
which
sense
hope
of
Luther
had
criticised.5
Luther
had
real
no
If his courage was great, his danger was condemnation rescued from immediate he was
safety.
less so; but the favorable Meanwhile
turn
the
of
no
by
events. political
of 1518
summer
had
seen
the installation
as
scholar,a native Wittenberg of a young of Bretten and grandnephew of Reuchlin, PhilipMelanchthon in united with Luther to be singularly (1497-1560), who was Greek
professorof
their after work.
in
Never
was
there
a
greater contrast.
Me
without a superior but he was timid and retiring; in scholarship, and under the strong impress of Luther's per-
lanchthon
was
1
Kidd,
"
Ibid.,p. 40.
pp.
31, 32.
2
Ibid.,pp. 33-37.
6
Ibid.,p. 39.
3
Ibid.,pp. 37-39.
GREAT
LUTHER'S
344
TREATISES
Ages, and allowed final appeal only to and the Scriptures, to the Scriptures, interpreted moreover, Eck felt that the individual whole the con judgment. by ended bull be of con speedily by a papal troversy might now of the Middle
system
he
demnation, which issued
Luther ideas
was
von
lead in
a
now,
national
a
ginning to from
see
conflict with
believe normal
of the
who
those sist in
his task
vice of
as
national
a
and
of the natural
be
Protestant
one
who
one
himself
doctrine
of Luther's
thought, as
be
was
was
the
essential
life,and
goodness
denounced must
con
This
vin
life as the best field for the
most
well
could
of salvation
so
human
own
little tract, On Good Works, noblest of all good works" to
occupationsof
works
as
narrowly that they church, fastingor givingalms."2
good
His
redemption of Germany individual Pope, he was
Christ," he affirmed
trades
"limit
His
God, rather than the unnatural
to
was
in
praying in
dication
was
supporters, like
Luther
Rome.
which, rather than the
papacy
"to
which
indeed, in the thick of the battle.
coming to regard as antichrist. bearing largerfruitage. In his of May, 1520, after defining"the be
and
secure
Humanistic rapidlycrystallizing. now Hutten, were rallyingto him
were
Ulrich
to
15, 1520.1
June
on
set himself
now
as
one
limitations of
important
ser
asceticism,
contributions
of his most
partures from ancient and mediaeval Christian Luther's great accomplishment of the year
to
de significant conceptions. 1520
and
his
the preparationof completion of his title to leadershipwere The first of these treatises was three epoch-making works. publishedin August, entitled To the Christian Nobilityof the Ger with burning conviction,by a master Nation.3 Written man of the German the breadth of the empire. ran tongue, it soon walls were overthrown It declared that three Roman by which The had buttressed its power. the papacy pretended superi is baseless,since to the temporal estate orityof the spiritual all believers are priests. That truth of universal priesthood down the second casts wall, that of exclusive papal right to interpretthe Scriptures;and the third wall, also,that a re but the Pope. "A formatory council can be called by none
true, free council" for the reform 1
Kidd,
3
Translated
pp.
17-92.
pp.
2
74-79. in full in Wace
and
of the church
should
Robinson, Readings,
2
:
be
sum-
66-68.
Buchheim's, Luther's Primary Works,
GREAT
LUTHER'S moned
by thp temporal
TREATISES
authorities.
345
Luther
then
proceeded
for reformatory action,his sugges lay down a programme tions being practicalrather than theological.Papal misbe curbed; to government, appointments, and taxation are to
burdensome
offices abolished
;
German
ecclesiastical interests
be
should
placed under a "Primate of Germany" ; clerical mar riagepermitted; the far too numerous holy days reduced in the interest of industry and sobriety;beggary,includingthat of the mendicant orders,forbidden ; brothels closed ; luxury education in the universities reformed. curbed; and theological No wonder the effect of Luther's work was profound. He had had long been thinking. voiced what earnest men Two months later Luther put forth in Latin his Babylonish Captivity of the Church,1in which questionsof the highesttheo handled and the teaching of the Roman logicalimport were Church unsparinglyattacked. The sole value of a sacrament, Luther taught,is its witness to the divine promise. It seals or the God-given pledge of union with Christ and forgive attests of sins. It strengthensfaith. Tried ness by the Scripture standard, there are only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper,though penance has a certain sacramental value works of to baptism. Monastic as a return pilgrimages, vows, substitute for the forgivenessof sins merit, are a man-made freelypromised to faith in baptism. Luther criticised the denial of the cup to the laity, doubted transubstantiation,for which he would substitute a theory of consubstantiation derived from d'Ailli,and especially rejectedthe doctrine that the Supper is a
sacrifice to
God.
The
other
tion,matrimony, orders,and mental
standingin
It is one
able
Roman
confirma
sacraments,
unction, have
extreme
no
Scripture.
of the marvels
of Luther's
stormy
career
and
that he
issue, contemporaneously with and while the papal bull was intenselypolemic treatises, to
compose
sacra
was
these
being publishedin Germany, his third great tractate of 1520, that On Christian Liberty.2In calm confidence he presentedthe para dox of Christian experience: "A Christian is the most man free lord of all,and subjectto none; Christian man is the a dutiful most of all,and subjectto every one." He is servant free,since justified by faith,no longer under the law of works 1 2
Luther's Primary
Ibid.,,pp.
95-137.
Works,
pp.
141-245.
in
and
will of
unmatched
tions of Lutheranism the
BULL
with Christ. He is a servant personalrelationship bound by love to bring his life into conformity to the God and to be helpfulto his neighbor. In this tract,
elsewhere
an
PAPAL
THE
new
because
in
BURNS
LUTHER
346
measure,
evident.
are
the power To Luther
and
the limita
the
of
essence
of sins,wrought through a faith, forgiveness which, as with Paul, is nothing less than a vital,personaltrans of the soul with Christ. It is unquestion forming relationship ably the highest of Christian experiences. Its limitation,as if regarded as the alreadypointed out, is that this experience, is one sole type of true religion, beyond the practicalattain of many To this tract Luther earnest ment men. prefaceda curious document, breath letter to Pope Leo X, which is a most but full of denunciation ing good-willto the Pontiff personally, in which the of the papal court and its claims for the papacy, Pope is representedas "sittinglike a lamb in the midst of wolves." to clarifyhereafter Though Luther's vision was thus prac details,his theological regardingmany system was tically complete in its main outlines by 1520.
Gospel
is the
Meanwhile
Eck
and
Girolamo
Aleander
(1480-1542) had
papal bull,as nuncios,to Germany. In Witten berg its publicationwas refused,and its receptionin largeparts of Germany was lukewarm or hostile,but Aleander secured its publicationin the Netherlands, and procured the burning of Luther's books in Louvain, Liege,Antwerp, and Cologne. On answered December 10, 1520, Luther by burning the papal bull and the canon law, with the approving presence of students and citizens of Wittenberg, and without oppositionfrom the come
with the
civil authorities.
Germany
was
manaded
the
It
was
evident
in ecclesiastical
cognizance of
that
a
considerable
rebellion,and the
the
section of
situation
de-
of
the
highest authorities
empire. On ress,
June the
milian's
imperialelection grandson Charles Austrian
Netherlands, the
burg, master discovered
in prog in the choice of Maxi
was 28, 1519, while the Leipzigdisputation
of
a
resulted
had
(1500-1558). Heir
V
territories of the
considerable
territories
across
the
of
house
portion of Italy,and
Spain, the of Habsof
Atlantic,his election
as
newly Holy
than vaster Emperor made him the head of a territory author that of any singleruler since Charlemagne. It was an ity greatlylimited,however, in Germany by the territorial Roman
WORMS
AT
LUTHER
347
and princes. As yet Charles was young strugglesof the day unknown, and both sides in the religious he was In reality earnest had strong hope of his support. an Roman "Catholic,of the type of his grandmother, Isabella of Castile,sharing her reformatory views, desirous of improve of the
powers
local
in clerical
ment
morals, education, and
administration,but
departurefrom the doctrinal or hierarchical system of the Middle Ages. He had at last come to Germany, and partly to regulatehis government in that the land,partlyto prepare for the war about to break out over and Spain in Italy,had called a Reichs rival claims of France in November, 1520. Though there was tag to meet in Worms
wholly unsympathetic with
any
business,all felt the determination of Luther's case of high importance. The papal nuncio, Aleander, pressedfor after the final papal bull a prompt condemnation, especially other
much
Since Luther issued on January 2, 1521. againstLuther was was by the Pope, the Reichstag had no already condemned effective. duty,Aleander urged,but to make that condemnation had wide popular support, and his On the other hand, Luther ruler,the Elector Frederick the Wise, a master of diplomaticin for Luther, of the opinionthat the con trigue, was, fortunately had an adequate trial. Frederick,and monk had never demned
other nobles,believed that he should be heard before the Reichs the two coun tag previousto action by that body. Between
Emperor wavered, convinced that Luther was a damna senti ble heretic,but politician enough not to oppose German the possibleadvantage of ment too sharply,or to throw away making the heretic's fate a lever in bringingthe Pope to the imperialside in the strugglewith France. sels the
result
The
was
that
Luther
was
summoned
to
Worms
un
protectionof an imperialsafe-conduct. His journey On thither from Wittenberg was well-nigha popular ovation. April17,1521, Luther appeared before the Emperor and Reichs of his books was pointed out to him and he was tag. A row Luther requested them or not. asked whether he would recant time for reflection. A day was given him, and on the next he before the assembly. Here afternoon he was once more acknowledged that,in the heat of controversy, he had expressed but the substance of himself too strongly against persons,
der
what its
the
he had
written
he could
not
wrongfulness by Scripture or
retract, unless convinced
adequate argument.
of The
AT
LUTHER
348
WORMS
Emperor, who could hardly believe that of a generalcouncil deny the infallibility That discussion short. I stand. Here wise. but
not
seems
Luther God
of his unshaken
substance
great historic witness
to
was
temerity as cut possible, do
cried out, "I cannot
help
improbable.
such
The
Amen,"
me,
words
least
at
determination.
the truth
highest tribunal of his nation. had given the completestproof.
is not
He
his dauntless
The
the
other
certain,
expressedthe had
of his convictions Of
to
borne
a
before the courage
he
judgment of his hearers Emperor and the prelates
divided, but if he alienated the by his strong and, as it seemed to them, self-willed assertion,
was
of the German no impressionon many That Frederick. the Elector prince, on bilityand, fortunately, in his de confirmed though he thought Luther too bold, was he
made
a
favorable
that
no
the result seemed
a
termination
harm defeat
should
come
for Luther.
the reformer.
to
A
month
Yet
after Luther
journey he was formallyput under of the mem the ban of the empire,though not tillafter many to be seized for pun bers of the Reichstag had left. He was This ban was and his books burned.1 ishment never formally im of his lifeunder abrogated,and Luther remained the rest perialcondemnation. Had Germany been controlled by a strong central authority Not have would ended in martyrdom. Luther's career soon an even imperialedict,however, could be executed againstthe Frederick the Wise will of a vigorous territorial ruler,and Luther's salvation. out Unwilling to come more proved once afraid to do so, he openly as his defender, perhaps somewhat had Luther seized by friendly hands, as the reformer journeyed to the Wartburg from Worms, and carried secretly homeward Luther's hiding-place Eisenach. For months was Castle,near unknown; but that he lived and shared in the for practically of the strugglehis ready pen made speedilyapparent. tunes the Roman attacks His intense,but the on practicegrew more most lastingfruit of this period of enforced retirement was his translation of the New Testament, begun in December, 1521, Luther and published in September of the followingyear. the first to translate the Scripturesinto Ger was by no means from the Vulgate, but the earlier versions had been made man, awkward and in expression. Luther's work hard and were had
started
on
his homeward
1
Kidd, Documents,
pp.
79-89.
mus
basis,it
the
gave
the form
determined
that
literature "
and
the
from mereljj
not
was
THE
TRANSLATES
LUTHER
polishedby
idiomatic
Saxon of
master
this translation
development
of the
his deference
to the
largely
future German
mark
"
have
of
was
God,
These
been
ever
of
Word
It
chancery of the time wrought popular expression. Eew services
life religious
of criticism.
readable.
speech that should
of
greater than
canons
and
349
the labors of Eras
Greek, for which
was
of the a
TESTAMENT
NEW
rendered
Nor, with all
nation.
a
Luther
the
to
without
his
own
the relative clearness with
were
of the work of Christ and the method interpretation of salvation by faith is taught. Judged by these standards, he felt that Hebrews, James, Jude, and Revelation were of inferior worth. Even in Scriptureitselfthere were differences in value. The month which saw the beginning of Luther's work as a translator witnessed 1521 the publication in December, Wittenberg of a small volume by Melanchthon, the Loci Com meaning Cardinal Points of Theology. With it the munes, systematicpresentationof Lutheran theology may be said to arid modified have begun.1 It was to be enlarged,developed,
which
his
"
"
in many
later editions.
SECTION
SEPARATIONS
II.
DIVISIONS
AND
Luther's sojournin the Wartburg left Wittenberg without
powerful leadership;but to
there
were
not
wanting
the ecclesiasticalrevolution.
continue
ciates in the
To
von
Amsdorf
(1483-1565), there had
and
radical.
Luther
there
many
his earlier
Karlstadt,Melanchthon, university,
and
his
asso
Nikolaus
added, in the first half of the year 1521, Johann Bugenhagen (1485-1558) and Justus Jonas had (1493-1555). Of these,Karlstadt unques but was rash, impulsive, tionablygreatest natural leadership,
worship or
in monastic
had
as
been
yet made
life. Yet
it was
no
changes
in
public
inevitable that demand
for such
Luther's changes should come. fiery fellow monk, Gabriel Zwilling (1487?-! 558), by October, 1521, was de and urgingthe abandonment of clericalvows. nouncing the mass He soon had a largefollowing, especiallyin the Augustinian of which of the inmates now monastery of Wittenberg, many renounced their profession.With equal zeal Zwillingwas soon attackingimages. At Christmas, 1521, Karlstadt celebrated 1
Extracts
in
Kidd, Documents,
pp.
90-94.
350
RADICALISM.
CONSERVATISM
LUTHER'S
Supper in the castle church, without priestlygarb, elevation of the host, and with the cup sacrificial offering, offered to the laity. Auricular confession and fasts were aban doned. Karlstadt taught that all ministers should marry, and, He was in January, 1522, took to himself a wife. soon oppos and the of Gregorian chanting in pictures, ing the use organs, his leadershipthe Wittenberg city public worship. Under government broke up the ancient religiousfraternities and the Lord's
confiscated their property, decreed that the services should be in German, condemned picturesin the churches, and forbad
beggary, orderingthat reallyneedy city treasury. The public commotion
Stiibner.
the
augmented by the radical preachersfrom
was
arrival,on December 27, 1521, of three Nikolaus were Zwickau, chief of whom Thoma
be aided from
cases
claimed
These
men
infant
baptism, and
Storch
and
immediate
Markus
divine
in
prophesiedthe speedy Melanchthon somewhat shaken end of the world. was by their influence in has been them at first, though general exag added to state of a something gerated. They undoubtedly opposed spiration,
turmoil.1
rapidchanges,followed by a popular attack on images, the Wise, and they to Elector Frederick were highlydispleasing drew forth the warning protests of German princesand the im perialauthorities. Though Luther was to further,within the of the changes which Karlstadt three or four years, most next felt that his cause in peril and Zwillinghad made, he now was The city government through a dangerous radicalism. ap The Elector nominally forbad pealed to Luther to return. considerations,but on March 6, 1522, him, out of political Luther in Wittenberg, which thenceforth was more was once to be his home. Eight days of preaching showed his power. The Gospel,he declared,consisted in the knowledge of sin,in forgivenessthrough Christ, and in love to one's neighbor. These
The
which alterations,
externals.
They
eration
the
Karlstadt
of
had
should
be effected
weak.
Luther
lost all influence
turmoil,had
raised the
was
and
had
only
in
master to
leave
a
to
spiritof of the
the
do
with
consid
situation.
city. Many
undone, and the old changes were, for the moment, Luther order of worship largelyre-established. thus showed attitude. He a opposed not merely decidedly conservative of the
1
Kidd,
pp.
94-104.
Longitude
15"
West
/
EUROPE during
the
10"
from
Greenwich
5"
5"
Lo-ngitudt
j"
Reformation.
100
aoo
*
.KILOMETERS aoo
sop
T
II
"oo
Edit
(tor
**
rt
I.M
li.i.i.
Metz
"^
oBern
l'^
1512
40
Cor
Sardinia) Majorca
"app"?
SPREAD the
Romanists,
would
rulers to look
Yet
there many
kindliness,as
be
can
no
doubt
of the German
who, though
one
reallya force for order in troublous that favor of his Elector with continued especially have made his cause would even now speedy ship
condemned
Worms,
at
times, and out
with
him
upon
begun.
His action caused
wisdom.
to Luther's
as
351
heretofore,but those of the revolution who he believed,too rapidly. The separationsin
party itselfhad
the reform
REVOLUTION
THE
fas
as
move,
OF
which
was
wreck.
tied by the great war Emperor's hands were with France for the control of Italy,which to keep him was Effective interfer absent from Germany from 1522 to 1530. his part with the Reformation was ence on impossible. Pope in Leo X had closed his splendor-loving reign December, 1521, V's old Netherlandish and had been succeeded by Charles of strict mediaeval orthodoxy,but Adrian VI tutor a man as fullyconscious of the need of moral and administrative reform of twenty months brief papacy in the papal court, whose was the evils for which to be a painfullyfruitless effort to check Meanwhile
the
"
he believed
Luther's
heretical movement
to be
a
divine
pun
Sympathy with Luther was rapidlyspreading,not merely throughout Saxony, but in the cities of Germany. To the Reichstag,which in Nuremberg in November, met 1522, of the edict of Adrian now sent, demanding the enforcement amiss Worms againstLuther, while admitting that much was The Reichstag repliedby de in ecclesiasticaladministration. claringthe edict impossibleof enforcement, and by demand ing a council for churchly reform, to meet within a year in Germany, while, pending its assembly,only the "true, pure, genuine,holy Gospel" was to be preached. The old complaints renewed by the Reichstag. againstpapal misgovernment were Though not in form, it was in realitya victoryfor Luther and his cause. It looked as if the Reformation might gain the sup ishment.
port of the whole Under tions
nation.1
favorable
any
fixed constitution
convinced
that
Evangelicalcongrega regionsof Germany, as yet
circumstances
rapidlyforming in
were
without was
these
German
such
many or
order of service.
associations
of
Luther
believers had
now
full
depose their pastors. He held, also, however, that the temporal rulers,as in the positionsof chief power
to
appoint
and
1
Kidd, pp.
105-121.
CHANGES
352
in responsibility
and
power
IN
prime duty
extensive
ization within
Christian
the
The
Gospel.
community, had a experiencesof the
the necessities of actual
future, and
immediate
the
further
to
WORSHIP
PUBLIC
were territories,
to
church
turn
organ
Luther
from
had with this free-churchism to a sympathy he now To meet the demands of the strict dependence on the state. new Evangelicalworship,Luther issued,in 1523, his Orderingof Worship, in which he emphasized the central place of preach ing;his Formula of the Mass, in which, though stillusing Latin, recommended with its sacrificialimplications, the he did away cup for lay usage, and urged the employment of popularhymns in which he presented by the worshippers;and his Taufbuchlein, The abandonment of private a baptismal service in German. whatever
and
masses
for the
masses
dead, with
their attendant
fees,
problem of ministerial support, which Luther chest maintained proposed to solve by salaries from a common by the municipality. Luther held that great freedom was per of God" missible in details of worship,as long as the "Word there was kept central. The various reformed congregations, exhibited considerable variety,and the tendency to fore,soon of German the use rapidlyincreased,Luther himself issuinga Confession Luther regarded as exceed in 1526. German Mass inglydesirable as preparingthe undeveloped Christian for the Lord's Supper, but not as obligatory. Judged by the develop raised
serious
a
elsewhere,Luther's attitude in mat stronglyconservative,his principlebeing
of the Reformation
ment
of
ters
worship
"what
that
it."
the
use
employment
of
as
Thus
far the
favorable tions
contrary to Scriptureis for Scriptureand
is not
Scripturefor such
was
therefore retained much
He of
candles, the crucifix,and
tide had
running stronglyin
been
began, the effects of which to
movement,
make
Luther
were
and
1524
years
of the
first of these
tle
the humanists. with
sympathy
alone.
To
Their Luther's
admired
thinkingreform superstitionand
would
i
Kidd,
a
return
121-133.
separa
a
national
into the
arms
separationswas
leader,Erasmus, had lit
doctrine
his
rejectionof
throw
Luther
to
temporal princes. The
1525
than
party rather
a
directions
to limit the Reformation
leader,to divide Germany, and from
usage,
the illustrative
pictures.1
Luther, but with the
to
of Roman
by faith justification come by education, the
of
to
the
"sources"
of
SEPARATIONS Christian
truth.
FORCES
353
stormy writingsof Luther and the popu
The
were
with
decline
REFORM
THE
odious to becoming increasingly he was humanists alarmed generally,
lar tumult mon
IN
in attendance
the
on
him.
In
com
by the great
which universities,
German
set
in
universallywith the rise of the religious controversy, and the fading of interest in purely scholarlyquestions. Though frequentlyurged,he was long reluctant to attack Luther, how of 1524, he challengedLuther's ever; but at last,in the autumn denial of free will. To Erasmus Luther a replied, year later, with the stiffest possibleassertion of determinism and predes in the oppo to move tination,though Melanchthon was soon site direction.
incurable.
Most
the
among
The
breach
of the
between
Luther
humanists
and
deserted
of Melanchthon disciples
a
Erasmus
was
Luther, though school of Lu
younger
theran humanists To
in
slowly developed.1 Germany Luther seemed but
half-wayreformer. Such a radical was his old associate Karlstadt,who, having lost all standingin Wittenberg,went radical views to yet more on and practicesand, securinga large followingin Orlamiinde, and the Saxon He practicallydefied Luther government. some
denied
the value
of
education, dressed and
antry, destroyed images, and of
Christ
in the
Miinzer, who Romanists
letter of the tacks
less."
naming
them
dicated
a
Yet the
Scripture. A
These
and
growing
and
peasants'revolt.
dependence
on
action,he led in riotous
preached
was
a
The
third
battle
the at
againstthe "god stronglyopposed,
Luther
separation that
increasingmisery southwestern Germany, in
"
state of the German
of
better conditions
attacked
presence
in
rift in the forces of reform.
serious
more
Thomas
was
Schwarmer, i. e., fanatics; but their
long been one especiallyin
and
caused
consequent
where
neighboringSwitzerland
by
peasantry had the
unrest,
example
fed the
of
discon
With
tent. to do.
the
of
man
like them
men
revelation
alike for their
monasteries, and
on
radical
more
immediate
Lutherans
lived like the peas
rejectedthe physical presence
Even
Supper.
asserted
and
a
the peasant revolt Lutheranism had little directly Its strongest manifestations in regionsinto which were
reform
had
but
slightlypenetrated. Yet the excitement and radical popular preaching were religious un doubtedlycontributing, though not primary, causes. Begun movement
1
Kidd,
pp.
171-174.
in
PEASANTS'
THE
354
WAR
Germany in May and June, 1524, the exceedinglyformidable by the spring of the
southwestern
extreme
insurrection
was
In March, 1525, the peasants put forth twelve followingyear. articles,1 demanding the right of each community to choose and depose its pastor, that the great tithes (on grain)be used for the support of the pastor and other community expenses,
tithes abolished,that serfdom
small
the
and
be
done
away,
of the forests al the use reservations for hunting restricted, forced labor be regulatedand duly paid, lowed to the poor,
justrents fixed,new stored
communities
to
that
To
from
their
to
lands
re
taken, and
abolished.
masters
and moderate thinkingthese were age they seemed revolutionary.
Other as
longerenacted, common which they had been
no
inheritance
for
payments modern
laws
reasonable
To
requests.
of which had Thomas of peasants, one Munzer far more radical. Luther at first attempted
groups
leader,were mediate, and a
disposedto find wrong on both sides ; but he turned on the the ill-ledrisingfell into greater excesses as and peasants with his savage pamphlet,Against the Murderous Thieving Rabble of the Peasants,demanding that the princes
to
crush
them
was
great defeat of Francis I of Pavia by the imperialarmy on February 24, 1525,
with
France, near
the sword.
The
rising. The bloodshed. stamped out in frightful peasant insurrection was that occasioned by the peasants'war Of the separations, was his that disastrous. Luther felt the most Gospel undoubtedly had enabled the princesof Germany
could
not
be
involved
in the
to master
the
economic
social and
demands
of
disorderlypeasants. But the cost was great. Popular the lower orders of southern sympathy for his cause among his own distrust of the common Germany was largelyforfeited, man was augmented, his feelingthat the reform must be the work of the temporal princesgreatlystrengthened. His oppo the natural fruitage as pointed to these risings nents, moreover, of rebellion againstthe ancient church. Meanwhile the mediaeval, though in his way reformatory, the
Adrian
VI
had
November, 1523, by Giulio de' Medici character of respectable 1534) a man "
the an
in in the papacy, Clement VII (1523-
died, and had been succeeded as
but
with
little sense
of
importance of religious questions,and primarilyin policy Italian worldlyprince. To the new Reichstag assembled in 1
Kidd,
pp.
174-179.
POLITICS
356 that
AIDS
THE
desire for matrimony
had
REFORMERS share in Luther's
any
is
palpably absurd ; but, though clerical celibacywas undoubtedly favorable
from of
Rome
it was, results, union
of
time, an
ex-monk
an
the bitter
to
at the
and
a
jibeof Erasmus
added former
cause nun
that the
of
this
revolt
repudiation
in its ultimate
division,and the
seemed
to
Reformation,
give point which
had
appeared a tragedy,was reallya comedy, the end of which was a wedding.1 The suppressionof the peasant revolt had left the princes and the cities the real rulingforces in Germany, and political formed for or againstthe Reformation. combinations were now Such instituted by Duke a league of Catholics was George of Saxony and other Catholic princesmet in July, in Dessau 1525 ; and as a replyPhilipof Hesse and the new Elector John of league in Torgau. The great Saxony organized a Lutheran imperialvictoryof Pa via in the previousFebruary had resulted in the captivityof the defeated King of France, Francis I. in favor of the Emperor, and its had gone decisively The war results seemed of to be garnered by the Treaty of Madrid January, 1526, by which Francis gained his release. Both monarchs efforts to put down pledged themselves to combined indeed dark. were heresy.2 The prospects of Lutheranism this perilthe Lutheran its rescue owed From cause primarily Clement Italian prince to the Pope. VII, always more an than a churchman, was thoroughly alarmed at the increase of imperialpower in Italy. He formed an Italian leagueagainst the Emperor, which was joinedby the French King in May, Francis I repudiated the Treaty of Madrid, and now 1526. the League of Cognac ranged France, the Pope, Florence, and Venice against the Emperor. The results of Pavia seemed be fought over lost. The must war again. The Emperor's hands too full to interfere in the religious were strugglesof Germany.3 the new So it came about that when Reichstagmet in Speier in the summer of 1526, though the imperialinstructions for bad alterations in religionand ordered the execution of the Edict
of
Worms,
situation had when vance 1
the
Lutherans
were
able
to
urge
that
that
contemplated by the Emperor issued from Spain. The terrifying ad his commands were of the Turks, which was to result in the Hungarian disas-
Kidd,
pp.
changed
179,
180.
from
the
2
Ibid.,p.
180.
3Ibid.,p. 182.
ter of Mohacz
ORGANIZED
CHURCHES
TERRITORIAL
357
August 29, 1526, also counselled militaryunity.
""n
"
council Reichstag, therefore,enacted that, pending a national assembly," each of the territorialrulers of the a or empire is "so to live,govern, and carry himself as he hopes The
and
trusts
This
to
doubtless
was
princesand
Lutheran
his
and
imperialmajesty." ad interim compromise ; but the a mere it as full legal cities speedily interpreted it to
answer
God
authorization to order their ecclesiasticalconstitutions as they of Lutheran its shelter the organization terri fit. Under saw torial churches had
toward
taken
been
rapidly accomplished.Some
steps
such territorial organization even
be
now
was
Reichstag of 1526. Beyond the borders of the empire of ^the Albert of Brandenburg (1511-1568),the grand master Teutonic Knights in East Prussia,transformed his office into under the overlord ship of Poland, in hereditarydukedom a fore the
furthered the Lutheranization of the land.2 1525, and vigorously In electoral
Elector John Saxony itself,
control
active
governmental
Luther
had issued his German
Philipcaused
grave
1526, where influence
synod
a
constitution
of Francis
to was
Lambert
Order of Divine Service, decree of the Reichstag
tendencies.
Hesse, Land be held in Homberg, in October, In
adopted largelythrough the (1487-1530), a pupilof Luther.
the faithful communicants
community
each
In
a
and
Mass
greatlystrengthenedthese
now
to
were
governingbody by which pastor should from administered. Representatives discipline
bodies,a pastor and annual
an
nobles
synod
should
lay brother
also be was
earlier views.
But
common
members.4
consonant,
Luther man,
rejectedthe proposalsand electoral Saxony. In Saxony, which became creation the
1
and
largemeasure, changed. He
on
his advice
adopted instead the
in
norm
a
of territorialchurches, "visitors"
Elector
to
inquireinto
the basis of articles drawn
3
had
landgrave and high was organization an
the
Here
in
Kidd, pp. Ibid.,pp.
183-185. 193-202.
4
Luther's
had
come
to
landgrave procedure of
generalway
for the
appointed by
were
by Melanchthon 2
with
the
the
clerical doctrine up
these local
each, should constitute
from
for all Hesse, of which
proposedwhich distrust the
a
con
be chosen
stitute the and
more
ecclesiastical affairs,and
of
Reichstag.3 The
of 1526, before the
planninga
was
and
conduct
on
in 1527, and
Ibid.,pp. 185-193. Ibid.,pp. 222-230.
TERRITORIAL
358
CHURCHES
enlargedthe followingyear.1 cast
was
off,the land
The
old
of bishops, jurisdiction
divided
each into districts, administrative, but not
was
under
a
"superintendent" with spiritual, the parish minister,and in turn responsible over superiority to the Elector. driven Unworthy or recalcitrant clergywere of worship secured,and monastic property, altar out, similarity and
endowment
similar foundations
confiscated,in part for the benefit of parishchurches and schools,but largelyfor that of the electoral treasury. In a word, a Lutheran state church, coterminous with the electoral territories, and having all bap tized inhabitants as its members, was substituted for the old church. bishop-ruled
Other
similarly organized.
were
territoriesof
tion, which the confusion plorablecondition, Luther of which
the Short
aid in
To of
a
EvangelicalGermany instruc popular religious
decade
prepared
Catechism
is
had
reduced
to
catechisms
two
a
de
in 1529,
of the noblest monuments
one
of the Reformation.2
development of territorial churches could take due to favoringpolitical conditions. The Emperor place was had a tremendous with domination in Italyas its to wage war crowned prize. His brother, Ferdinand, was King of Hun November in struggle on was 3, 1527, and thenceforth gary with the Turks. Effective interference in Germany was im possible. But fortune favored the Emperor. On May 6, 1527, German Lutheran an imperialarmy containingmany recruits, VII in the castle of captured Rome, shut up Pope Clement San Angelo,and subjectedthe cityto every barbarity. Though fortune seemed to turn toward the French in the earlypart of That
this
1528, before the end of that year serted their mastery. The Pope peace
and
with France
the 5th
of
raged since
the
imperialforces compelled
was
had
the
Emperor, at Barcelona, on June 29, 1529,3 gave up the struggleby the Peace of Cambrai, on the followingAugust. The which had great war 1521
was
and
over,
Charles
V
could
now
forgeryby Otto von Pack, an Philip of Hesse and grave convinced
that
Philipdetermined 1
Kidd,
pp.
202-205.
to
the
had
by
officialof ducal the
Elector
Catholics
intended
Ibid.,pp. 205-222.
a
Saxony, the Land John of Saxony had to
attack
anticipatethe allegedplot,and 2
his
turn
attention to the suppressionof the Lutheran revolt. Nor leaders been wholly fortunate. the Lutheran Deceived
been
as
his
to make
3
was
them. arm-
Ibid.,p. 246.
"PROTESTANTS''
359
The
discovered. in 1528, when the forgerywas the relations of the to embitter effect of the incident was
two
great ecclesiasticalparties.
ing for that
purpose
these circumstances
Under
it
inevitable that when
was
the
Speier,in February, 1529, the Catholic majorityshould be stronglyhostile to the Lutheran innovators. That Reichstag now ordered, by a majority decision,that no further ecclesiasticalchanges should be made, that Roman in
Reichstag met
next
be
worship should
permittedin
authorities and
Roman of
would
have
been
orders should
be
the
that
all
allowed
rights,property, and abolition of the practical
their former
ment
lands, and
Lutheran
full enjoy This incomes.
Lutheran
terri
to defeat this
the Lutheran legislation, civil powers representedin the Reichstag,on April 19, 1529, entered a formal protest of great historic importance since it
Unable
torialchurches.
It was the party as "Protestant." of electoral Saxony, Philipof Hesse, Ernst
of designation
led to the
supportedby
John
Brandenburg-Ansbach, Wolfgang of Anhalt, and the cities Strassburg,Ulm, Constance, Nuremberg, Lindau, Kempten, Memmingen, Nordlingen, Heilbronn, Isny, St. Gallen, Reutlingen,Weissenburg, and Windsheim.1 of
Liineburg,George
The manded
of
Protestant a
prospects were defensive union, which
dark, and
Philipof
the
Hesse
situation de undertook
to
this critical juncture the Reformation cause was of reformers the threatened by division between Saxony and Switzerland,and by the rapidspreadof the Anabaptists. secure.
At
III.
SECTION
THE
SWISS
REVOLT
Switzerland,though nominally a part of the empire,had long united been practically independent. Its thirteen cantons were in a loose confederacy,each being practically a self-governing the freest in deemed republic. The land, as a whole, was in great repute as soldiers and were were Europe. Its sons by the Kings of eagerly sought as mercenaries, particularly France and the Popes. Though the generalstatus of education had penetrated the largertowns, and in was low, humanism the early decades of the sixteenth century had notably its
home
in Basel.
in humanism,
The
Swiss
in local i
reformation
was
to have
self-government,in hatred Kidd,
pp. 239-245.
its
sources
of ecclesi-
DEVELOPMENT
ZWINGLI'S
360 astical
and restraint,
in resistance to monastic
the monasteries
exactions,espe
largelandowners. Huldreich Zwingli,chief of the reformers of German-speaking born on January 1, 1484, in Wildhaus, where Switzerland,was the bailiff of the village his father was and in comfortable cir ciallywhere
An
cumstances.
the road
to
an
then
in Bern
from
1498
the
uncle, the dean of Wesen, started him on continued in Basel, and education, which was
under
the humanist
1500.
to
were
For
two
years
Universityof Vienna, where
in the
classics.
From
1502
Heinrich
to
Zwingli was
Conrad 1506
Wolflin
he
a
(Lupulus), student
in
Celtes had
great fame
continued
his studies
in the
Universityof Basel, graduating as bachelor of arts in later. At 1504, and receivingthe master's degree two years Thomas Basel he enjoyed the instruction of the humanist he gratefully remembered as Wyttenbach (1472-1526), whom the death of having taught him the sole authorityof Scripture, and the worthlessness Christ as the only price of forgiveness, of indulgences. Under such teachingZwinglibecame naturally a
humanist
Christian
of himself,eager to go back to the earlier sources belief,and critical of what the humanists generally
deemed tual His
superstition.He never passedthrough the deep spiri to Luther. experienceof sin and forgivenessthat came intellectual and radical attitude was always more religious
than
that of the Saxon
reformer.
his appoint ment, apparentlythrough the influence of his clericaluncle, as Here he studied Greek, became an in parishpriestin Glarus. The
year
of Zwingli'ssecond
graduationsaw
preacher,opposed the employment of Swiss as mer save cenaries, by the Pope, and in 1513 received a pensionfrom the continued militarysupport of the Pope, anxious to secure of his parish as the Swiss. He accompanied the young men chaplainin several Italian campaigns. He correspondedwith Erasmus and other humanists. His knowledge of the world sides.1 and he touched life on many was increasing, convinced of the moral evil of mer Zwingliwas patriotically
fluential
service,but the French,
cenary
made
so
much
trouble
to
eager
in his Glarus
enlist Swiss
soldiers,
parish that, without
re
signingthe post, he transferred his activities in 1516 to the The change brought still-famous pilgrimshrine of Einsiedeln. To this him enlargedreputationas a preacher and a student. 1
Kidd,
pp.
374-380.
IN
ZWIXGLI
361
ZURICH
Einsiedeln
sojournZwingli,always jealousof admitting indebt
edness
Luther, later ascribed his acceptance of the Evan
to
evidence that has survived points,how humanistic at advanced to littlethen beyond the more
position. The gelical ever,
life at this time was, moreover, of chastity. reproachfor breach of the vow
titude.
His
not
own
free from
to foreignmilitaryservice and reputationas opposition preacherand scholar led to Zwingli'selection by the Minster
His
a
chapter in Zurich
as
office
an people'spriest,
tered with the commencement orderlyexpositionof whole
He
of 1519. books
of the
which
on
he
en
began at once the Bible, commencing
became acquaintedwith Gospel. He now death by the to Luther's brought near writings. He was soldiering, againstmercenary plague. He preached faithfully the practice.1 that Zurich ultimately(May, 1521) forbad so by the life deepened, through bereavement His own spiritual with
death
Matthew's
of
a
beloved
brother in 1520, and
the
same
year
he
re
signedhis papal pension. Though Zwingli had thus long been
moving in the reform with 1522 that his vigorousreformatory atory direction,it was that the question first to note work began. It is interesting issue did not
at
grow,
as
with
Luther,
out
of
a
profound re
but out of the conviction that only the Bible experience, ligious the of the citizens broke Certain Christians. is binding on lenten fast,citingZwingli'sassertion of the sole authorityof preachedand published Zwinglinow Scripturein justification. The in their defense. bishop of Constance, in whose diocese to repress the innovation. Zurich lay,now sent a commission
The
cantonal civil government
ruled that the New
Testament
imposed no fasts,but that the}'should be observed for the The importance of this compromise deci sake of good order. rejected that the cantonal civil authorities practically sion was of the bishop and took the control of the the jurisdiction In the August follow hands. Zurich churches into their own ing the Zurich burgomaster laid down the rule that the pure alone to be preached,and the road to revo Word of God was lution was thus fullyopen.2 Zwinglibelieved that the ultimate authoritywas the Chris tian community, and that the exercise of that authoritywas through the duly constituted organs of civil government acting 1
Kidd,
pp.
384-387.
2
Ibid.,pp. 387-408.
REFORMATION
THE
362
with
in accordance
commands,
or
the
IN
ZURICH that which
Scriptures. Only
for which
distinct authorization
the Bible be
can
found
Hence his attitude toward in its pages, is bindingor allowable. the ceremonies and order of the older worship was much more radical
than
of Luther.
which
in
one
was
that
changes
which
gatory.
He
the
the
Really
cantonal
situation
in Zurich
introduced
government
the
Zwingli,as a trusted interpreterof Scripture and a natural popular leader, persuaded that government to sanction. Zwingli now began a process of governmental and he employed with popular education, which great success. Persuaded ordered a by Zwingli, the cantonal government public discussion,in January, 1523, in which the Bible only should be the touchstone. For this debate Zwingli prepared brief articles, sixty-seven affirmingthat the Gospel derives no authority from the church, that salvation is by faith, and the salvatory denying the sacrificial character of the mass, character of good works, the value of saintlyintercessors, the binding character of monastic vows, or the existence of pur also declared
church, and
advocated
be
to
the
sole head
of the
clerical
debate
the government affirmed that he had not
that he should
Christ
continue
marriage. In the resulting declared Zwingli the victor,in that it been convicted of heresy,and directed his preaching. It was indorsement an
of his
teaching.1 went Changes now Fees for baptisms and
Priests
rapidly. burials
were
and
done
married.
nuns
In
away.
second
a
great debate, in October, 1523, Zwingli and
his associate min
ister,Leo Jud
of
(1482-1542), attacked
sacrificial character
them, but
moved
great
debate.
choice
of
The
the
use
images and
The
government cautiously.2January, 1524, saw mass.
upholders
conformity or
images, relics,and nessed
of the
the
the
banishment.
organs
confiscation
of
were
of the
old
order and
In June
done
the with
was a
third
given
were
July, 1524,
December
away.
wit
establishments,their
monastic
property being wiselyused, in largepart, in the establishment of excellent
1525, when
schools. it too
The was
mass
abolished.
The
had complete. Episcopal jurisdiction services put into German, the sermon acteristic doctrines and ceremonies 1
Kidd,
pp.
408-423.
till Holy Week
continued
transformation been
made of the 2
thrown
of was
off, the
central,the char older
Ibid.,pp.
worship
424-441.
done
LUTHER
AND
ZWINGLI
304
Zwingli'snature
IN
intellectual and
was
CONTEST
critical. In
point
no
diversityfrom Luther more ap of the Lord's their unlike than in interpretation Supper, parent and here their disagreementunfortunatelyultimatelysundered Luther Christ's words, "This is To the Evangelicalranks. His deep religious true. feelingsaw literally body, were my in an actual partakingof Christ the surest pledge of that union of sins of which the Supper was with Christ and forgiveness the divinelyattested promise. But as early as 1521 a Dutch lawyer, Cornelius Hoen, had urged that the proper interpre tation is "This body." Hoen's argument came signifies my the symbolic under notice in 1523, and confirmed to Zwingli's standing of the words to which the Swiss theologian was he denied any physicalpresence already inclined. Henceforth charac of Christ in the Supper, and emphasized its memorial ter and its significance as unitinga congregationof believers attestation of loyaltyto their Lord. in a common By 1524 had led to an embittered the rival interpretations controversy side and Bugenhagen on the one of pamphlets in which Luther and Zwingli and (Ecolampadius on the other,and their respec of tive associates,took most important work part. The his [Great]ConfessionConcerningthe Lord's Sup Luther's was either side. To shown Little charity was on per, of 1528. Zwingli Luther's assertion of the physicalpresence of Christ of Catholic superstition.A phys was an unreasoningremnant ical body could be only in one place. To Luther Zwingli'sin above Scripture, sinful exaltation of reason was a terpretation of Christ on and he sought to explain the physicalpresence altars at once ten thousand by a scholastic assertion,derived of Christ's divine na largelyfrom Occam, that the qualities human communicated to His ture, includingubiquity,were of Christian doctrine
his
was
"
that the be anxious, also, to maintain liever partook of the whole divine-human Christ,and to avoid nature.
any
Luther
was
dismemberment
of His
his supporters to be that Luther worse was and
no
many.
The
Roman
declared
met
but
the the
champion, not only of approval Roman
of much
of southwestern
party rejoicedat this evident
Evangelicalforces. the most Zwingli was
Zwingli
Christians,while Zwingli affirmed
than
Zwingli'sviews, however, man-speaking Switzerland
Luther
person.
Eck. Ger Ger
division of
the
giftedof
any
of the reformers
politi-
ZWINGLI'S
POLITICAL
PLANS
cally,and
developed plans
in the end
futile.
walden,.and
365
far-reaching, though
were
old rural cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterstronglyconservative and opposed to
The
Zug,
which
DEATH
AND
were
the
changes in Zurich, and with them stood Lucerne, the whole a constituting vigorous Roman party. By April,1524, these had formed offset this effort and a league to resist heresy. To to Evangelical preaching into yet wider territories, carry Zwingli now proposed that Zurich enter into alliance with and Savoy, and France began negotiationswith the dispos sessed Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg. Matters drifted along, the organizationof "The but a more successful attempt was Christian
Civic Alliance," late in 1527, between Zurich St. Gallen and Constance,1 a league to which Bern added
in
1528, and
Biel,Miilhausen,
Basel, and
and were
Schaffhausen
in 1529.
Though Strassburgjoinedearly in 1530, the league far less extensive than Zwingliplanned. As it was it was was divisive of Swiss unity,and the conservative Roman cantons formed
a
Austria
counter
"
in 1529.
Christian
"
Union
and
secured
alliance with
Hostilities were
begun. But Austrian help for the Roman June 25, not forthcoming,and on party was made between the two partiesat Kappel, on 1529, peace was favorable Zurich and the Zwinglians.2 The terms to very league-with Austria was abandoned. Zurich was at the height of its power, and was now widely head of the Evangelicalcause. Yet regarded as the political the peace
had
been
but
a
truce, and
when, in 1531, Zurich tried
force
cantons Evangelicalpreaching on the Roman by an of food to them, war embargo on shipment more was once certain. ade Zurich, in spiteof Zwingli'scounsels,made no Roman cantons quate preparation for the struggle. The moved rapidly. On October 11, 1531, they defeated the men of Zurich in battle at Kappel. Among the slain was Zwingli himself. In the peace that followed3 Zurich was compelled to abandon its alliances, and each canton was given full rightto of the regulate its internal religiousaffairs. The progress Reformation in German-speakingSwitzerland was permanently halted, and the lines drawn as substantially they are to-day. In the leadership of the Zurich church, not in his political succeeded ambitions, Zwingli was by the able and conciliatory
to
Heinrich 1
Kidd,
Bullinger(1504-1575). p. 469.
*
/^. j
p. 470.
The
Swiss s
movement,
jbidtfpp. 475.476.
as
a
ANABAPTISTS
366
IN
ZURICH
whole, was to be modified and greatlydeveloped by the genius of Calvin; and which their spiritual to the churches trace Re parentage to him, and thus in part to Zwingli,the name formed," as distinguishedfrom "Lutheran," was ultimately "
be
to
given. SECTION
It has been worked
once
way
with Luther Such
Among
those
innovations both soon
the This
THE
ANABAPTISTS
said, in speakingof Karlstadt, that
reformer.
ence.
IV.
feel that he
to
came even
more
had
been
in
forward
most
Conrad
were
a
half
largelyZwingli'sexperi
was
who
in Zurich
but
was
who
some
Grebel
favoring
Felix Manz,
and
from
prominent families of the city. They and others in the application of to feel that Zwingli's came leadership Biblical test to Zurich practiceswas far too conservative. element
first came
into evidence
bate, in October, 1523 immediate
imagesand
authorities
in participant
second
not
were
that debate
was
of the
great de
it demanded
(ante,p. 362), where
abolition of
the cantonal
the
at
mass
steps for which
"
yet fullyready. An
as
Balthasar
the
Hubmaier
abler
(1480?-
then colleagueand friend of Luther's a pupil, 1528), once nent, Eck, but now preacherin Waldshut, on the northern
oppo
edge of Switzerland. Led to Evangelical views by Luther's writings in 1522, he was successfully urging reform in his city. As to doubt infant baptism,and earlyas May, 1523, he had come had discussed it with Zwingli, who, accordingto his testimony, then sympathized with him. based His criticisms were on of for administration to infants.1 By want warrant Scriptural Grebel
1524
but itwas
and
had
Manz
reached
not tillearlyin 1525 that
the
conclusion,2
same
they or Hubmaier
translated
theory into practice. Their
with
criticisms led, in
Zwingli,as
ties of Zurich
dently been
a
consequence
ordered
delay
January, 1525,
on
of which
all children the
part of
baptized
some
this seemed
ter 1
to
the
Kidd,
Word
p. 451.
a
command
of God. 2
publicdebate
a
the cantonal "
there
from
"
3
evi
had
and
Roubli.3
by an earthlypower of They and some
Ibid.,p. 452.
authori
in par and disputing,
parents
ticular directed Grebel and Manz to cease banished the priestof Wytikon, Wilhelm men
to
To
to act
these coun
their friends
Ibid.,pp. 453, 454.
SPREAD
gathered in
7, 1525, and there Manz,
ruary
instituted believers' baptism a
baptizedin Waldshut These
a
monk,
by sprinkling.A few weeks later was
by Roubli.1
constituted
acts
Georg Blaurock, once
or
Feb
occurred, and after Easter, Hubmaier
of immersion
case
367
Zurich,on
in Zollicon,near
privatehouse
a
ANABAPTISTS
THE
OF
the
separate communions.
groups
nicknamed "Anabaptists," or By their opponents they were rebaptizers.Really, since they denied the validityof their and "Bap was inappropriate, baptism in infancy,the name tists would be the truer designation ; but as a titleconsecrated of the Reformation by long usage to a remarkable movement "
the
age,
in March,
ernment,
The
is convenient.
name
common
more
1526, ordered
Zurich
gov
in
Anabaptistsdrowned,
parody of their belief,and a few months later Manz thus suffered martyrdom.2 Zwingli opposed them with much hideous
in
bitterness,but with littlesuccess
winning them
from
their
position.3 Hubmaier
Waldshut
In
community, opinionsby
and
was
even
soon
gathered a large Anabaptist
more
successful in
propagating his
his pen. In his view the Bible is the sole law of the church, and according to the Scriptural test the proper order of Christian development is,preaching the Word, hear
ing, belief,baptism, works with
Bible
the
volved
in the
is doubtful maier
had
to
its law.
as
latter
a indicating
Waldshut, however,
peasant revolt
"
and
"
the
"
in how
far
in
soon
through Hubmaier
collapseof that movement. the city was Catholic. once more
shared the
fly,and
was
life lived
Hub Im
prisonedand tortured in Zurich, he fled to Moravia, where he with much success. propagated the Anabaptist movement had These the effect of spreading the Ana persecutions baptistpropaganda throughout Germany and the Netherlands. The assumed movement soon especially great proportions, among ant
the lower
revolt had
the miserable failure of the peas distrust of the Lutheran cause, now
when classes,
caused
deep
wholly associated with territorialprincesand aristocratic city magistrates. In the stillCatholic parts of the empire the Ana On baptistpropaganda practically superseded the Lutheran. the other hand, Anabaptist rejectionof princelycontrol but of the Lutheran and Roman authori strengthenedthe hostility ties. In February, 1527, a meeting of Anabaptist leaders was 1
Kidd,
pp.
454, 455.
2
Ibid.,p. 455.
3
Ibid.,pp. 456-458.
OF
BELIEFS
368
ANABAPTISTS
THE
articlesof faith were drawn up by held in Schlatt,where seven and worthy former monk. In them Michael Sattler, earnest an church is regarded as asserted. The believers' baptism was
composed only
of local associations of
baptized experiential observance by common
the body is excommunication. of the Lord's Supper; its only weapon Absolute rejectionof all "servitude of the flesh,"such as the Christians
"
united
of Christ
as
worship of the Roman, Lutheran, and Zwinglian Churches, is Each demanded. officers congregation is to choose its own its discipline.While civil gov and administer through them is stilla necessityin this imperfectworld, the Chris ernment should he take any form tian should have no share in it,nor ideas which were of oath. Here were to be represented,in and by later Baptists,Congregationalists, varying proportions, Quakers, and through them to have a profound influence on the religious development of England and America. The Anabaptistideal implied a self-governing congregation, independentof state or episcopalcontrol,having the Bible as its law, and livinga rather ascetic life of strict conformity to of supposedly Biblical requirements. literal interpretation a stillin dispute. By some of these opinionsare The sources the Anabaptistsare regarded as the radicals of the Reforma interest in Bible read tion period; by others as the fruit of new ingby the literal-minded ; by stillothers as revivals of mediaeval anti-Roman
sects.
There
Anabaptists themselves with
is truth in all these had
no
theories.
they
pre-Reformationmovements;
made
connection
of
consciousness
The
the
Bible
liter
of their characteristics are undoubt allytheir law, but many edly pre-Reformation.Such is their view of the Bible as a and law in church to which new state, through obedience God's favor is to be preserved. They had as littlesympathy with Luther's conception of the Gospel as summed up in the conceptionof salvation forgivenessof sins,as with the Roman is their ascetic Pre-Reformation through the sacraments. view
of the Christian
conceptionof the state of a unworthy of the participation
life. So is their
concession to sin,and Christian in its administration.
as
a
Such, also, are
their strong
apocalypticand mysticaltendencies. The
views
which
have
been
indicated
overwhelming majority of Anabaptists; but ment
attracts
extremists,and
there
were
those
were
not
radical
a a
few
who
of the move
went
MARTYRS
ANABAPTIST
Anabaptists
as
all
Scripture,saw
of
love, and
Associated
Haetzer, the Old
to
humanist
learned
the
was
the
taught an inner lightsuperiorto Christ only the highest human example
(?-1527), who
Denk
Johann
Such
whole.
a
of regarded as representative
he
cannot further,tyut
much
369
in
held
that
in these
with Denk whom
the learned
opinions,was
sin.
live without
may
Ludwig
due, with Denk's aid, a translation of beheaded propheticalbooks, but who was
was
Testament
for adulteries
Christian
the
at
in
Constance
The
1529.
radical
preacher,
rapid spread of Ana the working classes of south Germany baptist views among and Austria was due, declared himself a prophet,affirmingthat persecutionof the saints would be immediately followed by the destruction of the empire by the Turks, followingwhich be gathered,and by them all priestsand event the saints would visibly unworthy rulers destroyed, whereupon Christ would had Hut In Hubmaier, a vigorous opponent, reign on earth. but Hut's preaching ended only with his death, in 1527 in Augsburg, through burns received in an attempt to escape radical of the more from the prison by settingit afire. Some Anabaptist leaders taught community of goods and social Hut,
Hans
to
whose
work
of the
much
revolution. Catholic of the authorities,
Everywhere the hand was gelical, heavy on estant
the
Anabaptists though "
rather
banishment
territories used
martyred. In penalty. Their leaders were death by drowning in Zurich, while Sattler was wife drowned next near Rottenburg. The was
burned
burned
in Vienna
in the
great numbers
Tyrol of
and in
their
his wife drowned.
1529.
With
followers.
Yet
these the
and
Evan Prot
most
than
the
1527
Manz
burned year
death met
and
his
Hubmaier
Blaurock leaders movement
was
perished con
exceedinglyperilousfor the spread,and by 1529 was Protestant cause, being looked upon by the Catholics as the of revolt from Rome, dividing the forces legitimateoutcome of reform, and to the thinking of the Lutherans bringing the There be no doubt that into discredit. can Evangelicalcause to at was one important effect of the Anabaptist movement tach the Lutherans more stronglyto the conception of prince the only guar and as magistrate ruled territorial churches antee of good order and of effective oppositionto Rome.
tinued
to
THE
370
SECTION
MARBURG
GERMAN
V.
COLLOQUY
PROTESTANTISM
ESTABLISHED
successful conclusion of the great war VII had reconciliation with Pope Clement The
free,in 1529,
interfere
to
at
last
with France
and
left the Emperor
in effectively
German
affairs.
Reichstag of Speier,of that year, alarmed at Lutheran and the spread of the Anabaptists,and conscious of progress the change in the Emperor's prospects, had forbidden further ordered the restoration of Lutheran advance, and practically Roman minority had pro episcopalauthority. The Lutheran situation Philip of Hesse had at tested. In this threatening and Swiss defensive league of all German a tempted to secure the doctrinal Evangelicalforces. The chief hindrances were but Philiphoped that they the two parties, differences between might be adjusted by a conference, and though Luther was opposed, consent was at last secured,and October 1, 1529, saw face to face with Zwingli and Luther and Melanchthon met castle in Marburg. in Philip's With them were (Ecolampadius, of the lesser leaders of both parties. During the number a Luther succeedingdays the Marburg colloquyran its course. somewhat was suspiciousof the soundness of the Swiss on the doctrines of the Trinityand originalsin,but the real point of the presence absence difference was of Christ's physical or body in the Supper. Luther held firmly to the literal inter pretationof the words: "This is My body." Zwingli urged the familiar argument that a physicalbody could not be in time. two places at the same Agreement was impossible. Zwingliurged that both partieswere, after all,Christian breth declared: "You have a different spiritthan ren, but Luther The
we."
x
Yet
Philipwould
thus
not
let the hope of
a
protectiveleague
he persuaded the two vanish, partiesto draw up fifteen articles of faith. On fourteen there was agreement. The
and
fifteenth had
unanimity on Articles both should
show
of each
Kidd,
do the
may
with one
Supper, and here point as to the nature
sides
Christian love
permit."
stated. the
to the other
Luther
the conviction that he
pp. 247-254.
were
signedwith
now
there
the
the differences
2
burg with 1
all save
where
presence,
to
and was
as
of Christ's
These
Marburg
provisionthat "each far
as
the conscience
Zwingli each the victor. 2
was
On
left Mar the way
Ibid.,pp. 254, 255.
"AUGSBURG
THE
372
of events, Luther,
course
and
Augsburg
to
come
made
Nor
fellow Protestants.
was
Melanchthon.
His purpose had departed in no vital and
Church,
or
from
even
the
imperialban,
under
as
remained
his draft and
modified
CONFESSION"
in
could
not
Melanchthon
Coburg.
concessions,till checked
by
his
it wholly conciliation that moved was
to
show
that
the
essential respect from Roman
Church,
as
Lutherans
the Catholic
revealed in its
is expresslyaffirmed, and ancient heresies are carefully On repudiatedby name. many the other hand, Zwinglian and Anabaptist positionsare ener That
earlier writers.
agreement
rejected. The getically asserted. The expressly demned.
The
tioned.
Yet
universal priesthood of believers is not Melanchthon a thoroughly Protestant gave
confession
the
to
sole authorityof Scriptureis nowhere is nowhere con categorically papacy
as
whole.
a
men
tone
Justification by faith is ad of the church made notes
mirably defined, the Protestant evident; invocation of saints,the
mass,
denial
of the
cup,
fastingrejected. prescribed Emperor Zwingli sent a vigorous expressionof his views, which received scanty attention. A more significant of a jointconfession by the Zwinthe presentation event was monastic To
and
vows,
the
south German cities,Strassburg, Constance, glian-inclined the ConfessioTetrapolitanalargely Memmingen, and Lindau from the pen of Butzer, in which a positionintermediate be maintained. that of the Zwingliansand Lutherans tween was The papal legate,Cardinal Campeggio, advised l that the confession be examined theologians present in by Roman Augsburg. This the Emperor approved, and chief among "
these
experts
Melanchthon old opponent, Eck. concessions that would have ruined the
Luther's
was
willingto make
was
whole
"
cause,2 but fortunatelyfor it the Evangelical
Lutheran
of sterner stuff. The Catholic theologianspre princeswere to them sent back by the pared a confutation, which was Emperor and Catholic princesas too polemic,and was at last presentedto the Reichstag in much milder form on August 3. and committees The Emperor stillhoped for reconciliation, of conference a
result to which
Catholic
Kidd,
appointed;
Luther's
majority voiced
the Lutherans 1
now
were
had
pp. 289-293.
been 2
but
their work
was
vain
"
largelycontributed.3 The the decision of the Reichstag that duly confuted, that they be given firmness
Ibid.,pp. 293, 294.
3
Ibid.,p. 290-
LEAGUE
373
tillApril15, 1531, to conform; that combined
action be had
SCHMALKALDIC
THE
againstZwingliansand Anabaptists,and that a generalcouncil The re be sought within a year to heal abuses in the church. constituted imperiallaw court should decide,in Catholic inter Lutherans of secularization.1 The protested,de est, cases clared their confession
refuted, and
not
attention
called
to
Apology,or defense of the confession,which he the vanity of concessions was had hastilyprepared when at That Apology, rewritten to him. last becoming apparent even of the classics to be one and publishedthe next year (1531),was Melanchthon's
of Lutheranism. Such
defensive union.
situation demanded
a
Even
Luther,
had held it a sin to oppose the Emperor by force,now of such resistance to willingto leave the rightfulness
who
decision of the lawyers. At in Schmalkalden
assembled
and
the Lutheran
Christmas
of
laid the foundations
was
the
princes a
league.
unremitting,persuaded Strassburg to accept the Augsburg Confession an example which cities. Finally,on had great effect on other south German completed. February 27, 1531, the Schmalkaldic league was Electoral Saxony, Hesse, Brunswick, Anhalt, and Mansfeld stood in defensive agreement with the cities Strassburg,Con Lindau, Isny, Bibestance, Ulm, Reutlingen,Memmingen, rach, Magdeburg, Bremen, and Llibeck.2 Strong as the positionof Charles V appeared on the surface it was not so in realityin the face of this united opposition. Butzer, whose
union efforts
were
"
The
jealousof one another and of the The Pope feared a generalcouncil. France was The fatal day" April 15, 1531reckoned with.
Catholic
Emperor. still to
be
princeswere
therefore passed without
1531, the death
the
result.
threatened
In
October,
Zwingli at Kappel (ante,p. 365) deprived Evangelicalismof its vigoroushead, and inclined south
Swiss German
berg.
of
Protestantism The
springof
to
1532
closer union
brought a
with
new
of Witten
that
danger to
the
empire
whole, that of Turkish invasion. In 1529 the Turks had differences besiegedVienna, and before their advance religious On July 23, 1532, the Emperor to giveway. had, in a measure,
as
a
and
by
the Schmalkaldic which
all
dropped 1
Kidd,
and
pp.
leagueagreed to the truce of Nuremberg, secularizations should be existinglawsuits over peace
298-300.
was
assured
to
the
Protestants 2
Ibid.,p.
301.
until
a
PROTESTANT
374
generalcouncil,or at Shortly after Charles to
least V
a
new
Reichstag,should
assemble.1
left
Germany for Italyand Spain, not Though stillprecarious,the Protestant
till 1541.
return
GROWTH
outlook had
greatlyimproved. territories. By 1534 new now rapidly won Anhalt-Dessau, Hanover, Frankfort, and Augsburg had been the conquest for Protes gained. Of even was greater moment tantism of Wurttemberg by Philip of Hesse, from the Em peror'sbrother,Ferdinand, and the restoration of its Duke Ulrich aided by Catholic jealousyof the power a result greatly of the house of Habsburg. The death of Duke George,in 1539, followed by the triumph of Protestantism in ducal Saxony, was Protestantism
"
and won
the
same
from
a
year
cautious adhesion
to the Reformation
was
electoral
Brandenburg. This growing victoryof Lutheranism
episodeof 1533-1535, in
which
robbed
aided
was
Anabaptism
by
a
tragic
of its influ
the Miinster revolution. The Anabaptists Germany in generalwere peaceable,if rather ignorant, people,of great in persecution. religious earnestness, and patient endurance The Miinster not episode was typicalof them as a whole. ence
Yet
there
"
were
(ante,p. 369)
among was
chior Hoffmann.
an
them
many
radicals of whom
earlyexample. Such
At first
a
devoted
a
leader
Hans
Hut
was
Mel-
Lutheran, he became
an
equally earnest Anabaptist,with added claims to prophetic in Friesland. He declared inspiration.His great success was that Strassburghad been divinely designatedas the new Jerusalem, where he, as the prophet of the new dispensation, should suffer imprisonment for six months, but with 1533 the end of the world would come, and all who opposed the "saints" be destroyed. In this faith he went his to Strassburg,and prophecy was so far fulfilledthat he was there imprisoned,and in prisonhe remained tillhis death in 1543. Hoffmann's
apocalypticpreachingwon
the Netherlands.
many
in disciples
Mathys, a baker of Har lem, gave himself forth as the prophet Enoch, and soon spread fanatical propaganda widely through the Netherlands and a adjacent parts of Germany. Unlike Hoffmann, who would wait for the power of God to bring in the new age, Mathys would inaugurateit by force. Popular democratic discontent gave him his opportunity. of these,Jan
One
1
Kidd, pp. 302-304.
Nowhere
this
was
was
Mathys It
was
after,and
soon
Evangelicalpreacher,
January, 1534. Thither came tailor of Leyden, Jan Beukelssen. had rejectedStrassburg by God
a
that
asserted
now
in
in
for radical views
won
the
Rothmann,
375
influentialthan
teachingmore
new
Bernt
Miinster, where
TRAGEDY
MUNSTER
THE
of its unbelief,and chosen Miinster as the new Jeru salem in its stead. Radicals flocked thither in largenumbers. In February, 1534, they gained the mastery of the city,and reason
drove
bishop
who
those
out
Jan
Beukelssen
bloodilyput
new
order.
proclaimed King.
was
The killed
was
Polygamy
of goods enforced, all opponents
established,community
was
accept the
not
laid siegeto the city. Mathys
of Miinster
in battle.
would
The
down.
struggle, though heroically maintained, Catholic and Lutheran was bishop, aided by troops, capturedthe cityon June 24, 1535, and the surviving For German leaders were torture. put to death by extreme a catastrophe. Such fanaticism was pop Anabaptism it was ularlysupposed to be characteristic of the Anabaptists,and of ignominy. For Lutheranism it was became the name one a
hopeless.The
It freed the Lutheran
gain.
Lutheranism
from
cause
the
Anabaptistrivalry,
positivelythan before a party of princelyand middle-class sympathies. As for the itselfit came, in the Nether especially Anabaptist movement but
it made
more
even
anti-fanatical leadership wise, peace-loving, of Menno Simons its worthy reorganiza (1492-1559),to whom the term "Mennonite" tion was due, and from whom primarily
lands, under
the
is derived.
Charles V
had
ceased
never
to
hope
and
to labor for
eral council,by which the divisions of the church effected. From healed and administrative reforms VII
he
could
not
it.
secure
Paul
III
a
gen
could
be
Clement
(1534-1549), who
suc
ceeded Clement, though by no means a single-hearted religious much had of the gravity more appreciationthan Clement man, of the situation caused
He promptly ap by the Reformation. pointed as cardinals Gasparo Contarini (1483-1542), Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547), Reginald Pole (1500-1558), and Gio
vanni in
Pietro Caraffa
(1476-1559), all
men
who morals, zeal,and administration,
in 1538, extensive
recommendations
ments.1
III
By
Paul
a 1
pp.
of reform
laid before the
Pope,
for ecclesiastical better
general council
Kidd,
desirous
307-318.
was
actuallycalled
OF
376
PLANS
to meet
In Mantua
between
Charles its
made
he
in 1537. V
and
CHARLES
Before
Francis
the date
I of France
assembly impossible. Charles
council,and
the
EMPEROR
THE
demanded
before
of the
time
the
kalden, in February, 1537, that they
have
assembled to take
agree
war
his heart
set
it should
that
new
(1536-1538) had
had
leaders
Protestant
set the
on
opened
in Schmal-
part.
The
imperialorder put them in a difficultposition. They had long talked of a general council. Luther had appealed to such a clearlythat they gatheringas early as 1518. But they saw would be outvoted, and they refused to share in the council in an Italian city,and under the dominance of the Pope. as that a council was Charles saw impossiblefor the time, tried the experiment of reunion discussions. and he now Such later were actuallyheld in Hagenau in June, 1540, in Worms in the same Melanchyear, and in Regensburg in April,1541. .thon,Butzer, Calvin, and
others
took
part in
one
or
of
more
and others the Protestant side ; Eck, Contarini, the colloquies on The It was the Catholic. in vain, however. differences on too vital for compromise. were It
evident to Charles
was
hopeless,and that general council unless was
could
first be
V
the
that the pathway of conciliation
Protestants
their
military and
That
reduced.
would
union
of
share
not
in
a
politicalstrength interests
Protestant
concerns. perilto imperialauthorityin political what little in the It was left breaking hopelessly unity was hesitations, empire. Charles,therefore,slowlyand with many his He would have a general council developed great plan. in being. He would so reduce the strengthof Protestantism by no
was
less
force that
a
the
arbiter; and sions
as
correct
would such
Protestants
the council
would could
accept the council
then
be needful for the reunion abuses
Protestants
as
such
make
and
as
minor
a
conces
of Christendom,
Catholics
final
alike
and con
three preliminary plan he must secure divide the Schmalkaldic results. He league must, if possible, attack and the off of he ward French must politically danger ; ; perilof Turkish invasion must, for a time at ever-threatening demned.
To
realize this
least,be minimized. The
by one of the most Landgrave Philipof kaldic
dividingthe Protestants was aided curious episodesof Reformation history. Hesse, the political genius of the Schmal
Emperor's purpose
league,though
of
sacrificialin devotion
to
the
Protestant
princesof
like most
was,
cause,
BIGAMY
PHILIP'S
LANDGRAVE
that age,
a
377
of low per daughter of Duke man
morality. Though married earlyto a children,he George .ofSaxony, who bore him seven sonal
to
that, from
the extent but
Supper
He
once.
1526 grew
improving his
without
tained the
thought
of
to
anxious
second
partook of
he
1539
as
For
conduct. a
no
af
adulteries troubled his conscience
His constant
fection for her.
had
to
the Lord's
his soul's
some
he
years
marriageas
a
salvation, enter
solution of his
had Old Testament worthies The practised perplexities. it. forbad Testament nowhere The New expressly polygamy. This strengthenedby reasoningwas Why should not he? der Sale,an attractive seven with Margarete von acquaintance daughter of a lady of his sister's little court. teen-year-old
mother's
The
consent
was
won
on
condition that
the Elector
others should be informed Saxony, and some first wife also con that it was to be a real marriage. Philip's sented. Philipwas fullypersuadedhimself of the rightfulness
and
the duke
of
he desired the of the step, but for the sake of publicopinion, approval of the Wittenberg theologians.He therefore sent he partlypersuaded,partly Strassburg,whom frightenedwith threats of seekingdispensationfrom the Em now peror or the Pope, into full support of his plan. Butzer Luther and became to Melanchthon, and Philip'smessenger to the Saxon Elector,though the matter was presentedas an
for Butzer
of
of the person with whom without mention question, 10, 1539, Luther marriagewras contemplated. On December and Melanchthon gave their opinion. Polygamy they declared
abstract
to be
contrary to the primal law of creation,which
Christ had
required oftentimes treatment If Philipcould not which did not conform to the generalrule. he proposed his life,it would be better to marry reform as than to live as he was doing. The marriage should, however, be kept absolutelya secret, so that the second wife should ap The be a concubine. advice wras to thoroughly bad, pear been moved to have though the Wittenberg reformers seem soul. by a sincere desire to benefit Philip's honorable than the advice. On March 4, Philipwas more married in be what, though private,cannot 1540, he Margarete A court called secret fashion. preacher performed the cere and Melanchthon, Butzer, and a representative of the mony, approved ;
Saxon
but
Elector
a
were
specialcase
among
the witnesses.
Though
an
attempt
THE
378
made
was
EMPEROR to
sible. Luther
could
The The
scandal
only advise to
declare:
"
proved impos good strong lie ; but Philip soon
"
a
"I will not
great, both among
was
BLOW
THE
the affair private,that
keep
manly enough
was
PREPARES
lie."
Protestants
and Catholics.
other
Evangelicalprinceswould not defend Philip'sact in or promise protectionfrom its results. The Emperor saw it his opportunity. On June 13, 1541, he secured an agree from Philip,as the priceof no worse ment that consequences, the landgrave would neither personally, nor as representative of the Schmalkaldic league,make alliances with foreignstates. The hopeful negotiationswith France, England, Denmark, and Sweden, which would have greatlystrengthenedthe power of the Schmalkaldic league against the Emperor had to be dropped. Worse than that, Philiphad to promise not to aid the Evangelically inclined Duke Wilhelm of Cleves,whose rights Gelders Charles disputed. As the Saxon Elector was Wilover helm's
brother-in-law,and
determined
division in the Schmalkaldic
ous
showed
its disastrous
support him,
to
league was
the
a
seri
result,which
Emperor de feated Wilhelm, in 1543, took Gelders permanently into his own to possession,and forced Wilhelm repudiate Lutheranism. This defeat rendered abortive a hopeful attempt to secure the of Cologne for the Protestant cause.1 great archbishopric Fortune III
was
consequences
when
the
favored
Charles in the rest of his programme. persuaded to call the General Council to
Paul meet
in
then belongingto the empire, but practically Trent, a town Italian,in 1542. War caused a postponement, but in Decem to ber, 1545, it at last actuallybegan its sessions,which were run
a
checkered
and
course interrupted
till 1563.
but
By vague, Reichstag in
indefinite, promises Charles secured, at the Speier in 1544, the passive support of the Protestants, and active assistance, for the wars some against France and the Turks. The Em brief. The campaign against France was peror, in alliance with Henry VIII of England, pushed on nearly to Paris,when, to the surprise of Europe he made with peace the French King, without, apparently,gaining any of the advantages in his grasp. Really, he had eliminated French interference in possibleaid of German Protestantism for th immediate future.2 The in Persia, Turks, busy with a war and internal quarrels,made with the Emperor in truce a 1
Kidd,
pp. 350-354.
2
Ibid.,p.
354.
INTERIMS
THE
380
half his cousin's territories. Politically crushed. Only a few northern cities,of
the electoral titleand Protestantism which
was
Madgeburg
the
was
princesstilloffered
chief, and
a
few
the
Pope. back
drawn
had politically
Paul
III had
that fearing
powerful. Charles tillhe had have
been
never
aided
on
had
just crushed
wished
such minor
him
the Council of Trent
ready
concessions
as
but
had
grow
too
to move
recognizeit.
to
might
with
terms
worse
early in the war, the successful Emperor might
the Protestants
it make
northern
resistance.
Yet, curiouslyenough, the Emperor who Protestantism
minor
slowly
He
then
would seem
to
prejudice. The Pope wished the council It had already, to define Catholic faith quickly and go home. tradition by April,1546, made agreement difficult by defining of faith.1 To minimize of authorityin matters to be a source imperialinfluence the Pope declared the council adjourned to Bologna in March, 1547. This transfer the Emperor refused to recognizeand declined to be bound by the Tridentine de method of religious Some cisions already framed. agreement which live tillthe be reached under heal must Germany could ing of the schism which Charles expected from the council. ecclesiastical commission The Emperor, therefore, had an This was draft an Interim. Roman, while granting essentially the cup to the laity, permittingclerical marriage and limiting the powers of the Pope. The Catholic princesrefused slightly The it. to accept it as applying to them. Pope denounced Charles had to abandon hope of making it a temporary reunion but secured its adoption on June 30, 1548, by the programme, This Reichstagin Augsburg as applyingto the ex-Protestants. proceeded to enforce with a heavy Augsburg Interim he now hand. Moritz of Saxony had done such service to the imperial that a modification,known the Leipzig Interim was as cause allowed in his lands. It asserted justification by faith alone, allay
Protestant
but re-established
much
of Roman
usage
and
government.
To
it Melanchthon
reluctantlyconsented, regarding its Roman For this weak adiaphora,"or non-essential matter. parts as of he was ness bitterlydenounced by the defiant Lutherans unconquered Magdeburg, notably by Matthias Flacius Illy"
ricus
Amsdorf von (1483-1565). (1520-1575) and Nikolaus Lutheranism maintain did much to Flacius,especially, popular 1
Kidd,
pp.
355,
356.
COLLAPSE in this dark
OF
THE
time; but
the
EMPEROR'S bitter
EFFORTS
quarrelsamong
381
Lutheran
theologianshad begun. it seemed as if Charles was Yet, superficially, nearinghis goal. succeeded by Julius III Pope Paul III died in 1549, and was the Emperor. tractable to (1550-1555), who proved more The the council to meet in new once more Pope summoned Trent, and Protestant theologiansactuallyappeared before it in 1552. Really, Germany was profoundly disaffected,the Protestants groaning under the imperialyoke, and the Catholic princesjealousof Charles's increased power and of his appar the imperialsuccession ulti ently successful attempt to secure mately for his son, later to be famous as PhilipII of Spain. dissatisfied that his father-in-law, Moritz of Saxony was Philip of Hesse, was still imprisoned; he felt,moreover, that he had secured all he could hope for from the Emperor, that his leader Lutheran, and that only as a Lutheran subjectswere againstthe Emperor, could his boundless ambition be further gratified. The reduction of defiant Magdeburg, in the name of the for raising Emperor,gave Moritz excuse an Agreements army. made with the Lutheran were princesof northern Germany. The aid of King Henry II of France (1547-1559) was secured at the priceof the surrender to France of the German border cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Charles knew the plot,but took no adequate steps to meet it. The blow came swiftly. Henry invaded
Lorraine and
took the coveted
cities. Moritz
marched
rapidly southward, almost capturing the Emperor, who es The whole that structure caped by flightfrom Innsbruck. Charles had so laboriously built up toppled like a card house, not
so
much
before the power
of Lutheranism
as
before the terri
torial
independence of the princes. On August 2, 1552, the Treaty of Passau brought the brief struggleto an end. By the Treaty of Passau the settlement of the religious ques tion was referred to the next Reichstag. That not body was able to meet tillthree years later. Princelyrivalriesdistracted Germany. Moritz lost his life in warfare againstthe lawless Margrave Albrecht of Brandenburg in 1553. Charles, con unwilling to tolerate Protestantism, but seeing scientiously such toleration inevitable,handed full authorityto treat over to his brother Ferdinand, though the latter was not to be chosen
Emperor
till 1558.
The
Reichstag met
in
Augsburg.
The
PEACE
THE
382
astical
full
demanded
Lutherans
OF
rights,and
property, heretofore
proposed
to
grant
demands
all ecclesi
secularized.
in all Catholic Catholics
to
none
possessionof
hereafter
or
toleration for Lutherans
asked
AUGSBURG
in
They
but territories,
their
These
own.
naturallyresisted,and the result was of Augsburg, of September 25, 1555.1 a compromise, the Peace extended to By its provisionsequal rightsin the empire were other Evangelicalswere Catholics and Lutherans no recog nized. Each should which of the determine two lay prince faiths should be professed in his territory no choice was faith should be permitted in allowed his subjects and but one the principleusually defined as a given territory.This was cujus regio,ejus religio.Regarding ecclesiastical territories extreme
were
"
"
"
and
agreement properties,
reached
was
that
the
time
of the
All then in Lutheran Treaty of Passau should be the norm. possessionshould so remain, but a Catholic spiritualruler turning Protestant thereafter should forfeit his positionand holdings,thus insuringto the Catholics continued possession of the spiritual This was the territories not lost by 1552. "ecclesiastical
reservation."
fied with the faith of the
the
To
common
where territory
he
dissatis
man,
lived,full rightof
unhindered
emigrationand a fair sale of his goods was allowed a punishment for heresy,but his choice great advance over was only between Catholicism and Lutheranism. Ger So Lutheranism acquired full legal establishment. of a puri was permanently divided. Luther's dream many "
fication of the whole the Catholic
The
conceptionof
older leaders
nine years V
was
of
Spain a
death
German
to
came
before.
church
had
vanished, but
so
had
visible
were
unity. rapidly passing.
Melanchthon
was
Luther
to live till1560.
had
died
Charles
in 1555, and seek retirement at Yuste in Spain till
resignhis possessionof
the Netherlands
year later,and to him in 1558.
SECTION
VI.
THE
SCANDINAVIAN
LANDS
had been nominally united Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under one Since sovereignsince the union of Kalmar, in 1397. had also been under Danish control. 1460, Schleswig-Holstein In none of these lands was the crown powerful. In all,the great 1
Kidd,
pp.
363, 364.
REFORMATION
THE
ecclesiasticswere?
IN
DENMARK
and unpopular as oppressive,
383
often
foreign-
rivalrywith the nobility. In no in England, was the Reformation portiono" Europe, not even to be more thoroughlypolitical.At the dawn of the Reforma tion the Danish throne was occupied by Christian II (15131523), an enlighteneddespot of Renaissance sympathies. He of the nobles and the chief evil of his kingdom in the power saw and to limit that of the bishops by introducing ecclesiastics, he secured a Lutheran the Lutheran movement preacher in in all they
born, and
the
Reinhard, in 1520, and
of Martin
person
in
were
an
in
adviser
brief time in 1521.
Partiallyat least through the latter's counsels,a law of 1521 forbad appeals to Rome, reformed the monasteries,limited the authorityof the bishops, and permitted priestlymarriage. Opposition prevented its of the privilegedclasses,which execution, and the hostility for
Karlstadt
a
Christian II had
in 1523, and in his stead.
throne
in many drove him from his ways, made his uncle, Frederick I (1523-1533),
roused
King forced by Though inclined to Lutheranism, Frederick was the partieswhich had put him on the throne to promise to of the nobles and prevent any heretical respect the privileges penetrated the land. In Hans preaching. Yet Lutheranism and former Wittenberg Tausen (1494-1561), a one-time monk from 1524 on student, it found a preacher of popular power ward.
The had
ment
under
sen
year
A
chaplain. The
his
protectionas
hands.
toleration
translation of the New
Testa
been published. By 1526, King Frederick took Tau
the confirmation
took own
before,a Danish
year
the
King
bishopsinto
his
this into statute, granted
enacted
Lutherans, and
to
of
appointment
of the
law of 1527
same
permitted priestlymarriage.1
aided by the support of a largesection of changes were the nobilitywon of their attacks by the King's countenance ecclesiasticalrightsand property. In 1530, the same on year the Tausen and associates his laid as Augsburg Confession, before the Danish Parliament the "Forty-three Copenhagen
These
Articles." ism made The most a
No
decision
reached
was
increasing progress
death
time, but Lutheran
tillFrederick's
left all in confusion.
of Frederick
of the nobles favored
determined
at the
the
in 1533.
Of his two
sons,
elder,Christian III (1536-1559),
Lutheran, while 1
demise
Kidd,
the
p. 234,
bishops supported the
from
ICELAND
distracting periodof civilconflictfollowed, The Christian III emerged the victor in 1536. imprisoned,their authorityabolished, and church
Johann.
younger,
AND
NORWAY,
DENMARK,
384
which
bishops were
A
Christian
property confiscated for the crown.1
Wittenberg
for aid.
reformation
in 1540, and
called
now
on
Bugenhagen, Luther's associate, Lutheran in 1537, and seven named new superintendents, came ordained by the King, but retainingthe title "bishop," were himself a presbyter. The reformer, who was by the German church was Danish now reorganizedin fullyLutheran fashion.2 a Norway was separate kingdom, but by election under the the land Danish scarcelytouched King. The Reformation that followed during the reignof Frederick I. In the struggles Archbishop Olaf Engelbrektsson of Trondhjem, the head of led a temporizingparty and fled the land the Norwegian clergy, made Danish Christian Ill's success. a on Norway was Danish Lutheran constitution religious province,and the new Effective preaching and superin was nominally introduced. in Norway was, however, largelyneglectedby Chris tendence tian III with the result that the Reformation, imposed from long in taking effective possessionof popular sym above, was pathies. be told of the far-away Danish Much the same story may Iceland. travelled slowlythither. The Reformation possession, in Germany of Skalholt, educated Bishop Gisser Einarsen and of Lutheran sympathies,began a conservative Lutheran ment
Johann
published.
was
the
In
same
1548
an
year a
Icelandic New
strong Catholic
Testa
reaction,led
by Bishop Jon Aresen of Holum, attempted to throw off the Danish suppressed and yoke. By 1554 the rebellion was Lutheranism forciblyestablished,though long with littlepopu lar
approval. reformation
The national found
of Sweden
largelybound
was
strugglefor independence.
bitter
resistance
His
throne.
to
Christian
his efforts to
chief supporter was Gustaf procured from
Gustaf
secure
up
with
a
II of Denmark the
Swedish
Trolle,archbishopof
Pope Leo X approval of the of his opponents, though that oppositionwas excommunication and purelypolitical.In 1520 Christian II captured Stockholm followed his coronation as King of Sweden by a deed of the utmost cruelty. He had the unsuspecting nobles, gathered Upsala.
i
Kidd
pp.
322-328.
2
Ibid.,pp. 328-335.
REFORMATION
THE for
SWEDEN
IX
ceremoAy,executed, nominally
the
rebellion
Stockholm
The
heretics.
againstChristian II;
leader in Gustaf
Vasa.
of Blood
Bath
The
which
excommunicated
as
found
to
a
energetic expelled and, in
were
chosen King (1523-1560). doctrine was Lutheran being
1523, Gustaf
Sweden
roused
soon
Danes
385
an
was
Meanwhile
taught by
two
brothers,who had returned in 1519 from studies in Wittenberg Olaf (1497-1552) and Lars Petersson (1499-1573),who la the archdeacon, Lars Andersbored in Strengnas,and soon won favor definitely son (1482-1552). By 1524 King Gustaf was became his chancellor,and Lars ing these leaders. Andersson Petersson professorof theology in Upsala. On December 27, Olaf between in discussion Petersson, now 1524, a Upsala champion, Peter Galle, preacherin Stockholm, and the Roman "
victoryfor the reformers.1 Part of the support of the King was conviction,but no small probably due to religious which portion was owing to the dire poverty of the crown, Gustaf thought could be remedied only by extensive confisca tion of church property. In June, 1527, the King struck the seemed
blow.
a
At
the
of Westeras
Diet
Gustaf
and
demanded
ob
of the assignment to the crown tained by threat of resignation, all episcopalor monastic property which the King should deem for proper not needed religiouswork, the surrender to the heirs of the originalowners of all lands exempt from taxes acquiredby the church since 1454, and "pure" preachingof "God's Provision was made for the reconstitution of Word." the
church
royal authority.2 Though
under
master
the
of
largepart of its prop in religion conservatively.Most erty, Gustaf used his power of the old prelates The bishop'soffice was left the land. re now tained,though its holders were appointedby the King. New bishops were consecrated,with the old rites,in 1528, at the hands of Bishop Peter Magni, of Wresteras,who had re ceived his officein Catholic days, and through whom apostoli
Swedish
church, and
cal succession
was
now
episcopate. Further synod of Orebro in 1529.3
in 1529, and named
without 1
Lars
the "Swedish Petersson
was
over jurisdiction
Kidd, pp.
155-164.
a
believed to be transmitted
Lutheran the
of
possessor
2
reform A
made
the Swedish
taken by service was issued
measures
were
Swedish in 1531.
Mass"
to
In the
year
last
archbishopof Upsala,though
his fellow
bishops
Ibid.,pp. 234-236.
"
3
that
remained
Ibid. , pp. 236-239.
in
FAREL
386
the hands
of the
IN
FRENCH
King.
Most
SWITZERLAND of the lower
clergyacceptedthe and kept their places,but such changes by royal Reformation far from winning immediate were popular approval,and power became it was long before Sweden thoroughly Evangelical. Its type of Lutheranism in doctrine and practicewas strongly conservative.
The
Finland, then part of church
to
was
1592);
but
it
the
the
formally adopted
the
it that of
monarchy. The Swedish period of Romanizing reaction,
reign of Gustaf's
Johan
son,
in 1593, when
ended
was
carried with
Swedish
through a
pass
under especially
of Sweden
reform
the
synod
III
(1569-
of
Upsala
the creed
Augsburg Confessionas
of
Sweden.
SECTION
VII.
REVOLT
IN
FRENCH
BEFORE
Zurich
the
the dukes
of
ing territories in
GENEVA
CALVIN
in northern
strongest power
the
neighborhoodof
Lake
ceptance of Evangelicalviews
by Bern
(ante,p. 363), led the
government
troduction
AND
Switzerland, in constant south. The latter was rivalrywith of French-speak for possession Savoy, especially
was
in the
Bern
SWITZERLAND
Bernese
of the Reformation
on
into these
Geneva.
The
February 7, to
ac
1528
further the in
dependent districts
by encouragingthe preachingof Guillaume Farel (1489-1565). Farel was a native of Gap, in the French provinceof Dauphine. As
a
in Paris he
student
under
came
the influence of the hu
manistic
reformer,Jacques Le Fevre, of Etaples,and by 1521 was preachingunder the auspicesof the moderately reformatory Guillaume An orator of fieryve Briconnet, bishopof Meaux. and stentorian voice,he soon so was hemence, intense feeling,
preaching the Reformation 1524
he
to his
The
that he had in
urgingreform expulsion. was
next
months
Farel visited
November,
were
a
to leave France.
By
Basel,but his impetuosityled
periodof wandering,duringwhich
Strassburgand
1526, his work
friendship;but, in in French-speaking Switzerland
won
Butzer's
began in Aigle,where the Bernese government defended him, to the Reformation.1 though not yet itself fully committed With views in Bern, Farel's the complete victoryof the newer work went faster. In 1528 Aigle,Ollon, and Bex adopted the ^Kidd,
pp.
477-481.
GENEVA
388
FAREL
Freiburg,but Duke
Charles III of Savoy won the upper hand, beheaded. patriotPhilibert Berthelier was
and
Genevan
the
Seven
IX
renewed
later Geneva
years
into alliance with
effort,this time
the
well
enter
In
1527 the as as ing Freiburg. bishop,Pierre de la Baume, left the city,which he could not control,and fullyattached himself to the Savoyard interests. The was authority of the mcedominus repudiated. Duke Charles attacked the plucky city,but Bern and Freiburg came he had to pledge respect to to its aid in October, 1530, and Genevan liberties.1 Thus far there was littlesympathy with the Reformation
Bern
in Geneva, but Bern
was
and
Protestant
was
the Evangelicalfaith there established. Placards criticising papal claims and presentingreformed doctrine were anxious to
see
posted on
June
9, 1532, but Geneva's
olic, and
the
Genevan
has
been
sent
found
could
but
seen,
his friend Antoine a
placethere
as
doctrine under
this
1534, seized
church.
a
disowned
government In
Lutheranism.2
toward
October
get
no
Cath
ally, Freiburg,was
leanings
any
followingFarel footing in the
came,
city.
as
Farel
(1508-1581) to Geneva, who schoolmaster,and propagated reformed Froment
protection. On January 1, 1533, Froment emboldened to preach publicly,though the result was was a riot. By the followingEaster there were enough Protestants the Lord's Supper, and in December Farel to dare to observe in a diffi The Genevan returned. effectively government was that cult position. Its Catholic ally,Freiburg, demanded Farel be silenced. Its Protestant ally,Bern, insisted on the of the Roman cause.3 arrest of Guy Furbity,the chief defender and on March Farel and his friends held a publicdisputation, 1, ment
broke raised
now
a
the
Under
league with
troops
to
attack
Bernese
pressure
govern
The
Catholic the
the
Freiburg. bishop His action city. greatly
opposition,and on October 1, 1534, the Little Council declared the bishopricvacant, though Geneva stillfar from predominantly Protestant.4 was With the followingyear Farel,emboldened by the successful and June, proceeded to yet result of a public debate in May more positiveaction. On July 23, 1535, he seized the church of La Madeleine, and on August 8 the cathedral of St. Pierre Two itself. An iconoclastic riot swept the churches. days strengthenedGenevan
1
Kidd,
pp.
494-500.
2
Ibid.,pp. 500-504.
3
Ibid,,pp.
504-508.
4
Ibid.,pp.
508-512.
FAREL
GENEVA
IN
389
"
later the and
mass
nuns
thereafter the monks abolished,and speedily
was
driven
were
from
the
city.
On
21, 1536, the
May
of the General
Assembly, ex pressingits determination "to live in this holy Evangelical of God." *" Meanwhile the duke of Savoy had law and word been pressingGeneva at last powerfully sorely,but Bern came Geneva the perilfrom Savoy to its aid in January, 1536. saw removed, only to have danger arise of fallingunder Bernese work
the vote
completed by
was
control.
Yet
the courage
of its citizens
equal to
was
the situ
ation,and on August 7, 1536, Bern acknowledged Genevan free,and had now independence.2 The courageous city was for political than for religious accepted Protestantism, more institutions had all to be formed anew. Its religious reasons. Farel felt himself unequal to the task, and in July, 1536, he French constrained a young acquaintancepassingthrough the The John friend was city to stay and aid in the work. Calvin.3
SECTION
John
Calvin
father,Gerard
in
born
was
miles fifty-eight
VIII.
northeast
Cauvin,
city of Picardy,about His Paris, on July 10, 1509.
Noyon, of
was
a
CALVIN
JOHN
a
self-made
man,
who
had
risen to
the posts of secretary of the Noyon bishopricand attorney for its cathedral chapter,and possessedthe friendship of the pow erful noble
family
of
Hangest,
which
gave
two
bishops
to
of this members Noyon in his lifetime. With the younger familyJohn Calvin was intimatelyacquainted,and this friend with the ways of politesociety shipearned for him a familiarity such as few of the reformers enjoyed. Through the father's
influence the
posts in and
son
received the income
from
certain ecclesiastical
being assignedhim before the age of twelve. ordained. Thus provided He was never with means, Calvin entered the Universityof Paris in August, instruction in Latin given by 1523, enjoying the remarkable Mathurin tion of
near
Noyon,
the earliest
he owed the founda (1479-1564), to whom with styleof great brilliancy.Continuing his course Cordier
a
then the custom, on philosophy and specialemphasis, as was Calvin completed his undergraduatestudies early in dialectics, 1528. 1
As
Kidd, pp.
a
student he formed 512-519.
2
a
number
Ibid.,pp. 519-521.
of
warm
friendships, j*Ibid.,p.
544.
CALVIN'S
390
STUDENT
LIFE
notably with the familyof Guillaume and
an
supporter of humanism.
eager
Calvin's
Gerard
Cop, the King'sphysician,
father had
Cauvin
in
designed him quarrelwith
for
theology,but by
1527
the
Noyon cathedral chap should study law. that his son For that ter and determined Calvin now went to the Universityof Orleans, where discipline Pierre de 1'Estoile (1480-1537) enjoyed great fame as a jurist, and in 1529 to the Universityof Bourges, to listen to Andrea Alciati (1493-1550). Humanistic interests, also, stronglyat in he Greek and tracted him, began Bourges with the aid of a German teacher, Melchior Wolmar (1496-1561). He gradu in
ated his
law; but the death of his father,in 1531, left Calvin master, and he now in the humanist
own
Hebrew Francis
I had
founded
first book
his
on
was
Clemency "
vel of
which
the study of Greek and College de France, which King in Paris in 1530. He was hard at work took
up
his Commentary
"
publishedin
was
erudition,and
marked
no
Treatise
Seneca's
on
April,1532. less by
a
It
was
profound
a
on
mar
of
sense
values; but in it Calvin displayed no interest in the religious questionsof the age. He was stillsimply an earnest, deeply learned humanist. moral
Yet
it was
trines that manism
had
for want
not
Calvin done
was
of
opportunityto
stilluntouched
its preparatory work
by
know the
in France
the
new
doc
struggle. Hu as
elsewhere.
had been Jacques Le Fevre conspicuousrepresentative Staples (1455?-!536), who made his home in the monastery
Its most of
of St.-Germain and never
des
gatheredabout broke
in 1512
or
Pres in Paris,from 1507, for some years, him a notable group of disciples. Le Fevre
wished
to break
with
the Roman
Church, but
Paul's epistles, which on published a commentary denied the justifying merit of good works, declared salvation the free giftof God, and held to the sole authorityof Scripture. It was the study of a quiet scholar and aroused no sensation at he
the time.
Eleven
tion of the New
years
later,in 1523, he put forth
a
transla
Guillaume Among his pupilswere Briconnet (1470-1534),from 1516 bishop of Meaux; Guillaume Bude (1467-1540), to whose persuasionsthe establishment of. the College de France due; Francois by royal authoritywas Testament.
Vatable
on (?-1547), Calvin's teacher of Hebrew tion; Gerard Roussel (1500?-1550), Calvin's
bishop of Oloron; Louis
de
that founda
friend, later
Berquin(1490-1529),to
die at the
CALVIN'S
CONVERSION
391
"
stake for his Protestantism;and has
Farel, whose
Guillaume
already been
With
noted.
fiery
these
men reformatory career the last of two men reformatoryimpulse,none whom, save humanists sym Church, many tioned,broke with the Roman pathized,such as the family of Cop, whose friendshipCalvin enjoyed in Paris. They had powerful support in King Fran cis's giftedand popularsister, Marguerite d'Angouleme (1492ultimatelyan 1549), from 1527 Queen of Navarre, who was Luther's books early penetratedinto Protestant. unavowed
of
and
France
were
read in this circle. Few
of its members
ized,however, the gravityof
the
situation
priceof reform; main questionswere
but
there
full
the
pay
what
the
Calvin
moved.
They had
was
or
real
ready to ignoranceof
were no
in the scholarlycircle in which not as yet become important for
him. of his Commentary on Seneca's publication of Treatise on Clemency in the springof 1532 and the autumn "sudden conversion." 1 Of its cir 1533 Calvin experienced a cumstances nothing is certainly known, but its central experi and that God spoke to him through the Scriptures was ence the
Between
be obeyed. Religionhad henceforth the first placein his thoughts. How far he even yet thought of break He was stilla mem Church is doubtful. ing with the Roman ber of the humanistic circle in Paris,of which Roussel and his God's
will must
leaders.2 On November 1, Cop were 1533, Cop delivered an inauguraladdress as newly elected rec tor of the Universityof Paris,in which he pleaded for reform, That and Luther.3 using language borrowed from Erasmus is improba Calvin wrote the oration as has often been alleged, The ble,but he undoubtedly sympathized with its sentiments.
intimate
friend Nicolas
commotion
aroused
was
great, and
King
Francis
enjoinedac
4
tion againstthe "Lutherans." Cop and Calvin had to seek safety,which Calvin found in the home of a friend,Louis du
Tillet,in Angouleme. ration from
Calvin's
of the necessityof sepa
sense
the older communion
was
now
rapidlydeveloping,
resignhis benefices on May for a brief time imprisoned. Though Here he was 4, 1534. after for him, especially too perilous soon released,France was theses against the Antoine Marcourt posted his injudicious and
1 3
forced him
to go to
Kidd, pp. 523, 524. Ibid.,pp. 525, 526.
Noyon
to
2
4
Ibid.,pp. 524, 525. Ibid.,pp. 526-528.
in October, 1534,1 and
mass
Calvin
by
was
placardshad
Year's
New
following
been
followed by a sharp renewal victims being Calvin's friend the
of the
one persecution,
about
Basel.
safelyin Protestant
Marcourt's of
INSTITUTES
CALVIN'S
392
de la Forge. Francis I was Parisian merchant, Estienne Protestants againstCharles quettingfor the aid of German French therefore,to justify
and
letter in
February,
felt that
he
as
defend
must
government
no
his slandered
a
could fellow
bear.
V,
public
Protestantism
1535, chargingFrench
such
anarchistic aims
issued persecutions,
co
with
Calvin
believers.
He
therefore rapidlycompleted a work begun in Angouleme, and it with prefacing publishedit in March, 1536, as his Institutes, letter to the French King. The letter is one of the literary a and digni Courteous masterpiecesof the Reformation age. of the Protestant fied,it is a tremendously forceful presentation positionand defense of its holders againstthe royal slanders. had yet spoken with such clearness,re Protestant No French straint,and power, and with it its author of twenty-sixyears into the leadership of French Protestantism.2 stepped at once The Institutes themselves, to which this letter was prefixed, as
were,
which
publishedin 1536,
they
to grow
were
the extensive treatise into
far from
in Calvin's final edition of 1559
;
but
orderly and systematicpopular already the most they were presentationof doctrine and of the Christian life that the Ref formulative rather ormation was produced. Calvin's mind creative.
than
Luther's
Without
antecedent
labors
his work
conceptionof justifica seals of God's promises tion by faith,and of the sacraments as he derived from Butzer, notably his that he presents. Much emphasis on the glory of God as that for which all thingsare could
have been done.
not
created,on on a
election
It is Luther's
doctrine of Christian confidence,and of election as a strenuous endeavor after
as
a
the consequences life of conformityto the will of God.
and
clarifiedwith
a
skill that
was
But
Calvin's
all is systematized own.
highestknowledge, Calvin taught,is that of God and without to leave man of himself. Enough comes by nature but adequate knowledge is given only in the Scriptures, excuse, which the witness of the Spiritin the heart of the believing These reader attests the very voice of God. Scriptures as of all goodness everyteach that God is good, and the source Man's
1
Kidd,
pp.
528-532.
2
Ibid.,pp. 532,
533.
THEOLOGY
CALVIN'S
393
"
Obedience
where.
As
primal duty.
will is man's
God's
to
created,man was originally good and capable of obeying God's alike in Adam's fall,and will,but he lost goodness and power is now, of himself,absolutelyincapable of goodness. Hence of man's
work
no
ruin
of
state
have
can
and
hopeless condition some through the work of Christ. sins of those in whose tion of this cause
a
helpless
died ; yet the offer and
free act
a
was
ransom
is God's
this
in
are
He He
are
undeservedly rescued paid the penalty due for the
men
behalf
men
From
damnation.
meriting only
all
merit ; and
any
God's
on
part,
recep
that its
so
love.
wrought is without avail unless it becomes man's a personal possession. This possessionis effected by works the Holy Spirit,who when, how, and where He will, All that Christ has
union
which, as with Luther, is a vital
faith
and
creating repentance;
the believer and
between
This
Christ.
life of faith
new
is salvation,but it is salvation unto That the righteousness. is the proof that he does works pleasing believer now to God has entered not a
into vital union
without, and yet
Church, though
plishment
tian is the law a
test
which
of
God,
The
of his salvation but as
as
already saved
an
the law
any
an man
for
by the
claimed
set before
standard
contained
as
as
different in relation to the
very
of salvation.
justified
are
Calvin thus left room
strenuous
as
"We
Christ.
works."
by
"works"
conceptionof
Roman
not
with
in the
accom
the
Chris
not Scriptures,
as
expressionof that
will of God
he will strive to
fulfil. This
guide of Christian life was peculiarly Calvin's own. It has made Calvinism always insistent on char is saved to character acter, though in Calvin's conceptionman A prime nourishment rather than by character. of the Chris tian lifeis by prayer. Since all good is of God, and man is unable to initiate or re
emphasis on
as
the
sist his conversion, it follows that the and others are lost is the divine choice tion.
For
a
reason
for that choice
some
reason "
are
election and
beyond
saved
reproba
the will of God
it is
inquire,since God's will is an ultimate fact. Yet to Calvin election was always primarilya doctrine of Christian That comfort. had a plan of salvation for a man, indi God rock of confidence,not only for unshakable an was vidually,
absurd
one
to
convinced
of his
own
by opposingforces even
unworthiness, but for if they were
those of
one
surrounded
and Kings. priests
THEOLOGY
CALVIN'S
394 It made
man
a
a
in the
fellow laborer with God
accomplishment
will.
of God's
institutions have
Three
been
the Christian lifeis maintained
"
divinelyestablished by which the
church, the sacraments, and
civil government. In the last analysisthe church consists of "all the elect of God"; but it also properlydenotes "the whole
who
of mankind
body
.
Christ." hood
Yet
have
shows
there is
no
professto worship one
true
church
God
and
lyingand
"where
ascendancy." The
the
usurped
false
Testament
New
officers, pastors, teachers,elders,and deacons,
church
as
.
.
their chargeswith the assent of the congregation that they serve. Their "call" is twofold, the secret inclina tion from God and the "approbationof the people." Calvin who
enter
on
thus gave to the congregationa voice in the choice of its officers accorded not by any other Reformation party except that of to com Anabaptists,though circumstances at Geneva were pel him to regard that voice there as expressedby the city SimilarlyCalvin claimed for the church full and government. in discipline independent jurisdiction up to the point of ex
the
communication. tion of
which
freedom
a
it could not go ; but it was reten a of all the other leaders the Reformation
Further
however, the
supervision.Civil government has, the church, divinelyappointedtask of fostering
protectingit
from
had
abandoned
whose
crimes
to
state
false
doctrine,and
is insufficient.
excommunication
the mediaeval tially
punishing offenders It
theory of the relations of church
was
for
essen
and
state.
the baptism recognizedonly two sacraments Lord's Supper. Regarding the burning question of Christ's in the Supper, he stood, like Butzer, part way be presence Luther and Zwingli,nearer the Swiss reformer in form, tween in spirit.With and to the German Zwingli he denied any physicalpresence of Christ ; yet he asserts in the clearest terms received by faith. "Christ, a real,though spiritual presence
Calvin
of the substance
out
nay,
does
diffuses His not
On
of His
a
brief visit to
Institutes in the the
court
doubtless
The
souls,
of
springof 1536,
Ferrara, in Italy,
intendingto advance the Evangelicalcause liberal-minded and hospitablefellow countrywoman, 1
our
1
publicationof the
made
life into
flesh,breathes
lifeinto us, though the real flesh of Christ
own
us."
enter
the
Calvin
and
"
quotationsin these paragraphs are
from
with
his
the Duch-
the edition of 1559.
CALVIX
396 that
from
what
IX
in Geneva.
established
now
in
adopted
STRASSBURG
and
Bern
had
the
long
oppositionnow regarded the differ a vote and Genevan of slightimportance, in Bernese as ences usage but an impositionby civil authority,without consultingthe ministers,they viewed as robbing the church of all freedom. Calvin and Farel refused compliance,and on April 23, 1538, it
wished
Geneva,
Calvin
that it be used.
Farel
in Geneva
Their work
banished.1
were
and
secured
seemed
to have
ended
in total failure.
vain attempt at restoration to Geneva by the inter Farel found a pastorate vention of Swiss Protestant authorities, After
a
thenceforth to be his home; and Cal Xeuchatel, which was vin, at Butzer's invitation,a refugein Strassburg. The three in
happiestin Calvin's life. There he was pastor of a church of French refugeesand he was honored by the city and lecturer on theology. There in Charles V's reunion debates of its representatives made one there
years
spent
were
in many
and
Catholics
thereby the friendshipof
Melanchthon
Protestants
between
for
tutes,and
(ante, p. 376), gaining and
other
death
in 1549.
Meanwhile Calvin
which
had
but
made
his banishment
party friendlyto Calvin
sought
in 1541
series
the reformers,
justlyregarded generally.2
a
disastrous
in 1539, which resulted in its overthrow of the negotiatorsas the condemnation
and
Insti
revolution occurred in Geneva for political in no was responsible.The party there way
secured
with Bern
leaders
he found
a
which
The
to be
writing,not merely an enlarged edition of the his Commentary on Romans, the beginningof a
the ablest of vindications of Protestantism
year
re
was
There
that put him in the front rank of exegetes among but his brilliant Reply to Sadoleto,which was as
German
married, in 1540, the wife who
companion tillher
his faithful time
he
There
formers.
the
ways
was
his return. once
more
was
He
once
more
in power,
treaty
the
next
traitors. and
its
with
difficulty persuaded, his own on Geneva, practically was
in
terms.3 Calvin
promptly
secured
the
adoptionof
the Ordonnances, now tical constitution, the recommendations ful return, 1 3
acceptedin
however, he could
Kidd, pp. 577-580. Ibid.,pp. 586-589.
not
far
1537. have 2
his more
new
ecclesias
definite than
spiteof his success them quite all that In
Ibid.,pp.
583-586.
he
ORGANIZATION
CALVIN'SGENEVAN wished. in His
offices of pastor, teacher, elder, and Pastors were define the duties of each. to meet
church
deacon, and
has instituted
declare that Christ
Ordormanccft1
The
397
the
four
public discussion,examination of ministerial can the in what was as didates,and exegesis, popularly known Congregation. The teacher was to be the head of the Geneva school system, which Calvin regarded as an essential factor in the religious trainingof the city. To the deacons were assigned of the hospital. The of the poor and the supervision the care the heart of Calvin's system. elders were laymen, They were from f our from the chosen by the Little Council, two itself, Hundred, and under the presi Sixty,and six from the Two dency of one of the syndics. They, togetherwith the minis meeting every Thursday, and ters, made up the Consistoire, charged with ecclesiastical discipline.To excommunication they could go; beyond that, if the offense demanded, they No rightseemed to the civilauthorities. to refer the case were this of to Calvin so vital to the independence of the church as he compelled so to struggle excommunication, and for none was for
weekly
tillits final establishment
Besides
in 1555.
this task, Calvin
effective catechism,3 and
2
prepared
new
and
much
more
liturgy,based on that of his French congregationin Strassburg,which, in turn, was of that generallyin use in that German a translation essentially Calvin made a good use city. In formulatingit for Genevan modifications
many
It combined had
of
none
descendants
Under one
meet
Genevan
a
customs
or
prejudices.4
Calvin happy union of fixed and free prayer. the hostility againstfixed forms which his spiritual a
in
Great
Britain
and
America
afterward
mani
It also gave full place to singing. Calvin's guidance,and he held no other office than that
fested.
of
to
introduced
a
of the ministers
of the
city,much
was
done
for educa
lifewas under the improved trade; but all Genevan minute and constant supervisionof the Consistoire. Calvin would Geneva model make of a perfectedChristian a com munity. Its strenuous Evangelicalismattracted refugeesin of them of position, men large numbers, many learning,and wealth, principallyfrom France, but also from Italy, the became Netherlands, Scotland, and England. These soon a tion and
1 3
for
Kidd, pp. 589-603. Extracts, Kidd, pp.
2
604-615.
4
Ibid.,p. 647. Kidd, pp. 615-628.
CALVIN'S
398
CONFLICTS
important factor in Genevan life. Calvin himself,and all his associated ministers,were foreigners.Opposition to his from the first, rule appeared practically strenuous but, by 1548, made serious. It was had grown elements, up of two very very
those
whom
to
would discipline
any
irksome; and
been
have
felt
families who formidable,those of old Genevan that Calvin, his fellow ministers,and the refugeeswere much
more
eignerswho
imposinga foreignyoke
were
on
a
for
heroic
city of
of independence. That there was a party of relig ious Libertins in Geneva, is a baseless tradition. traditions
Calvin's that
time
older
of the
some
from
strugglewas
severest
1548
inhabitants
to
1555, from
began
to
the
fear that
by the refugees,till the they would be swamped politically were refugees,almost all of whom eager supporters of Calvin, what had been dreaded, and made Calvin's position achieved in fame outside of Geneva, unshakable. Constantlyincreasing Calvin stood in imminent throughout this period,of hav peril, ing his Genevan work overthrown. The
cases
of conflict
specialprominence. Hermes
Bolsec,
a
were
The
former
but
many,
first monk
that
was
two
stand
caused
of Paris, now
out
by
with
Jerome
Protestant
a
In the CongregationBolsec Geneva. physicianin Veigy, near in assertingpredestination.That charged Calvin with error the very of Calvin's authority, foundations to attack was of the Scrip for his sole hold on Geneva an was as interpreter he was If he was tures. not rightin all, thoroughlydiscredited. in Calvin took Bolsec's charges before the city government Bolsec's trial. The October, 1551. The result was opinions of other
Swiss
governments
were
asked, and
it
was
evident
did Cal as weight to predestination with that Calvin vin. It was procured Bolsec's difficulty in strenuous banishment, and the episodeled him to a more Chris sistence of the vital importance of predestination a as As for Bolsec, he ultimately heretofore.1 tian truth than even and avenged himself on communion returned to the Roman Calvin's memory by a grosslyslanderous biography. with difficulty, when in Calvin was thus holding his power for some which February, 1553, the elections, years had been fairlybalanced, turned decidedly in favor of his opponents. that
they attached
His
fall seemed
no
such
inevitable,when 1
Kidd,
pp.
he
was
641-645.
rescued and
put
on
SERVETUS
399
l
the path to ultimate victoryby the arrival in Geneva of Miguel forms the second of those here men Servetus, whose case Servetus
tioned.
as Spaniard, almost the same age of great, though erratic, Calvin, and undoubtedly a man genius. In 1531 he publishedhis De Trinitatis Erroribus. Compelled h e the his of to conceal name identity, studied medicine under Villeneuve, being the real discoverer of the pulmonary cir was
culation of the blood.
a
settled in Vienne
He
in
France, where he
his developed a largepractice. He was working secretly on Restitution of Christianity, which he publishedearly in 1553. To his thinking,the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity,the Chalcedonian the chief Christology,and infant baptism were of the corruptionof the church. As earlyas 1545, he sources had begun an exasperatingcorrespondence with Calvin, whose Institutes he contemptuously criticised. unmasked Servetus's identityand authorship were to the ecclesiasticalauthorities in Lyons, by Calvin's friend, Roman Guillaume Trie, who, a little later, supplied further proof obtained
himself.
Calvin
from
burned; though, before sentence, in Vienne.
For
demnation the of
now
notorious
that it could.
prison
his way His con
dare
did not
come
out
and
openly in defense
heretic,but made Calvin all the difficulties As for Servetus,he had much hope for a favor demanded
goods adjudged viction and
escaped from he made
be
to
a
issue,and
able
had
was
which opposition, so
he
condemned
there arrested in August, 1553. Calvin became a test of strengthbetween
Geneva, and
to
was
to understand
hard
reasons
He
death
to
that The
him.
by
fire
on
Calvin
be exiled and
trial ended
October
Calvin's
in Servetus's
con
Though
27, 1553.
a
few
voices of protest were raised,notably that of Sebastien Castellio that (1515-1563) of Basel, most men agreedwith Melanchthon it
"
was
end
may
justlydone." seem
However
in retrospect,for Calvin
It freed the Swiss churches
doxy had
odious the trial and
from
any
it was
a
its tragic
great victory.
imputationof
unortho-
the doctrine of the Trinity,while Calvin's opponents ruined themselves by making difficultthe punishment of on
whom
the
generalsentiment of that age condemned. Calvin's improved status was soon apparent. The elections of 1554 were so. decidedlyin his favor,those of 1555 yet more In January, 1555, he secured permanent recognitionof the one
rightof
the Consistoire to
'
proceed to
excommunication
with-
CALVIN'S
400
AND
SUCCESS
governmental interference.1
The
INFLUENCE
largely Calvinist its position government proceeded, the same year, to make of the refugeesto secure by admitting a considerable number A slightriot on the evening of May the franchise. 16, 1555, seized as the occasion of begun by Calvin's opponents, was executingand banishingtheir leaders as traitors. Henceforth the party favorable to Calvin was undisputedmaster of Geneva. Bern stillhostile,but the common was danger to Bern and when Emmanuel Geneva Philibert,duke of Savoy and victor the French for Spain over enabled at St.-Quentinin 1557, was to lay claim to his duchy, then mostly in possessionof the in January, 1558, French, brought about a "perpetualalliance," in which Geneva stood for the first time on a full equalitywith Thus its ally,Bern. relieved of the most at pressingperils, his Genevan work and abroad, Calvin crowned home by the in reality, foundation in 1559 of the "Genevan Academy" It be as it has long since become, the Universityof Geneva.2 instruction came immediately the greatest centre of theological in the Reformed communions, as distinguishedfrom the Lutheran, and the great seminary from which ministers in numbers forth not sent were only to France but in less de gree to the Netherlands, England, Scotland, Germany, and Italy. out
now
"
Calvin's influence extended
far b"?yopd Geneva.
Thanks
to
his pattern of churcfcu^e'rfiment in Geneva, his his Institutes, academy, his commentaries, and his constant correspondence,
he moulded
the thought and inspiredthe ideals of the Protes tantism of France, the Netherlands, Scotland, and the English Puritans. His influence penetratedPoland and Hungary, and
taking root in southwestern His Germany itself. Men thought his thoughts after him. the only system that the Reformation was produced that could organizeitselfpowerfullyin the face of governmental hostility, in France confident and England. It trained strong men, as
before his death
Calvinism
was
in their election to be fellow workers with God in the accom to do battle,insistent on char plishmentof His will,courageous acter, and confident that God has given in the Scripturesthe conduct guide of all right human of Calvin,in most spiritual disciples
stamp.
mon 1
Kidd,
p. 647.
This
was
and
proper
worship.
various lands,bore one Calvin's work, a mastery of mind 2
Ibid.,p. 648.
The com over
ENGLAND
ON
EVE
THE
OF
REVOLT
THE
401
I
the time of his death
mind, and certainly by
in
Geneva,
on
May
of "the only international 27, 1564* he deserved the description
reformer." Calvin
l
left
no
of
successor
large for
The
equal stature.
work
had
in Geneva, and to a considerable extent in his labors beyond its borders,his mantle fell on the worthy shoulders of Theodore Beza (1519too
grown
1605), a devoted
man
of
to the
more
same
SECTION
to
man
one
any
direct.
But
and gentlerways, conciliatory spirit
but
ideals.
THE
IX.
ENGLISH
REVOLT
In
controlled England the stronger Kings had longpractically made appointments,and such as were episcopal directlyby the basis of agreement with the sover Pope were usuallyon some filled eign. The chief political by churchmen, partly posts were because few laymen could vie with them in learningor experi and partly because the emoluments of high churchly ence, office made such appointments inexpensive for the royal treasury. Naturally,in such appointments,abilityand use fulness in the royal service were valued than apt to be more fitness. Such was the state of affairs when spiritual Henry VIII (1509-1547)began his reign. Some Wyclifianismexisted in humble circlesand occasionally under churchly censure. came Humanism had entereu ,landand had found supporters in T
limited groups
dean ultimately on
the educated.
John
Colet
(1467 ?-1519), London, had lectured in Oxford Paul's epistles, in full humanistic as spirit, early as 1496, among
and
refounded
of St. Paul's in
St. Paul's school in 1512.
Erasmus
had taught Cambridge from 1511 to 1514, having first visited England in 1499, and he made friends there. One of these was many in
the
excellent
and
another, the famous
there
John
Fisher
(1469?-1535), bishop of Rochester, Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). Yet
littlein the situation at the
beginningof Henry VIII's reignthat made a change in the existingecclesiasticalsituation seem possible. One trait of the national life was conspicuous, to be the basis of Henry VIII's support. however, which was That was a strongly developed national consciousness a feelingof England for Englishmen that was easilyaroused to encroachment from whatever source. oppositionto all foreign was
"
"
1
Kidd,
p. 651.
402
VIII
HENRY
WISHES
MARRIAGE
ANNULLED
Henry VIII, who has been well described as a "tyrant under of remarkable intellectualabilitiesand legalforms," was a man executive force, well read and always interested in scholastic theology,sympathetic with humanism, popular with the mass and self-seeking. of the people,but egotistic, In the obstinate, earlypart of his reign he had the support of Thomas Wolsey a (1475-1530), who became privy councillor in 1511, and in lord chancellor by the King and cardinal by made 1515 was Thenceforth he was When Henry's righthand. Pope Leo X. Luther's writingswere received in England their use for was bidden, and Henry VIII publishedhis Assertion of the Seven Sacraments from Leo X the againstLuther in 1521, which won title "Defender
of the Faith."
At the
beginningof
his
reign
Henry had married Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain,and widow, though the marriagehad been in name A dispensation one only,of his older brother,Arthur. authorizingthis marriagewith a deceased brother's wife had Six children were born of been granted by Julius II in 1503. this union, but only one, Mary, survived infancy. By 1527, if not earlier, religious scruplesas to the valid Henry was alleging Had not wholly sensual. were ityof his marriage. His reasons they been, he might well have been content with his mistresses. A woman of the Roses had never ruled England. The Wars had ended as recentlyas 1485. The absence of a male heir, It was should Henry die,would probablycausa civil war. not likelythat Catherine would have further children. He wanted another wife, and a male heir. Wolsey was induced to favor the
project, partlyfrom
his sub
King, and partlybecause, ifthe marriage with should be declared invalid, he hoped Henry would
servience to the Catherine marry
the
and
French thus
be
Renee, princess, drawn
afterward
duchess
of Fer-
firmly from the Spanish to side in continental politics.Henry, however, had the French other plans. He had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, a lady A complicated negotiationfollowed, in which of his court. Wolsey did his best to pleaseHenry, while Catherine behaved treated with cruelty. Prob with dignityand firmness,and was of the marriage might have been secured ably an annulment from Pope Clement VII had it not been for the course of Euro which left the Emperor Charles V victor in war, politics, pean and forced the Pope into submission to the imperialpolicy rara,
more
THE
404
SUPREMACY
ROYAL
threateningexcommunication againstHenry on July 11, series obtained of statutes from 1533. was a Henry's answer in 1534, by which all payments Parliament to the Pope were the King's nomina to be elected on forbidden,all bishopswere and tion, and all oaths of papal obedience, Roman licenses, other recognitionsof papal authority done away.1 The two convocations now formally abjured papal supremacy.2 In November, 1534, Parliament passed the famous Supremacy his and which "the declared successors were Act, by Henry head in earth of the Church of England," without only supreme heresies" to redress qualifyingclauses,and with full power understood and This was "abuses."3 not by the King or its authors as givingspiritual such as ordination,the rights, a
bull
"
administration it
of the the
practicallyput with
and
sacraments
King
in the
like,but in all else
the
place
of the
Pope.
The
these statutes in complete. Nor were of monks of meaningless. In May, 1535, a number way of the most respectedorders in England, that of the Car
breach any one
Rome
was
Charterhouse,
thusians,or
executed
were
under
circumstances
In peculiarbarbarity,for denying the King's supremacy. and July the two June most widely known subjectsof the More, distinguished King, Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas of
were scholarship,
and
for character
alike
beheaded
for the
offense.
same
his work, Henry had found a new agent in Thomas of very humble Cromwell origin,a sol (1485?-!540), a man dier,merchant, and money-lender by turns, of whom Wolsey business and parliamentaryagent. By much had made use as For
of the privy council;in 1534 master rolls;and in 1536, layman that he was, viceregentfor the King in ecclesiastical affairs. Henry was hungry for ecclesiastical
Cromwell
1531
property, both reward
by
maintain
to
adherents
these
Cromwell
his lavish court
"
and
late
the monasteries
have
in
1534
he
visited and
allegedfacts,the truth
The
and to create
everywhere
Reformation
the
"
confiscations to
condition.
of the
was
or
was
and
marked
commissioned
report
on
their
falsityof which
is
in laid before Parliament, which disputed matter, were February, 1536, adjudged to the King, "his heirs and assigns wills,"all forever,to do and use therewith his and their own still a
1
Gee
and pp.
Hardy, 243,
pp.
244.
201-232.
2
Ibid.,pp. 251, 252.
RISE
OF
PARTY
PROTESTANT
A
405
I
having an income of less than two number thus sequestered hundred; pounds annually.1 The three hundred and seventy-six. was Meanwhile Henry had been in part relieved from the danger of foreign intervention by the death in January, 1536, of to have wished Catherine of Aragon. He seems to con now to the criticisms of that with Anne tract a marriage not open he was, tired. She was accord Boleyn, of whom moreover, inglycharged with adultery,in May, 1536, whether rightly or wrongly is impossible to decide, though the accusation and on the 19th was Two beheaded. suspicious, days be seems had pronounced her marriage to Henry null and fore Cranmer Eleven void. days later Henry married Jane Seymour, who monastic
bore him
establishments
a
son,
Edward,
on
12, 1537, and
October
died twelve
the suppressionof Henry's deeds, especially the monasteries,aroused much notably in northern opposition, known England, with the result that a formidable insurrection, of 1536, the Pilgrimageof Grace, broke out in the summer as but by the early part of the following was effectually year
days thereafter.
crushed.
changes in England were primarilythose of ecclesiastical politics rather than religious conviction,the dis turbed state of the country gave opportunityfor a real,though as Protestant party. In originit seems to have yet not numerous, been more indigenousthan imported,and to have followed more Like at first the pathway shown by Wyclif than by Luther. Wyclif,it looked to the state to reform the church, and viewed
Though
these
the riches of the church
as
a
Hence hindrance to itsspirituality.
this party had littlefault to find with confiscations. Like Wyclif, it valued
Bible, and
by
came
and
more
conformity to
the
the
to translate the New
publishedin England,
he
and
more
William
and
circulation of the
to test doctrine
Scriptures. As the
to feel more veloped,it came A conspicuousleader was
Eager
more
Henry's assertions and
ceremony
revolt de
German
continental influences.
Tyndale
Testament, and found refuge on
(1492?-1536).
unable
to
have
the Continent
it in
publisheda reallyadmirable transla tion from the Greek in 1526. Churchly and civil authorities the knowledge tried to suppress it,but it was a force in spreading of the Scriptures.Tyndale himself died a martyr in Vilvorde, 1524, visited Luther, and
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp. 257-268.
HENRY'S
406
RELIGIOUS
OWN
ATTITUDE
Brussels,in 1536. Tyndale's friend,John Frith (15031533), found refugein Marburg, and thence returned to Eng in 1533 for land, only to be arrested and burned in London near
denying the doctrines of purgatory and transubstantiation. In sympathy with these doctrinallyreformatory views, though Cranmer, Nicholas Ridley were varying in outward expression, (1490?-1555), and John Hooper (1500?-!555), Hugh Latimer (?-1555),all to be bishops,and all to die by fire for their faith. As Henry's oppositionto Rome developed,Protestant feeling laymen of influence,a conspicuousinstance spread among being the Seymour family,from which Henry had taken his ,
third
Queen.
that of Catholic ortho attitude was religious Henry's own the substitution of his own on doxy, save authorityfor that of the Pope. His only departuresfrom it were when dangers of attack from abroad compelled him to seek possible political the German
support from Such
far.
Protestants,and he did
occasion
an
in the years discuss doctrine
occurred
then go and 1536.
not
1535
in Wittenberg, to little. In 1536 Henry himself drafted Ten though it came Articles in which he made his utmost concession to Protestant He
sent
ism.
commission
a
The
to
authoritative
of faith
standards
are
the Bible, the the "four first
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, and Apostles', defined: baptism,pen councils." Only three sacraments are and mentioned the Lord's Supper; the others are not ance, either
in
Christ
approval or
alone, but
Justification
denial.
confession
impliesfaith
absolution
and
and
works
in of
Christ is physically charityare also necessary. present in the Supper. Images are to be honored, but with moderation. The saints are to be invoked, but not because they "will hear us
sooner
but
the
Christ."
than
idea that
Masses
for the dead
the "bishop of Rome"
can
are
desirable,
deliver out
of
purgatory is to be rejected. A was
influential act of this time, instigated by Cranmer, that an English translation of the Bible,made up in large more
part of Tyndale's version,but in considerable portionfrom the inferior work of Miles Coverdale, was allowed sale in 1537, and was
the
ordered
public in
commandments
by
Cromwell
each were
placed accessible to Lord's Prayer and the ten church.1 The the litanywas to be taught in English, 1
in
Gee and
1538
Hardy,
to
be
p. 275.
HENRY'S
POLICY
RELIGIOUS
407
un translated;but otherwise worship remained substantially changed In the Latin language and form while Henry lived. Henry's work during these years had been free from for at eign interference,because Charles V and Francis I were from 1536 to 1538. With the arrival of peace his dangers war a greatly increased. The Pope demanded joint attack by France and Spain on the royalrebel. Henry's diplomacy and
it off; but he warded jealousies importanceto lessen his peril.He would mutual
he
Catholic
several
show
steps of
the world
that
in regard to the Pope. Ac cordingly,in June, 1539, Parliament passed the Six Articles Act.1 It affirmed as the creed of England a strict doctrine of was
an
orthodox
took
save
denial of which transubstantiation,
was
to be
punishedby fire. wine, and priestly
in both bread and repudiatedcommunion of marriage. It ordered the permanent observation of vows and auricular confession. chastity,enjoinedprivate masses, This statute remained in force tillHenry's death. It was not enough, however, that Henry should show himself orthodox. He was Cromwell a widower, and was urgent that he strengthen his positionby a marriage which would pleasethe German Protestants,and unite him with those opposed to the Emperor It
Charles V.
Anne
of Cleves, sister of the wife of John Fred Elector,was selected. The marriage took place
the Saxon erick, on January 6, 1540. Meanwhile Henry had completed the confiscations monasteries
in 1539.2
Francis and
Charles
and
He
stronger
at
evidentlysoon beginning to court
to
was
were
the Emperor was German Protestants looked askance
longerneeded
at
home
of all the
than
ever.
be
again at war, Henry's assistance.
his Six
Articles,and he
their aid.
Henry had regardedthe mar riagewith Anne of Cleves as a mere political expedient. An annulment obtained in July, 1540, from the bishops on was the ground that the King had never given "inward consent" to the marriage, and Anne was handsomely indemnified pe the marriage was cuniarily.For Cromwell, to whom due, he had A bill of attainder was further use. no put through Parliament,and the King's able, but utterlyunscrupulous, beheaded servant was on July 28, 1540. These events were accompanied by increasing oppositionto the Protestant ele evidenced in Henry's ment, and this Catholic inclination was now
no
1
Gee
and
Hardy, pp.
303-319.
2
Ibid.,pp.
281-303.
IN
PROTESTANTISM
408
POWER
marriage to Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk, shortlyafter his separationfrom Anne of Cleves ; but the new and in February, 1542, to question, Queen's conduct was open she was beheaded. In July, 1543, he married Catherine Parr, had the fortune to survive him. On January 28, 1547, who Henry died. At Henry's death England was divided into three parties. Of these,that embracing the great body of Englishmen stood fairlywith the late King in desiringno considerable change in doctrine or worship,while rejecting foreignecclesiasticaljuris diction. been It had Henry's strength that, with all his of this great middle party. fairlyrepresentative tyranny, he was There neither fairlyrepresen besides,two small parties, were, tative Catholic wing that would of the restore the power a "
papacy, as
it
was
and
a
Protestant
understood
the Continent.
on
introduce reform
faction that would
The
latter had
un
doubtedly been growing,in spiteof repression, duringHenry's smaller It was last years. to be England's fortune that the two in power and unrepresentative partiesshould be successively turmoil agra duringthe next two reigns,and that to religious rian unrest should be added, owing to the great changes in and even to confiscations, more property caused by monastic lands by greedy landlords,and the im enclosures of common tenants by the loss of their timepoverishment of humbler honored rightsof use. but nine years of age. therefore,administered in his name by Edward
VI
The
was
Hertford, or, as he was chief, with the Somerset, was
earl of
a
government
was,
council,of which
immediatelycreated, duke title of
Protector.
the of
Somerset
King's mother, the short-lived of Protestant sympathies,and of He was Jane Seymour. a man in religious excellent intentions a believer in a degreeof liberty and political contrast to Henry VIII. questions in marked lower agricul He was, also,a sincere friend of the dispossessed his rule the new tural classes. Under comparative freedom of and much local innovations religious expressionled to many and more controversy, in which the revolutionaryparty more ordered the ad In 1547 Parliament gained the upper hand. ministration of the cup to the laity.1The same year the last
was
the
brother
of the
young
"
great confiscation of church 1
Gee
and
lands Hardy,
occurred pp.
322-328.
"
the dissolution of
409
BOOK
PRAYER
THE I
chapels for saying masses. also fraternities and guilds were of religious The properties Six Articles were The repealed. Early in 1548 sequestered.1 images were ordered removed from the churches. The marriage made legalin 1549.2 of priest was is,endowed
the "chantries," that
The
confusion
soon
great, and
became
as
a
means
at
once
of
securing order, Parliament, on January 21, 1549, enacted an Act of Uniformity,3by which the universal use of a Book of Common Prayer in English was required.This book, known as the First Prayer Book of Ed ward VI, was largelythe work of Cranmer, based on the older of a revised Roman use English services in Latin, with some breviary,publishedin 1535 by Cardinal Fernandez de Quinones, and the Lutheranly inclined tentative Consultation of Hermann In its Wied, archbishop of Cologne, issued in 1543. von largerfeature it is stillthe Prayer Book of the Church of Eng land, but this edition preserved much of detail of older wor at burials, ship, such as prayers for the dead, communion anointing and exorcism in baptism, and anointing the sick,
advancing the
reforms
which
to
was
soon
and
be abandoned.
In the Eucharist
the words
the were handing the elements to the communicant first clause of the present Anglican form, implying that the body and blood of Christ are reallyreceived. troubles. To beset with political was Meanwhile, Somerset in Scotland he urged of France the growing power counteract countries by the ultimate marriage of the union of the two with the Scottish Princess Mary, to be "Queen King Edward of Scots," and supportedhis efforts by an invasion of Scotland in which the Scots were terriblydefeated, on September 10, frustrated. was 1547, at Pinkie,but by which his main purpose to betroth Mary to the The angered Scottish leaders hastened heir of France, the later Francis II, an event of prime signifi used
cance
in
for the Scottish reformation.
Somerset's fall came ble to himself. lieved that
monastic
They
were
efforts should
be
furthered
to
check
enclosures.
oppositionof the landowning classes, more were none greedy than the recent purchasersof risingstook place in 1549. property. Extensive of largelyby the efficiency put down with difficulty,
In this he of whom
He
credita about, however, throughcauses realized the agrariandiscontent,and be
had
the bitter
'Gee and Hardy, pp. 328-357.
*Ibid.,pp.
366-368.
Ubid., pp. 358-366.
AND
SOMERSET
410
the earl of Warwick. Warwick
headed
a
NORTHUMBERLAND
in favor with the propertied classes, which thrust from Somerset his conspiracy Thus
protectoratein October, 1549. he later be as Warwick, or the duke of Northumberland the assuming the title Protector,was now though never came, situation under in England. The religious powerfulman of great modera went rapidchange. Somerset had been a man was tion, anxious to conciliate all parties. Northumberland without religiousprincipleshimself, but he pushed forward for political and the movement the Protestant cause reasons, radical character. took on much more a Though ap now parently reconciled to Somerset, he distrusted the former in 1552. beheaded protector'spopularity,and had Somerset His own greed,tyranny, and misgovernment made him cor diallyhated. The not popular. Conservatives Prayer Book of 1549 was felt that it retained too disliked the changes. Protestants of Roman These criticisms were much supportedby a usage. of prominence,driven from Ger number of foreigntheologians by the Interim,who found welcome in England, of whom many Butzer of Strassburg. This hostility the most influential was radical policyof able to be effective under the more was now Northumberland, and led to the revision of the Prayer Book, Much Act of Uniformity in 1552.1 and its reissue under a new done away. of the ancient ceremonial was now Prayers more most
for the dead for the the
were
now
altar,common
Supper, exorcism
ments
table substituted omitted, a communion bread, instead of a specialwafer, used in and anointingset aside,the priests' vest
and restricted to the surplice,
what
is
now
the second
Anglican form of the deliveryof the elements substituted,implying a doctrine lookingtoward the Zwinglian conceptionof the Supper. of a creed, had been engaged in the preparation Cranmer which submitted by order of the Council of Government was The of whom John Knox in 1552 to six theologians, was one. authorized by the Forty-two Articles,which were result was June 12, 1553, less than a month the young King's signature, before his death. Though moderate for the period,they were Protestant in tone than the Prayer Book. decidedlymore determined to was Unpopular as he was, Northumberland clause
of the
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
369-372.
EXECUTIONS
412 thus
UNDER
restoringthe church
1529,
that
save
to the state
church
former
MARY in which
property
it had assured
was
been in
by
the
its present
possessors.1 Severe persecutionat once began. Its firstvictim was John Rogers,a prebendary of St. Paul's,who was burned in London The attitude of the people,who cheered on February 4, 1555. him on the way ominous for this policy; but to the stake,was before the end of the year, seventy-five had suffered by fire in various parts of England, of whom the most notable were the former and Nicholas bishops,Hugh Latimer Ridley, whose statute
heroic
to
fortitude
created
at
their
deaths
in
Oxford,
on
October
16,
profound popular impression. Another conspicuous victim of this year was John Hooper, former bishop of Glou cester and Worcester. Mary was determined to strike the high est of the anti-Roman Cranmer clergy,ArchbishopCranmer. not of the heroic stuff of which was Latimer, Ridley,Hooper, and Rogers were made. He was formallyexcommunicated by November and sentence at Rome Pole on 25, 1555, was shortly after made of in his stead. Cranmer archbishop Canterbury in dilemma. He had was now a logical asserted, since his under appointment Henry VIII, that the sovereign is the authorityin the English church. His Protestantism supreme Roman In Catholic. real,but that sovereignwas was now a his distress he now made submission declaringthat he recog nized papal authority as established by law. Mary had no intention of sparingthe man who had pronounced her mother's die. But it was must marriage invalid. Cranmer hoped that at his death he would by a publicabjurationof Protestantism That discredit the Reformation. hope was nearly realized. Cranmer signed a further recantation denying Protestantism wholly; but on the day of his execution in Oxford, March 21, returned. He his his retractions 1556, repudiated courage d eclared his Protestant and held the offending faith, absolutely, renounced hand, which had signedthe now submissions,in the flame tillit was consumed. His dying day was the noblest of a
his 'ife.
Philip had with
left
England
in
1555, and
this
absence, coupled
childless state, preyed on Mary's mind, inducing own her to feel that she had not done enough to satisfy the judgment of
her
God.
Persecution JGee
therefore continued and
Hardy,
pp.
385-415.
unabated
till her
OF
ACCESSION death
on
hundred
November were
17, 1558.
burned
"
toll of sufferers in the
ELIZABETH
In all,somewhat
scanty number
a
413
Netherlands.
But
less than
three
compared with the Englishsentiment
for the spread martyrdoms did more all previous governmental than of anti-Roman sentiment efforts had accomplished. It was certain that the accession of the next sovereignwould witness a change or civil war. Elizabeth (Queen 1558-1603) had longpassed as illegitimate, though her place in the succession had been secured by act of Of all Henry's Parliament in the lifetime of Henry VIII. who children she was the only one reallyresembled him in ability, insight,and personal popularity. With a masculine adorn force of character she combined a curious love of personal inherited from her light-mindedmother. Of real religious ment denials of her feelingshe had none, but her birth and Roman mother's a Protestant,though marriage made her necessarily under Mary, when her life had been in danger, she had con formed ritual. Fortunately her accession had to the Roman the support of PhilipII of Spain, soon to be her bitterest en That favor helped her with EnglishCatholics. Earnest emy. Roman he was, Philipwas as politician enough not to wish to under the rule of a see France, England, and Scotland come not Queen of England, singleroyalpair,and if Elizabeth was then Mary "Queen of Scots," wife of the princewho in was 1559 to become rightfully King Francis II of France, was In her first measures entitled to the Englishthrone. on acces sion Elizabeth enjoyed,moreover, the aid of one of the most cautious and far-sighted statesmen England has ever produced, Lord William Cecil (1521-1598), better known as Burghley,
deeply revolted.
whom
she at
These
her secretary and chief adviser tillhis death. For Elizabeth
made
that she
who it
to
was was
a
be her
great ad
thoroughly English in feeling, and deeply sympathetic with the politicaland economic ambitions of the nation. This representative quality recon ciled many whom to her government considera mere religious tions would have repelled. No one doubted that she put Eng vantage
also
once
was
land first.
Elizabeth
proceeded cautiouslywith her changes. Parlia ment passed the new Supremacy Act,1 with much opposition, on April29, 1559. By it the authorityof the Pope and all pay1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
442-458.
ELIZABETHAN
THE
414
and appealsto him
SETTLEMENT
rejected. A significant change of title appeared, however, by Elizabeth's own insistence. Instead of the old "Supreme Head," so obnoxious to the of the now Catholics, s j was styled "Supreme Governor" church in England less objectionable a much phrase,though the in The tests of heresy same amounting to thing practice. the firstfour General Councils, to be the Scriptures, now were ments
were
"
and had
the
decisions
of Parliament.
Meanwhile
a
commission
been revisingthe Second
Prayer Book of Edward VI (ante, againstthe Pope was omitted,as was the p. 410). The prayer declaration that kneelingat the Supper did not imply adora left tion,while the question of Christ's physicalpresence was undetermined by the combination of the forms intentionally of deliveryin the two Edwardean books (ante,pp. 409, 410). These modifications service were designed to render the new more palatable to Catholics. The Act of Uniformity1 now ordered all worship to be conducted, after June 24, 1559, in accordance and provided that the ornaments with this liturgy, the vestments those of the second year of Edward of the
The
and
church
oath members
of
was
supremacy
of its ministers should
be
VI. refused
by
all but
two
ob
of the Marian
but among the lower episcopate, the obstinate not amount clergygenerallyresistance was slight, New be provided,and bishops must ing to two hundred. Elizabeth directed the election of her mother's one-time chap Parker lain,Matthew (1504-1575),as archbishop of Canter bury. His consecration was a perplexingquestion; but there had those in England who received ordination to the were Parker was VI. now bishopricunder Henry VIII and Edward scurer
consecrated,on December 17, 1559, at the hands of four suchWilliam Barlow, John Scory,Miles Coverdale, and John Hodgkin.
The
succession validityof the act, on which the apostolic of the English episcopatedepends, has always been strongly affirmed by Anglican divines,while attacked theo by Roman various grounds,and declared invalid by Pope Leo on logians, XIII Thus in 1896, for defect in "intention." inaugurated, was a new speedilyestablished. A defini Anglican episcopate tion of the creed, other than implied in the Prayer Book, was purposely postponed; but in 1563 the Forty-two Articles of 1553
(ante,p. 410)
were
1
Gee
somewhat and
Hardy,
revised,and pp.
458-467.
as
the famous
REFORMATION
THE
BEFORE
SCOTLAND
415
of faith of the Thirty-nineArticles,became the statement Church of England.1 accom Thus, by 1563 the Elizabethan settlement was from sides: of Rome, plished. It was threatened from two t^iat from the earnest who rerormers more and, even dangerously, wished
to go
further and
duced
Puritans.
English revolt is that it pro outstandingreligiousleader no Luther, Zwingli,
no
of the
feature
remarkable
The
to be nicknamed
were
soon
"
did it,before the beginningof Eliza considerable spiritualawakening beth's reign,manifest any and social. A the people. Its impulses were _pplitical among Knox.
Calvin, or
Nor
life of England great revival of the religious
earlier historyof which reign,but which was to
the dawn
At
backward
and
be coincident with
was
to
owe
nothing to her.
X.
SECTION
the
come,
Elizabeth's
REVOLT
SCOTTISH
THE
to
was
of the sixteenth century Scotland country. Its social conditions were
was
a
poor
mediaeval.
small. Its nobles were turbulent. of its Kings was rich in land, owning about one-half Relativelyits church was
The
power
that of the country, but
supplyplacesfor younger property
were churchlypositions sons
in the hands
was
of noble
of the
used largely
houses,and much
lay nobles.
The
to
clerical
weak
mon
archy had usually leaned on the church as againstthe lay backward, though universities had nobility. Education was in the fifteenth century in St. Andrews, Glas Aberdeen. Compared with continental seats of learn
founded
been
and
gow,
weak.
ing they were
determiningmotive of most of fear of dominance this period was
The in
Three
annexation
or
grievousdefeats by
(1513),Solway Moss
more
in alliance with serious when
"
France
England
was
had
even
On
those
Flodden
Englishsuperi the other
hand,
for England, a great peril broken with the papacy.
Therefore and
with
(1542),and Pinkie (1547)" strengthened
of antagonism,but showed that feeling orityin force could not conquer Scotland. the
by Eng
the English
this
Scotland
history political
to link the fortunes of the land
land, persuadingit of France.
Scottish
England and France both sought to build up parties strengthenfactions favorable to themselves in Scotland. 1
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom,111
:
487-516.
BEGINNINGS.
PROTESTANT
416
while
England,
toward
of
that
Hamilton
inclined
was
favored
France.
strong supporters in ArchbishopJames
also had
France
powerfulfamily of Douglas
the
the whole
On
KNOX
Beaton
(?-1539) of St. Andrews, the primate of Scotland, and his Beaton (14947-1546), his successor nephew, Cardinal David in the same see. Though King James V (reigned1513-1542) was nephew of Henry VIII, and his grandson,James VI, was to I of
James
become
after the death
England in
1603
unite the two
crowns
V threw in his fortunes with
Elizabeth,James
of
and
a daughter of Francis I,and, after France, marrying successively Catholic her death, Mary of Lorraine, of the powerful French familyof Guise. This latter union, so important in the history of Scotland,was to have as its fruit Mary "Queen of Scots."
Protestant
Some
beginnings were
early made
(1504?-1528), who
Patrick Hamilton
had
visited Wittenberg
studied in Marburg, preached Lutheran The burned on cause February 29, 1528.
doctrine,and
and
1534
and
there
1540
Scottish Parliament It
Bible.
the
but 1544
a
was
slowly.
grew
In
Yet, in 1543 the
executions.
reading and translation of temporary phase, due to English
authorized
was
influence,and by
other
were
in Scotland.
the
Cardinal
and
Beaton
the French
party
were employing strong repression. Chief of the preachersat this time was George Wishart (1513?-!546),who was burned by
Beaton
Cardinal
on
March
On
2, 1546.
May
29
Beaton
brutallymurdered, partlyin revenge for Wishart' s death and partly out of hostility to his French policy. The murderers gained possessionof the castle of St. Andrews and rallied their sympathizersthere. In 1547 a hunted Protestant a friend of Wishpreacher,apparently a convert and certainly took refuge with art, of no considerable previousconspicuity, This was their spiritual teacher. them and became John Knox, himself
to
was
be the hero Born
in
or
of the Scottish
reformation.
Haddington, between 1505 and 1515, Knox's obscure. He was certainlyordained to the
near
was early career priesthood,but when Wishart was martyr, and prepared to defend
reduce
the rebels in St. Andrews
and
Knox
the
cruel lot of
his way
rulingin
was
carried to France
arrested him.
castle
he
French
was
with
that
forces sent
to
compelled its surrender,
to endure
for nineteen
months
galley-slave.Released at length,he made under the Protestant to England, then government of Edward the name VI, became one of the royalchapa
417
LEADERSHIP
KNOX'S I
in 1552
lains,and
the
declined
The
Rochester.
bishopricof
in 1554, but the English accession of Mary compelled his flight, divided by whom he first joined in Frankfort were refugees his criticisms of the Edwardean Prayer-Book,1and he soon found
in
welcome
a
Geneva, where
he became
ardent dis
an
version of the cipleof Calvin, and labored on the Genevan English Bible, later so valued by the English Puritans. than Meanwhile the English had alienated Scotland more ever by the defeat of Pinkie,in 1547. Mary "Queen of Scots" had
betrothed
been of
Mary
her
safety in 1548, while
for
France
to
the heir to the French
to
sent
mother, the Guise, in 1554.
regent of Scotland
Lorraine, became
and
throne
large portionof the Scottish nobles and people this submission hateful as any full dependence on France as was and national inde Protestantism to England could have been. in this to be bound together,and it was pendence seemed Knox double now to be the leader. strugglethat Knox was To
a
dared
to
to
return
months; but
the situation
returned
Knox
to
Geneva
was
to
not
become
English-speakingrefugeesthere.
of
fruitful seed. and
On
anti-French
December
blessed
most
six
yet ripe for revolt,and the pastor of the church
had, however, sowed
He
3, 1557,
in Scotland
nobles
"establish the
to
preached for
Scotland, in 1555, and
of Protestant
number
a
entered
into
a
of God
and
His
Word
covenant congre
of the they were gation" given to this dissent Congregation."2 Additional fuel was by the marriage of Mary to the French heir on April24, 1558.3 Scotland now seemed a province of France, for should there be
a
of this union
son
he would
be ruler of both
grip was made doubly sure by Mary, kept secret at the time, that French
Scotland
should
Elizabeth
was
she die without
an
heirs.
Lords
"The
nicknamed
which
from
"
lands,and the
signedby
agreement
France Before
Queen of England, and Mary
should 1558
receive
was
ended
"Queen of Scots"
and proclaiming denouncing her as an illegitimate usurper, herself the rightful occupant of the English throne.
was
pendence and
more
could
be
Knox
saw
1
Kidd,
of Scottish inde the advocates of Protestantism rapidlyincreased and became
these circumstances
Under
and more
fused into
one
party.
Elizabeth, moreover,
expected to assist,if only for her that the time was ready. On May p. 691.
2
Ibid.,p.
696.
3
own
protection.
2, 1559, he Ibid.,p.
690.
was
THE
418
SCOTTISH
in Scotland.
back
CHURCH
Nine days later he preachedin Perth.
The
mob
destroyed the monastic establishments of the town.1 This action the regent naturallyregarded as rank rebellion. and both sides promptly She had French troops at her disposal, armed for combat. They proved fairlyequal,and the result undecided.
was
Churches
and
wrecked
were
monastic
property
Knox's
On disgust,in many parts of Scotland. July 10, 1559, Henry II of France died, and Mary's husband,
sacked,
to
Francis
II became
French
in his stead.
King
reinforcements
promptly sent to the regent in Scotland. Matters went badly for the reformers. At last,in January, 1560, English The contest dragged. On June 11, 1560, the re help came. gent died, but her cause perished with her. On July 6 a made between France and England by which treaty was were
French
soldiers were debarred
from
withdrawn
important posts in its government. The revolution had triumphed through English aid, but with Scottish national independence,and its inspirer out forfeiting were
from
Scotland, and Frenchmen
had
been
had
first shown
for the
Knox.2
all
In this contest
themselves
a
the
power,
Scottish middle and
classes
their influence
was
order.
newer
The
victorious party now pushed its triumph in the Scottish Parliament. On August 17, 1560, a Calvinistic confession of faith,largelyprepared by Knox, was adopted as the creed of the realm.3
A
week
later the
same
body abolished papal juris
and forbad the mass under pain of death for the third diction, offense.4 Though the King and Queen in France refused their approval,the majorityof the nation had spoken. Knox work.
and
his associates
now
proceeded to complete their
is re In December, 1560, a meeting was held which the first Scottish "General as Assembly," in January
garded followingthe First Parliament.5
It
Book
was
a
presented to
of Disciplinewas most
remarkable
document, attempt
ingto apply the system worked out by Calvin dom, though the Presbyteriansystem was far developed as and
elders
Minister 1 3 "
Kidd,
yet.
In
each
parishthere
to
a
from
should
be
whole
king thoroughly a
minister
of the congregation. the consent the board elders constituted the disciplinary
holdingoffice with
and
"
Ibid.,pp. 698-700. Ibid.,pp. 700, 704-707; Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3 : 437-479. ' Ibid.,pp. 701, 702. /wdi" p" 707. p. 697.
the
2
MARY
420
dependence might which
domination
revolution
had
prudence.
While
had
mass
who
was
well think that the had
passed. Mary
said in her now
induced
she made
minister
danger of pressing
acquiescencein behaved,
at
the
French
religious
first,with
of her
great
faith,and the furious disapprovalof Knox, secret
no
chapel to
SCOTS
OF
QUEEN
of St. Giles in
own
Edinburgh, and
admired
by the burghers of that city,she did not interfere in the re settlement effected in 1560. She strove to secure ligious recog nition as Elizabeth's heir to the English throne, a thing which Elizabeth had no mind to grant. Mary had the sage advice of her half-brother, James Stewart, later to be earl of Moray (1531?-1570), who
Congregation." skill to
had
She
been
tried
him.
divided.
Mary The
"Lords
any
overture
and
of the of
great
remained
Still the prospect darkened The Protestant nobles were
party.
friends.
won
of the
by personal interviews
Knox, but he refused
win
the soul of the Protestant for
leader
a
had increasingly being used. Knox to fear that Mary would good reason give a Catholic King to Scotland by marrying some great foreignprince. A marriage of Philip II of Spain was with the son seriouslydiscussed. Even in Scotland and more alarming for the Protestant cause England was Mary's actual marriage on July 29, 1565, to her cousin,Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley (1545-1567), with whom she had fallen in love. Darnley's claim to the English throne stood next herself. He to that of Mary was popular with English Catholics,and though he had passed as a Protestant in England, he now avowed himself a Catholic. The marriage increased Elizabeth's danger at home and strengthenedthe Catholic party in Scotland. driven Moray opposed it, was into exile,and Mary made much from court, and soon progress in subduing,one after another, the Protestant lords who sym pathizedwith Moray. She thus lost her wisest adviser. Thus far Mary had acted fairly shrewdly,but Scottish Protes and want tantism was saved by Mary's mistakes of selfnow vicious. control. certainly disagreeableand Darnley was Her feelings for him changed. On the other hand, his jealousy roused by the favor which Mary showed to David Riccio, was Italian whom an Mary employed as a foreignsecretary, and who looked upon was by the Protestant lords as their enemy. of Protestant nobles,therefore,entered Darnley and a number into a plot by which Riccio was dragged from Mary's presence mass
was
421
DOWNFALL
MARY'S I
murdered
and
in the
palaceof Holy rood,
on
March
9, 1566.
Mary behaved with great cunning. Dissembling her anger at of his fellow the weak Darnley, she secured from him the names in outlawed those who had actuallyparticipated conspirators, deed, and took the others back into favor, of
the
the knowledge On
ance.
June
future
the
Mary was
19, 1566, Mary
seemed thrown
now
surer
on
had
realityMary
with
to
of her weak
rid
Mary
of
man,
husband.
Darnley, with
I of
James
suffer
was
born,
England.
forgivenher husband, and a
noble, James
Protestant
she
Hep
rough, licentious,but contrasted with whose qualities Bothwell now led in a conspiracy
(1536?-1578),
brave, loyal,and martial those
and
on
the Scottish throne.
never
much
burn, earl of Bothwell
received they were and Darnley's son
of Scotland
VI
James
never
In
their part that
on
with
course
a
the part of of the disputed questionsof history. how
much
share
on
Mary herself is stillone removed Darnley, who was recoveringfrom smallpox,was by Mary from Glasgow to a house on the edge of Edinburgh, where Mary spent part of the last evening with him. Early the morning of February 10, 1567, the house was blown up, on and Darnley'sbody was found near it. Public opinioncharged Bothwell with the murder, and it widely believed, probably with justice, that Mary also was guiltyof it. At all events she heaped honors on Bothwell, who succeeded in securingac quittalby a farce of a trial. On April 24, Bothwell met Mary of her journeys and made of her captive by a show on one force He was it was generallybelieved with her connivance. divorced from his wife for adultery on married, but he was married by Protes May 3, and on May 15 he and Mary were "
tant
rites.
These
shameless
transactions
Scotland, while they robbed
sympathy Catholics
in
England
in Scotland
and
on
roused
Mary,
general hostilityin
for the
the Continent.
time, of Catholic Protestants
and
joined forces againsther. Just a month after the wedding Mary was and on July 24, 1567, a prisoner, she was compelled to abdicate in favor of her year-old son, and appoint Moray as regent, while she was herself imprisoned in Lochleven Castle. On July 29 John Knox preached the VFs the coronation. With at James sermon Mary's fall came established triumph of Protestantism, which was now definitely in December. herself escaped from by Parliament Mary
in
Lochleven
May,
MELVILLE
AND
KNOX
422
promptly
1568, but Moray
defeated
her
England, where she was to remain, till her execution for conspiracy of Catholic intrigue, a centre in February, 1587. againstElizabeth's life, about over. On November Knox's fierycareer was 24, 1572, he died, having influenced not merely the religionbut the supporters, and
she fled to
character of the nation
history.
Knox's
(1545-1623), who
work had
than
more
to be
was
taught
as
other
any
in Scottish
man
taken up by Andrew Melville Beza's colleaguein Geneva,
He was the edu his return to Scotland in 1574. cational reformer of the Universities of Glasgow and St. Andrews from
1568
to
the perfecter of the Presbyterian as distinguished system in Scotland and its vigorousdefender againstthe royal of James VI, who compelled him and episcopal encroachments to spend the last sixteen years of his lifein exile from his native and
more
even
land.
XI.
SECTION
THE
REVIVAL
ROMAN
(ante,pp. 321-325) that a genera tion before Luther's breach with Rome, Spain was witnessing and Car work led Isabella by Queen a vigorousreformatory It has
alreadybeen
dinal Ximenes.
noted
zeal for
It combined
a
gent clergy,abolition of glaringabuses, and the
learned, not
for the
the
It inquisition.
was
and
intelli
Biblical studies for
people,with unswerving orthodoxy, of heresyby repression that was to give life
standards, and
judged by mediaeval
moral
more
this movement
revival,often, though rather incor vigor to the Roman Outside of Spain it rectly,called the Counter-Reformation. had very littleinfluence when Luther began his work. Indeed,
and
the
Church
decline of the Roman in the feebleness with
than
which
was
nowhere
Protestant
more
evident
onslaughtswere
met by the contemporariesof the firstquarter century of the great revolt,and the incapacityof the Popes themselves to and to put their inter realize the real gravityof the situation,
petty Italian VI (1522-1523) exhibited a real, princes. Though Adrian though utterly ineffective, reformatory zeal, in the Spanish
ests
as
great churchmen
above
their
concerns
as
neither his during his brief and unhappy pontificate, Clement VII Leo X (1513-1521),nor his successor, predecessor, leader,and the politi(1523-1534),was in any sense a religious
sense,
REFORM
REVOLUTION
AND
IN
of the latter contributed
cal ambitions
ITALY
423
materiallyto the spread
of Protestantism. Yet
there
reform, though Rome
about
leaders
Pope age,
Paul
who
Italy,who
for revolution.
not
the
1517
Giovanni
was
in
those, even
were
"Oratory
Such
a
of Divine
Pietro Caraffa
were
group
Love."
anxious
for
founded
in
Among
its
(1476-1559), later
to
be
IV (1555-1559),of distinguished Neapolitan parent of years in Spain, and had had lived for a number
broughtfrom
there
for the
admiration
an
Spanishreformation,
though no love for the Spanish monarchy. Another member was Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547) ; and in -close sympathy, though not one of the Oratory,was Senator Gasparo Contarini still a layman. Of these, (1483-1542) of Venice, who was Caraffa was of unbending devotion to mediaeval dogma, while Contarini had much sympathy with Luther's doctrine of jus of the tification by faith alone, though not with his rejection ancient hierarchy. Pope Paul III (1534-1549), more alive than his predecessorsto the gravity of the situation,made Contarini,Caraffa, Sadoleto, and the English Reginald Pole and appointed (1500-1558) cardinals early in his pontificate, the betterment of the them, with others, a commission on but resultless, church, which made a plain-spoken, report in .
1538.1 These
far removed
reallyProtestant views. But there were considerable number whose sympathies led a them much further. In Venice they were numer particularly real leader there. that In city ous, though they produced no men
were
Bruccioli's Italian translation
printed in 1530, under hospitality,
and
of the
from
of the
whole
New
Testament
Bible in 1532.
was
Ferrara's
Renee, has already been noted in connection with Calvin (ante,p. 394). The remarkable most of these groups that gatheredin Naples about Juan Valdes, was (1500?-1541),a Spaniard of high rank, employed in the ser vice of Charles V and a man of devout, Evangelicalmysticism. From his disciple, Benedetto of Mantua, came about 1540 the most popular book of this circle,The Benefits of Christ's Death. Pietro Martire Among his adherents were Vermigli (15001562),whose father had been an admirer of Savonarola,himself Duchess
priorof the monastery professorof Protestant
of St. Peter
theologyin !Kidd,
pp.
Naples, destined to be Strassburgand Oxford;
in
307-318.
and
LOYOLA
IGNATIUS
424
Bernardino
(1487-1564), vicar-generalof the
Ochino
Capuchin order, later Protestant pastor in Zurich,and ultimatelya Another eazzo
friend of this group Caraccioli,marquis of
prebendary wanderer
for
Caraffa's
was
own
of
Canterbury, erratic opinions. nephew, Gal-
Vico, later to be Calvin's intimate
Evangelicals were, however, unorganizedand without princelysupport, save very cautiously the common did they gain followingamong in Ferrara, nor exotic growth; and the same an people. In Italythey were associate in Geneva.
may
in
These
be said of the very
Spain. Pope Paul
Italian
few
III wavered
who
Protestants
for
a
time
between
were
the
to be found
method
of
by Contarini,who took part in the re union discussions in Regensburg (ante,p. 376) as papal legate, and that of Caraffa, who urged stern repressionof doctrinal divergence,while advocating administrative and moral reform. Eventually he decided for the latter,and his decision became On Caraffa's urgent appeal Paul the policyof his successors. III,on July 21, 1542, reorganizedthe inquisition, largelyon the its actual Spanish model, on a universal scale,1 though of course the support of it had took place only where establishment friendlycivil authority. Before it, the feeble beginnings of Italian Protestantism rapidlydisappeared. One of the main thus forged. of the Catholic Counter-Reformation was weapons Much more important was a revival of missionaryzeal which the fresh geniusof Spain contributed to kindle Catholic enthusi of Viewed from any standpoint,IgnatiusLoyola is one asm. the master epoch. Inigo Lopez de figuresof the Reformation Recalde born of a noble family in northern Spain in 1491. was After servingas a page at the court of Ferdinand, he became a exhibited when soldier. His intrepidfirmness was Pamplona was besiegedby the French in 1521, but he received there a further militaryservice impossible. During wound that made his slow recovery he studied the lives of Christ,St. Dominic, ideals still lingered in Spain, and St. Francis. Chivalrous and he determined be a knight of the Virgin. that he would he journeyed to Monserrat, and hung Recovered,in a measure, his weapons altar. Thence he went to Manresa, the Virgin's on where, in the Dominican monastery, he began those directed into his SpiritualExafterward visions which were to grow conciliation
advocated
1
Kidd,
pp.
347-350.
JESUITS
THE
ercises. The the
Franciscans
pilgrimin Jerusalem, but with there maintaining the cross were dangerous and sent him home.
1523
year
who
difficulty, thought him Convinced have and
that if he
to
was
rapidly forward
went
A born
Salamanca. whom
with
him
saw
a
do the work
education,Ignatiusentered
an
he
425
a
he desired he must
boy's class
the Universities
to
in
of Alcala
leader,he gatheredlike-minded
practisedhis
exercises. spiritual
Barcelona, and
companions This aroused
in and his life was suspicionof the Spanish inquisition danger. In 1528, he entered the Universityof Paris, justas Calvin was leavingit. There he made no public demonstra tion,but gathered round himself a handful of devoted friends and disciples Pierre Lefevre, Francis Xavier, Diego Lainez, Alfonso Salmeron, Nicolas Bobadilla, and Simon Rodriguez, mostly from the Spanish peninsula. In the church of St. Mary on Montmartre, in Paris,on August 15, 1534, these com to go to Jerusalem to labor for the church panions took a vow and their fellow men, or, if that proved impossible, to put them little student of the Pope. It was selves at the disposition a love to God and the connectingbond of which was association, the church, as they understood it. the
"
The
1536
year
them
saw
in
Venice; but Jerusalem
was
barred
determined to ask the Pope's direction. by war, and they now Ignatiuswas beginning to perceivewhat his societymight be come. Italy had seen militarycompanies in earthly many be the militarycompany of Jesus, bound service. His would by a similar strictness of obedience, and a like careful,though exercise of arms, to fightthe battle of the church spiritual, againstinfidels and heretics. In spiteof ecclesiasticalopposi induced tion, Paul III was by the favorable attitude of Contarini and the skill of Ignatiusto authorize the company on 1540.1 The constitution of the as September 27, societywas that
save yet indefinite,
obedience
was
due, and
the Pope should the
first
July 31, The
should
direct.
"general" "
was
In
to
have
labor
head
wherever
to
whom
that
he
held
full
head
April,1541, Ignatiuswas
office which
an
a
till his
and
chosen
death,
1556.
of the Jesuits
constitution
indeed it its main
it
was
not
features
was
completed tillafter were
his work. 1
Kidd,
pp.
At
gradually worked out, death, though Ignatius's the head is a "general,"
335-340.
THE
426
JESUITS
absolute obedience
to whom
is due; but
who, in turn, iswatched
appointed by the order, and can, if necessary, be deposed by it. Over each district is a "provincial,"ap is admitted, after a pointed by the "general." Each member careful novitiate,and pledgesobedience to the fullest extent in all that does not involve sin. His superiors assignhim to the work which they believe him best fitted to do. That that work may be better accomplished the Jesuits are bound to no fixed hours of worship or form of dress as are monks. Each member is disciplined by use of Ignatius's SpiritualExercises, by
assistants
work, in accordance
remarkable
a
"
drilled in
with
which
the Jesuit is
manual of arms, spiritual by four weeks of intense contemplation of the principalfacts of the life and work of Christ,and of the Christian warfare with evil,under the gui dance
a
of
a
drill-master. spiritual
It
was
marvellous
a
instru
Ignatiusconstructed,combining the individualism of the Renaissance each man assigned to and trained for his with the sacrificeof will and complete obedience peculiarwork aims of the whole. It stands as the very to the spiritand that
ment
"
"
antithesis of Protestantism.
Though the Jesuit societyspread rapidlyin Italy,Spain, and Portugal,it was slower in gainingstrong foothold in France and Germany, but by the latter half of the sixteenth century it was the advance-guard of the Counter-Reformation. Its chief agencies were its excellent preaching,the confessional, schools
for
not
"
well-to-do
"
and
the
its
multitude, but
for
foreignmissions.
the
Under
well-born
and
Jesuit influence
became the rule in frequent confession and communion Catholic countries; and, to aid the confessional,the Jesuit moral practicewas graduallydeveloped,chieflyafter Ignatius's in the earlypart of the seventeenth cen death, and especially tury, in a fashion that has aroused the criticism not only of more
Protestants
arightit not
but
should
of be
Catholics.
many
remembered
that
In
estimatingthem
these moral
represent ideals of conduct, but the minima
solution
can
phasizedthe
which consent
which
ab
given; and, also,that the Jesuit moralityem universal Latin tendency to regard sin as a series as
of sin itself
nature
is done
on
be
of definite acts rather than The
treatises do
with
of the
a
will.
clear
was
a
state.
minimized.
knowledge
Personal
That
only
of its sinfulness and
was responsibility
is sin a
full
undermined
REFORMS
428
The is
church
AND
alone has the
defined, yet skilfully
The
sacraments
way.
The
had
the door
tion of mediseval
OF
ZEAL
rightof interpretation.Justification so
the
are
mediseval shut
INCREASE
as
leave
to
mediaeval
for work-merit.
scope
and
seven
defined
in the
result is
ably expressed,but the church completely on all compromise or modifica
doctrine.
Though the reforms the wishes of realizing inconsiderable.
effected
by
the
council
in the Roman
many
Provision
made
far from
were
Church, they
were
for the
public inter pretationof Scripturein the largertowns. Bishops were bound the parishclergyto teach plainlywhat is need to preach and ful for salvation. Residence was required and pluralities restrained. Seminaries for clerical trainingwere ordered, and better provisionfor the moral supervision of the clergy. Regu lations were enacted to prevent clandestine marriages. A less the approval of an index of prohibited praiseworthystep was books, to be prepared by the Pope, followingthe example IV in 1559. It resulted in 1571 in the creation by set by Paul Pius V (1566-1572) of the Congregation of the Index, at Rome, to censure publications. From a Spanish theologian,influential at Trent, Melchior Cano (1525-1560), came the ablest defense of the Roman posi tion that had yet appeared,in his De Locis Theologicis Libri XII, published three years after his death. Theology, he taught, is based on authority. The authorityof Scripturerests on the siftingand approving power of the church, which determines what is Scriptureand what all of not; but as by no means Christian doctrine is contained in the Scripture,tradition, handed down and sifted by the church,is another authoritative not
was
basis.
The the
middle
prime
of the sixteenth century witnessed
interest of the
holders
of the
papacy.
still Italian had
temporal princes,but the concerns assumed the first place. With Paul
now
1555-1559)
the
Counter-Reformation
throne,with the result done
that
Rome
reached
of the
many
a
abuses
change in They were
of the church IV
(Caraffa, the papal
of the
curia
sombre, a much more than in the the but ecclesiastical, Renaissance, city Popes were
were
away.
men prevailingly
now
was
a
more
of strict life, religious earnestness, and
strenuous
Catholicism.
The
result of all these
influences
was
that
by
1565
Catholic
REVIVAL
ROMAN
THE
429
I
spirit,intense in its oppositionto Protestantism, mediaeval in its theology, but ready to fightor to suffer for its faith,was wide-spread. Against this renewed zeal Protestantism not merely ceased to make new conquests, its hold on the Rhineland and in southern Germany had
earnestness
soon
to
hope This
A
in considerable
shaken
was
revived.
been
revival
Catholic
Catholicism
measure.
all that it had
to win back
new
lost.
also characterized
was
velopment of mysticalpiety,in which, as The
the leader.
was
in
so
by
much
large de else,Spain
a
chief traits of this
renouncing quietism "
and
began
raisingof
a
to God
voiceless prayer
life were selfreligious the soul in contemplation
"
till a union
in divine
love, or in
believe to be achieved. Often thought to aid this mystic exaltation.
ecstasy of inner revelation,was ascetic practiceswere Conspicuous in this movement
Teresa
de Jesus
(1515-1582) Ontiveros,in Spain. (1542-1591) Francois de Sales (1567-1622), nominally bishop of Geneva, to of Avila and
whose
Savoy and
it
efforts the
de la Cruz
winning
Geneva
near
was
spread in
was
Fremyot treme
Juan
de
Chantal
devotion
to
were
of
for Catholicism
due, representedthe France
by
his
and
same
was
combined
its sacraments.
Catholic earnest religious longingsof more church, in turn, recognizedit by enrolling many the
among
portions of type of piety,
Jeanne disciple,
(1572-1641). It
the church
of the
Francoise with
ex
It satisfied
souls,and
the
of its exemplars
the saints.
forth,in full measure, also,in the work These were primarily the endeavor of the monastic orders,notably the Dominicans and Franciscans, with whom of Jesus eagerly from its foundation the Company Catholic
zeal went of foreignmissions.
shared
in the
labor.
To
the work
of these orders the Chris
tianityof Southern, Central, and largeparts of North America is due. famous of They converted the Philippines.Most these Roman missionaries was Ignatius'soriginalassociate, Francis Xavier (1506-1552). Appointed by Ignatiusmission III of Portugal,he ary to India, at the request of King John reached Goa in 1542 and began a career of marvellous activity. In Goa he founded h e a missionarycollege, preached through southern India, in 1549 he entered Japan and began a out work which had reached largedimensions, when its severe re undertaken the native rulers in 1612. Xavier by pressionwas in His work died, 1552, just as he was enteringChina. was
ROMAN
430
MISSIONS
an explorationrather superficial,
example was China
a
than
contagiousinfluence
the labor which
Xavier
had
a
his
structure, but
of
far-reachingforce. In attempted was begun, in
1581, by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), but his desire to be "all thingsto all men," led him to compromise with an a relaxation cestor-worship,
orders
which
missionaries of other Catholic In India the converts almost were
stronglyopposed. entirelyfrom outcasts or low-caste ranks. The Jesuit,Roberto de' Nobili (1576?-1656), began a work for those of high caste in Madura, in 1606, recognizingcaste distinctions and other wise accommodating itselfto Indian prejudices. Its apparent
large,but its methods mate by the papacy. prohibition experiment of Jesuit missions was success
was
aroused
criticism and
ulti
Probably the most famous that in Paraguay. Their In 1610, they commenced work there began in 1586. gathering the natives into "reductions,"or villages, each built on a sim ilar plan,where the dwellers were kept at peace and taught the elements
of
and industry, but religion
held
in strict and
semi-
childlike dependence on the missionaries,in whose hands lay the administration of trade and agriculture.Greatly admired, the system fellwith the expulsionof the Jesuits, in 1767, and has left few permanent results. rivalries of the several orders,and supervisionof missionarylabors,induced The
the
more
effective
Pope Gregory XV (1621-1623) to found, in 1622, the Congregatiode Propaganda Fide, by which the whole field could be surveyed and superin tended
from Rome.
XII.
SECTION
THE
STRUGGLE AND
The
rivalries of France
IN
FRANCE,
THE
ENGLAND
and
Spain,with
their
had made the growth militaryconsequences, tion possible, and had facilitated the division tween
Lutherans
burg of
1555.
and
NETHERLANDS,
Catholics recorded in
Henry II (1547-1559) had
and political
of the Reforma of
Germany be the Peace of Augs
succeeded
Francis I
in France, and Charles V had transferred to his son PhilipII (1556-1598) the sovereigntyof Spain, the Netherlands,and of the Spanish territories in Italy; but the old rivalrycontinued. In war, however, PhilipII at first proved more successful than his father had
been, and the battles of St. Quentin in August,
IN
PROTESTANTISM
DANGER
431 to the
1557,and Gravelines in July,1558, forced France of
of Cateau-Cambresis
April 2,
That
1559.
Treaty
treaty
was
a
reckoningpointin the historyof Europe. France abandoned the long strugglefor Italy. Spanishleadership evidently was bound France to follow,or at first in Europe, and had largely its interests.
least not to oppose,
Protestantism
was
confronted
united Catholicism than it had yet politically head of that Catholicism was The political met. PhilipII of deter Spain, methodical, industrious,patient,and inflexibly of mined, who saw as his God-appointedtask the extirpation Protestantism, and bent every energy to its accomplishment. in the The next thirtyyears were to be the time of chief peril historyof Protestantism. The pointof highestdanger was, perhaps,in the year 1559,
by
much
a
more
after the death of Henry II,in July,the crown passed to Francis II, whose wife was Mary "Queen of Scots," and by her own claim Queen of England also. Yet even ar Philip's
when
dent Catholicism
Spain as that single pairof rulers.
gerous a
not
was
to
to willing
see
combination
a
so
dan
of France, Scotland, and England under He therefore helpedElizabeth,an action
he must afterward Calvin's influence had
which
have
regretted(ante,p. 413). increasingly penetratedFrance,
and
from known Huguenots, as they were in spiteof severe persecution.By 1555 there 1557, multiplied
French
was
a
Protestants,or
in congregation
Paris.
Four
later the number
years
of
seventy-two. That year, Huguenot Churches in France was 1559, they were strong enough to hold their First General Synod in Paris,to adopt a stronglyCalvinistic creed prepared by Antoine de la Roche Chandieu,1 and a Presbyterianconsti tution
drawn
estimate
Calvin's ecclesiasticalprinciples. Popular
from
them
credited
with
400,000 adherents.
Besides
from the of whom most were religion, economicallyoppressedand discontented artisan classes,the soon strengthenedby the accession of political party was
these Huguenots
of
Huguenots. The
death
of
Henry II and the accession of Francis II left
the family of Guise, uncles of Francis's Queen, all powerfulin from Lorraine, and were looked his court. The Guises were upon
by
many
of the French
ously Catholic, the ,
two
nobilityas foreigners.Strenu brothers, Charles (1524-1574),the
Creeds of
Christendom,3
:
356-382.
GROWTH
432
THE
OF
HUGUENOTS
head of the French of Lorraine," was clergy as archbishop of Rheims, while Francis (1519-1563), duke of "cardinal
Guise,
Opposed
the best soldier of France.
was
the Guise
to
the chief in rank family of Bourbon, of whom of Antoine of Vendome, titular King of Navarre, a man was abler brother,Louis, and his much weak and vacillating spirit, Of the house of Chatillon,also opposed to prince of Conde. the Guise brothers,the leader was Gaspard de Coligny,known character and devoted Admiral of sterling Coligny, a man as moved in largepart by These high nobles were to Calvinism. oppositionto the centralization of power in the King. They of the old feudal nobility thus the hostility to royal represented the
family were
middle-class
Calvinists
should
France
toward
a
continue
not
revolution
capture the young Bourbons.
would
have
of Francis
II
late King, brought a The Guises lost much
garded stillas in constant
chief
new
humbler
things in
desire that The
were.
first step "
the badly planned Con 1560, failed in its attempt to
to transfer the
been
it not
had
been
5, 1560.
(1560-1574), brother
IX
to the
government
executed
December
on
succession of Charles
The
were
and
the
when
March,
King
Conde
for the death
in
a
they
as
taken
was "
spiracyof Amboise
in
coincided
of
those
interests and
Their
encroachment.
party into the confused
of the
struggle.
of their power at court, but were re the head of Catholic interests in France, and
PhilipII sovereign,who
communication
influence about
the
with
new
of
The
Spain. was
not
yet
that of his mother, Catherine de5 Medici (1519eleven,was now 1589),able and unscrupulous,determined to maintain the rights of the
by playingoff the
crown
great noble factions of France
two
of broad and by a statesman be Michel de 1'Hopital(1505-1573), who in 1560. Catherine now chancellor of France sought a came from prison,per reconciliation of the factions,released Conde Catholic and Protestant mitted a public discussion between in which Beza took in Poissy,in September, 1561 theologians part and followed it, in January, 1562, with an edict per mitting the Huguenots to assemble for worship except in
againsteach other. views, conciliatory
She
was
aided
"
"
walled
towns.
Rather voke
Guise
war.
than On
attacked
submit, the Catholic March a
party determined
1, 1562, the body-guard
Huguenot
to
pro
of the duke
congregation worshipping
of in
NETHERLANDS
THE
WARS.
HUGUENOT
433
followed between the Huguenots wars Vassy. Three savage and Catholics, 1502-15(53, 1567-1568, and 1568-1570, with short
by
Protestant
a
of Guise
wras
murdered
Antoine, King of Navarre, and
assassin.
Coligny
of wounds.
died
Conde
Francis
Duke
between.
truces
was
left the
head
of the
On the whole, the Huguenots held their Hugueriot cause. and jealousyof Spanish influence helped their cause, so own, St. made at that in August, 1570, peace was Germain-en-Laye, given freedom of worship,and two places by which nobles were for services were people permittedto the Huguenot common in each
governmentaldivision
put in Huguenot control
as
a
of France, while four citieswere
guarantee.
The situation at this juncture was greatlycomplicatedby the of un in Netherlands. The sources of events the course and economic than more even political rest in that regionwere assumed in their origin, though in the strugglereligion religious a constantlyincreasingprominence. The Netherlands, which his father,Charles V, in had come to PhilipII of Spain from
1555,
a
were
group
of seventeen
tenacious provinces,
of local
predominantlycommercial and manufacturing,and dis rights, or posed to resent all that interfered with existingcustoms Lutheranism had early entered, but had disturbed trade. the lowest stratum been largely displacedby Anabaptism among while by 1561 when the Belgic Confession of the population, drafted by Guy de Bray,1 Calvinism was winning converts was the middle classes. The as nobilitywas yet hardly among in
touched, and
1562
the
total number
of Protestants
was
only 100,000. the inroads of Charles V, though strenuously resisting rightsand Protestantism,had largelyrespectedNetherlandish politi jealousies.Not so PhilipII. He determined to secure similar in there that cal and religious to Spain. uniformity his of In 1559 he appointed Parma, regent, sister,Margaret of three, of which the leading with an advisory committee his devoted spiritwas supporter, Cardinal Granvella (1517This committee usurped practically 1586), bishop of Arras. of the old councils of state, in which the high nobles the power had shared. The next year Philip secured from the Pope a reconstitution of the ecclesiastical geography of the Nether reckoned
at
had
lands, which 1
merit
in that
it freed the
Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
383-436.
Netherlandish
IN
STRUGGLE
THE
434
THE
NETHERLANDS
from foreignecclesiasticalsupervision, but bishoprics since the new nominees prelateswere Philip's jealousy,
places in the Parliament,
or
"States
strengthening Spanish influence. crush
to
power
"heresy"
emigration.Nobles
and
and
had
General," thus greatly
Philip,moreover, that
course
it hurt
classes,because
middle
a
"
aroused
was
trade and
merchants
used every disliked by the
were,
drove
workmen
to
therefore,increas
inglyrestive. the opponents of these changeswere three emi nobles,William of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1533-1584), nominally at least,a Catholic, to a Lutheran, but now,
Chief among nent
born
be the hero of Dutch and
Egmont
plans.
They
Horn.
Philipnow
1564.
and independence; saw
demanded
He
Council of Trent
forced
in them
the Catholic counts Granvella's dismissal
the
the enforcement
and
a
chief hindrance
to
of
in his
of the decrees of the
stricter punishment of
heresy.
A peti
circulated and presentedto the regent on tion of protest was the nickname "Beggars" given to its signerson April5, 1566 "
becoming the name Popularexcitement was
that occasion freedom.
of the party of Netherlandish intense. Protestant preach
ing was openly heard, and in August, 1556, iconoclastic riots, hundreds as William of Orange,wrecked opposed by such men of churches. To
He
Philipthese therefore
events
sent
the
were
duke
rebellion in of Alva
to Brussels with Spanish general, as practically
governor.
His
and religion. politics
(1508-1582),
an
picked Spanish army arrival in August, 1567, was a
able and fol
them those of Egmont lowed by hundreds of executions,among and Horn. William of Orange escaped to Germany, and organ beaten down but it was ized resistance, by Alva's skill. Alva,
however, completed the alienation of the mercantile in
1569, by
introducing the
heavy Spanish
taxes
classes, on
sales.
commissioning sea-rovers, Orange was uncertain and found who an preyed on Spanish commerce had refugein Englishharbors,where the English Government attitude of hostility to all been driven into a more strenuous Catholic forces,of which Philipwas chief,by the bull of deposi tion, issued against Elizabeth by Pope Pius V on February Meanwhile
William
of
25, 1570. In April,1572, these sea-rovers capturedBrill. The northern William of Orange put himself at the head of provincesrose.
WAR
IN
NETHERLANDS
THE
The
fourth,fifth, sixth, seventh Huguenot Wars, 1573, 1574-1576, 1577, 1580, ran
gain in
not
and
their
France
what
they hoped.
of destruction and
course
Charles
crushed.
not as
LEAGUE.
THE
436
IX
misery,but
died
in
1574
King by his vicious brother,Henry A
III
the and
was
were
succeeded
(1574-1589).
the Catholics themselves
division among
Huguenots
was
developing.
which, while long been a considerable element Catholic in religion, felt that the protractedwars were ruining the land and permittingforeign,especially Spanish, intrigue. basis of the Huguenots that with believed some They peace should be reached, and were known the Politiques.On the as other hand, those who willingto put religionfirst and were of Spain,if therebyCatholi France become a mere see appanage cism could triumph, had been for some time organizingassocia had
There
Church. tions in various parts of France to maintain the Roman " In 1576 these were developedinto a general League," led by
supported by Spain and the Pope. Its and into alliance existence drove the Politiquesmore more head in Henry with the Huguenots, who found their political faith in 1576. of Navarre, he having reasserted his Protestant The of St. Bartholomew shattered the hopes of massacre William of Orange for the speedy expulsionof Spain from the those of intensThe Netherlands. two followingwere years the soul. Alva's generalship of which William was est struggle, seemed at firstirresistible. Mons, Mechlin, Zutphen, Naarden, and Haarlem fell before the Spanish forces; but Alkmaar they Henry of Guise
and
failed to take,in October, 1573.
request, and
was
Alva
was
recalled at his
own
succeeded,in November, by Luis de Requesens
the Spanishpolicywas substantially (1525?-!576), under whom end of the the successful But October, 1574, saw unchanged.
Leyden, and it was evident that the northern Nether lands could not be conquered by the forces then available for Spain. In 1576 Requesens died, and the Spanish troops sacked Antwerp, an event which roused the southern provinces to resistance. The new Spanish commander, John of Austria defense
of
(1545-1578), revolted
was
able
Netherlands
to
from
effect little. Elizabeth 1576.
In
aided
the
September, 1577, William
triumphal entry into Brussels. John of Austria died, a disappointedman, in October, 1578; but he was succeeded Farnese, duke of Parma by his nephew, Alexander of commanding talents. (1545-1592),a generaland a statesman
was
able
to
make
a
PROTESTANTISM Matters
better for the
went
the
of jealousies
The
former
the
in
Catholicism
and
south
League
played on
the Calvinist north.
of Arras for the the
January, 1579;
437
Parma
Spanish cause.
Catholic
united in the
NETHERLANDS
THE
IX
latter
protectionof repliedthe same
Protestants leftthe south for by the Union of Utrecht. Catholics went southward. the north by the thousands, many saved by Parma Ultimately the ten southern provinceswere The seven for Spain, and modern Belgium is his monument. declared their independence of Spain in 1581, northern states remained to be done before all dangers were and though much passed,their freedom was so stronglyintrenched that not even the murder of William of Orange, on July 10, 1584, by a fanatic encouraged by Parma, could overthrow it. During this strugglethe Calvinistic churches of the Nether lands had been shaping. The First National Synod had been in Emden, in 1571. held outside of Netherlandish territory, later. two William of Orange had accepted Calvinism years established in Leyden, soon to be In 1575 a universitywas The Re famed for its learningin theology and the sciences. like the Huguenot of the Netherlands Church formed ,was, of France, Presbyterian in constitution,though its Church of long a matter degree of independence of state control was controversy, and varied with the different provinces. The severityof the strugglefor national independence,the wish the aid of all who were friendlyto it,and the mer to secure Netherlands to a largerdegree led the Protestant cantile spirit
month
of
toleration than
Catholics
elsewhere
at
not, indeed, allowed
were
the
time
in
Christendom.
publicworship or political
but they had rightof residence and employment. office,
To the
Anabaptists William of Orange granted in 1577 the first pro This tection in rightsof worship that they anywhere received. the Nether it was, soon made as degree of toleration,partial lands a refuge for the religiously oppressedand added to the strengthof the nation. William of Orange, brought Yet the death of their wise leader, They did not feel able great perilto the revolted Netherlands. to stand alone, and offered their sovereigntyfirst to Henry III and then to Elizabeth of England. Both of France refused; but with
Elizabeth a
his rule
small was
a
sent
army.
her
favorite,the earl of Leicester,in 1585, He
now
and he failure,
but governor-general, It returned to England in 1587.
became
AND
ELIZABETH
438
looked
ENGLISH
CATHOLICS
skilful
if Parma's
generalshipmight reduce rebellious provinces; but, fortunately, Philip demanded attention for a largerenterprise.The Spanish King had termined on nothing less than the conquest of England. At the beginningof her reignPhiliphad aided Elizabeth as
the his de for
ceased to soon reasons (ante,p. 413) but those reasons political in became her and Elizabeth the Philip apply, seeing enemy, of that Protestantism
his chief desire to over The earlypart of Elizabeth's reignhad been surpris throw. ingly free from actual trouble from her Catholic subjects.
head
"
Mary and
Queen of Scots constant
a
bellion broke
centre
In
bull
1571, a
beth's
by
the
It
the heir to the throne,however, of conspiracy.In 1569 a Catholic re was
of
England, aided by Spanish
put down.
was
In 1570
there followed the
and deposed. declaringElizabeth excommunicate wide-spreadplot that of Ridolfi aiming at Eliza "
assassination new
"
in the north
out
encouragement.
papal
that it was
turn
"
uncovered.
was
of French
Elizabeth
affairs justbefore the
saved
was
of
massacre
St. Bartholomew
(ante,p. 435) and the outbreak of the Nether
lands rebellion.
Parliament
answered
by making attacks
on
Elizabeth's person, orthodoxy,or title to the throne high trea For the immediate son. present,however, England had com
parativepeace. '
"'"""*"
During Elizabeth's earlyyears the EnglishCatholics had been left by Rome and their fellow believers on the Continent with littlespiritual aid or leadership.To remedy this surprisingly situation,William Allen (1532-1594), an able English exile who became a cardinal in 1587, established a seminary in Douai, in 1568, for trainingmissionary priestsfor England. His students were soon flockingto England. Their work was al but was looked upon with great hostility most whollyspiritual, situation was intensified by the English authorities. The when, in 1580, the Jesuits began a mission under the leadership of Robert
(1546-1610) and Edmund Campion (1540seized and to executed, 1581). Campion was though he seems
have
intended
course
land, a
no
movement. political
Not
so
Parsons.
He
Allen for his plans,and began Continent,won of intrigueto bringabout a Spanishinvasion of Eng of Catholic risingthere,and the death or dethronement
escapedto a
Parsons
the
Elizabeth.
His work
lics. Most
of the
was
most
unfortunate
for his fellow Catho
priests laboringin England are
now
known
THE to
SPANISH
ARMADA
439
have been free of traitorous designs;but it was
not
so
under
them all as stood, and the English authorities looked upon publicenemies, and executed such as its spiescould discover. Their work
Church in England, but it was preserveda Roman carried on at frightful Elizabeth now sent cost. to an army the Netherlands,in 1585 (ante,p. 437), while she encouraged a semipiratical expeditionunder Sir Francis Drake, the same the year, which burned and plundered Spanish settlements on Caribbean
Gulf of Mexico.
and
In 1586, a new scheme was hatched againstElizabeth's life the Babington Plot in which English spies discovered that "
"
Mary "Queen
of Scots"
personallyinvolved. As a con she was executed, on February 8, 1587, after a good sequence, deal of wavering on the part of Elizabeth. deter Philipnow mined on an invasion of England. Its conquest would estab lish Catholicism and his own mastery there,and make hopeful was
the reduction
of the rebellious Netherlands.
would
collect
a
while
Parma
brought
Netherlands.
got away
After
from
appealed to
great fleet which
the
over
his seasoned
infinite trouble, the
numbers
of
Europe generallyit was
it
was
badly equipped
the battle in which old and
hold
the
North
he
Sea,
soldiers
from
"Great
Armada"
the
had Spain on July 12, 1588. The enterprise of dis zeal of the nation and men religious
tinction in unusual
tween
could
the work
For
new
it
had enlisted for it.
In the estimate
believed invincible;but, in reality, and the sailors inefficient. Moreover,
was
naval
about
to engage
tactics. The
was
a
contest
Spanish plan
be
of battle
lightand grapplingand boarding. Their guns were few, their vessels slow, though large. England had developed swifter ships,armed with far heavier guns, able to avoid grap pling,and to punish the unwieldy Spaniards frightfully.On July 21 the battle was joined off Plymouth. Then followed of running fightup the Channel, culminatingin a great a week battle off Gravelines on the 28th. The Spanish fleet, hopelessly defeated,fled north, to escape home around Scotland and Ire land. Any crossingby Parma was impossible. While it is a defeated by storms, it reallyfell was legendthat the Armada before the English gunnery and seamanship, though a week its retreat storms later, on completed its wreck. England was the rock on which Philip's plans of a victorious Catholicism had and they had shattered for a cause which he could shattered, was
that of
HUGUENOT
LATER
THE
440
STRUGGLES
In the contest, instead of the Catho have understood. scarcely in England, and which men which he had anticipated lic rising had predicted,Catholics and Protes Parsons like Allen and had stood shoulder to shoulder tants as Englishmen against Spain. thus crushed in 1588, he While Philip'slargerhopes were held as tenaciously to the plan of uprootingProtestant as ever The death of Henry Ill's brother,the duke of ism in France. of Navarre Anjou, in 1584, left the Huguenot Henry Bourbon To prospectiveheir to the throne. prevent this succession, Philipand the League entered into a treaty, in January, 1585, should go to Henry of Navarre's uncle, by which the crown In July, Charles, Cardinal Bourbon, on Henry Ill's death. all forced by the League to withdraw 1585, Henry III was rightsfrom the Huguenots, and in September a bull of Sixtus V (1585-1590) declared Henry of Navarre incapableof succeed the result The eighthHuguenot War was ing to the throne. that known War of the Three Henrys," from Henry III, as the Henry of Guise, the head of the League, and Henry of Navarre. Paris was entirelydevoted to Henry of Guise. On May 12, 1588, its citizens compelled Henry III to leave the city. The of the League weak to resist the demands no King saw way December and its imperious head and, on 23, had Henry of murdered. Thirteen Guise treacherously days later Catherine "
"
de' Medici
closed her stormy life.
leadershipof the League by his brother Charles, duke of Mayenne. Henry III now with Henry of Navarre, and the two were made terms jointly III murdered when to was Paris, by a laying siege Henry fanatic monk, dying on August 2, 1589. But Henry of Navarre, or became, Henry IV of France (1589-1610),was still as he now A brilliant victory at far from his new throne. secure on Ivry,in March, 1590, defeated the League, but Spanish troops under Parma's able generalship prevented his capture of Paris Henry
that year,
of Guise
and
was
succeeded
of Rouen
in the
in 1592.
till after the death
last
named,
of
Henry IV for purely political And Henry reallymaster. now, reasons, received into the Roman IV declared himself a Catholic,being with Church on July 25, 1593, though terms were not concluded the Pope tillmore than two years later. However to be criti cised morally and Henry's life, whether Protestant or as as a Parma,
on
December
"
3, of the year
Not
was
THE a
Catholic,showed his conduct
over
"
HUGUENOTS
441
had littleinfluence principles religious
that
the step
wise.
was
It gave
peace
to the dis
pleased the vast majority of his subjects. did Henry forgethis old associates. In April,1598, the Nor ad Edict of Nantes issued,by which the Huguenots were was mitted to all publicoffice, publicworship was permittedwhereland.
tracted
and
Lyons, forced
It
existed in 1597,
it had
ever
"
Dijon, receive
to
and
The
same
convinced
Huguenots could not be training. Certain fortified towns
Catholic
hands
as
(1598), Philip
year to the end
Paris,Rheims, Toulouse,
of
children
placed in Huguenot
were
in
save
that what
guarantees. II
he had
died, done
on
September 13,
was
for the service
of God, but having failed in his great life effort to overthrow Protestantism. The ous
entered on their most Huguenot Churches now organizationwas completed, period. Their
prosper
and
their
schools at Sedan, Saumur, Montauban, Nimes, and elsewhere flourished. They were a political corporationwithin the state.
such, they were opposed by the centralizing policyof Riche In 1628, Rochelle was taken lieu,Louis XIII 's great minister. from them, and their political semi-independenceended. By the Edict of Nimes, in 1629, their religious were privileges pre from suffered attack Jesuit and but served, increasing they As
other Catholic
influences
tion of the Edict them
to
persecuted,martyr church, to
a
numbers
proscribedtillthe
French
Prussia,and SECTION
be
of their Revolution, and drove thousands into exile,to the lastinggain of England, Holland,
of the
eve
the century went on, tillthe revoca of Nantes, by Louis XIV, in 1685, reduced as
XIII.
America.
GERMAN
CONTROVERSIES
AND
THE
YEARS*
THIRTY
WAR
It
bond
was
the misfortune
of Lutheranism its
that it had
no
other
in its several terri representatives tories than agreement in "pure doctrine,"and that differences in apprehension were regarded as incompatiblewith Christian Lutheran fellowship.The original conceptionof a faith which between God constitutes a new and the personalrelationship believingsoul tended to shade off into a belief which, as Medefined it,is "an assent lanchthon once by which you accept of union
between
442
INTERNAL
CONFLICTS
all articles of the faith."
The
OF
LUTHERANISM
result
was
a
Protestant
new
scholasticism.
Melanchthon, influenced by humanistic moved
thought,gradually
from
his originalagreement with Luther to some em from those of his phases different greater colleague. By 1527 he had lost sympathy with Luther's denial of human freedom and had reached the conclusion that salvation is only possible view to through the co-operant action of the will of man a which the name "synergism" is usuallygiven. By 1535 he but was emphasizing good works, not as the priceof salvation, its indispensable evidence. as Regarding the Lord's Supper he had overemphasized Christ's physical to feel that Luther came and, without quite reaching Calvin's position(ante, presence p. 394), to hold that Christ is given "not in the bread,but with the bread," that is,to lay stress on the spiritual rather than the made breach physical reception. These differences never a with Luther, partly because of Luther's generous affection for his younger friend,and partly because of Melanchthon's cau tion in their expression, though they made Melanchthon un comfortable at times in Luther's presence during that reformer's later years. They were to cause trouble enough in the Lutheran "
communions. One
chief
cause
of bad
was feeling
Melanchthon's
reluctant
Leipzig Interim, in 1548. To Melanchthon Roman "non-essen practicesthen reintroduced were many tials." To Matthias and Nikolaus von Flacius Illyricus Amsdorf, in the securityof Magdeburg, nothing could be "nonin such a time essential" (ante, p. 380). They attacked Melanchthon and perhaps he deserved of their some bitterly, This strain was blame. increased by the feelingof the soon princesof the old deprived Saxon electoral line that Melanch thon by remaining in Wittenberg, which now belonged to their successful despoiler, Moritz, was guiltyof desertion of a family which had faithfully supported him; and they magnified the school in Jena, making it a universityin 1558, and appointing Flacius to one of its professorships. Other theological Andreas Osiander (1498disputesarose. of all other Lutheran 1552) roused the opposition partiesby that with Paul, the sinner receives actual righteous declaring, from the indwellingChrist, and is not ness simply declared righteous.Georg Major (1502-1574) affirmed, in essential consent
to
the
LUTHERAN
444
ORTHODOXY
chief,it was
(1530-1592) of Leipzigwere
Selnecker
put forth,
in 1580, on the fiftieth anniversaryof negotiation, the Augsburg Confession,with the approving signaturesof and between cities, eightand nine princes,thirty-five fifty-one of Lutheran thousand ministers. A number princesand cities refused their approval; but it undoubtedly representedthe de cided majority of Lutheran as Germany. Not as extreme after infinite
Amsdorf, it represents the stricter Lutheran in terpretation.It is minute, technical,and scholastic in marked Flacius and
Augsburg Confessionhalf a The period of Lutheran high orthodoxy had century before. begun, which was to have its classic expositionin 1622, through Gerhard the Loci Theologici of Johann (1582-1637) of Jena. Its scholasticism was as complete as any in the Middle Ages. turned the Philippists this repression, Under increasinglyto Calvinism, and Calvinism made largerinroads in Germany. added in 1577, Bremen To the Palatinate,Nassau was by 1581, in 1597, and part of Hesse in the same Anhalt period. The electoral house of Brandenburg, from which the present Ger the
to
contrast
freshness
of the
Calvinist is descended, became the inhabitants of Brandenburg
imperialline
man
though
of
most
This
Lutheran.
transformation
often
was
in 1613, remained
accompanied by
retention of the Augsburg Confession. Yet though these churches became Calvinist in doctrine German "Reformed"
the
and
worship, Calvin's
foothold
among
Protestantism advance
about
revived
characteristic disciplinefound
little
them.
Germany reached its flood-tide of territorial The From that time it began to ebb. 1566. in
led by creasinglyaggressive, nest Catholic princeslike the
the Jesuits and dukes
supported by Divided
of Bavaria.
offer united resistance.
in
became
Counter-Reformation
of the
Catholicism
Bavaria, Duke
estantism
could
Albert
(1550-1579) vigorouslyapplied the principlecujus
V
not
to regio,ejus religio,
The
of
abbot
Protestantism for
a
Fulda in his
nobilityand people. similarlyattempted the repressionof territories in 1572. Successfully opposed
crush
his Protestant
time, he effected his task in 1602.
torations
were
effected in the
Catholic
Similar
inhabitants of which
had
res
territories be
Protestantized
longing to the archbishopricsof Mainz similar Catholic advances Jesuit leadership the bishoprics,
In
ear
Prot
and
Trier.
were
made
embraced
Under in other
Evangelical
PARTIES
views.
seven
from
forced
his
fullyrestored there
Catholicism.
to
ganda gained and
confident
In
him.
to
came
He
see,
and
the
Austria
and
Bohemia
unfavorable
steadilymore
well
as
help
situated strategically
situation became and
Little
Protestantism.
braced
445
archbishopof Cologne, Gebhard Truchsess, one in 1582, and em Electors, proposed to marry,
The
of the
GERMANY
IN
was
territory the
for Protestantism
;
elsewhere in the empire the Jesuit propa It was individual converts. aggressive
as
many
ultimate
victory. The situation between Protestants and Catholics was constantlystrained. An of the years 1606-1607 event markedly increased this bitterness. The was city of Donauworth overwhelmingly of
Protestant, yet Catholic monasteries A
of procession
Catholic
1606
Catholic
worship.
At
the
able
Reichstag of
been
stoned.
was
mand, Maximilian, 1651) occupiedthe cityand began the
had
a
duke
there
On
allowed.
imperialcom
of Bavaria
(1597-
of itsEvangelical repression
1608
the Catholics
demanded
restitution of all ecclesiastical property confiscated since For this claim they had the strict letter of the law in 1555.
the
of
the Peace
; but
Augsburg
had
that generations
in the two
of these districts had
many
become,
elapsed,solidlyProtestant
in
population. these circumstances
Under formed
"Union"
defensive
a
Calvinist
Elector
lic princes, led
a
number
on
May
of Protestant
4, 1608, headed
Frederick IV of the Palatinate.
by Maximilian
of
states July 10, 1609. The strong Lutheran unwillingto join the "Union/' Germany were Emperor in the "League." Had Henry IV of
probably have
would
assassination in 1610
and
To
by
the
it Catho
Bavaria, opposed a "League,"
on
war
princes
of northern nor
the
was
France
lived,
this time; but his the uncertaintyof the imperialsuc broken
out
at
cession in Germany delayed it for a time. Catholics and Lutherans, Besides the bitter disputesbetween the condition of Germany was, of unrest. in many one ways, Business the
country
debased
coinagecaused great suffering,
growing impoverished. The
was
unity of belief in damaging to the witchcraft
The
bad.
was
Protestant
delusion
and
intellectual which
life of
cost
equally entertained by Catholics worst
between
1580
and
1620.
Catholic
the
thousands and
enforcement
territoriesalike
people; while of
of was
the
lives,and was at its Protestants,was
THIRTY
THE
446
The
actual outbreak That
Bohemia.
then
YEARS'
WAR
of the Thirty Years'
largelyProtestant
War
land
from
came
had
from
wrung
its King, the Emperor Rudolf II (1576-1612), in 1609, a char the Majestdtsbriefgranting a high degree of toleration. ter "
"
Rudolf
succeeded, both
was
Matthias
feeble brother
1619), but he of
Styria,a the
Emperor
and in 1617 his cousin, Ferdinand childless,
was
of the Counter-Reforma representative in securingrecognitionas Matthias's successor
strenuous
tion,succeeded from
and
King, by his (King, 1611-1619; Emperor, 1612as
Bohemian
influences
Catholic
estates.
were
aug
in May, 1618, a party of disaffected Protestants mented, flung the two Catholic regents representingthe absent Mat and
thias from
high window
a
into rebellion and
began
favorable for the Bohemian
in the
Prague.
(1610-1632), Elector of Styria
Ferdinand
was
in 1619, after the Calvinist,Frederick V
and insurgents,
the
Palatine, their King. chosen
was
put Bohemia
act
Its commencement
war.
of Matthias, they elected
death
This
Emperor
The
week
same
Ferdinand
as
II
(1619-1637). Frederick
found
littlesupport outside
Maximilian
of Bavaria
lands
to
of
a
came
Walloon
and
Ferdinand's
a
of
Spanish force
assistance.
combination
overwhelmed
from
Under
general,Jan Tzerklas, Baron
this Catholic
Bohemia, and
now
the Nether
the command
Tilly (1559-1632),
the
Bohemian
Frederick
forces,
fled the
land. 8, 1620. Prague, on November The annulled, the property of Bohemian was Majestdtsbrief Protestants largelyconfiscated, to the great financial advantage near
enforced with a Jesuits,and the Counter-Reformation Among those high hand in Bohemia, Moravia, and Austria.
of the
of confiscated property was by the acquisition destined to play a great part in the further historyof the
enriched
Albrecht dissolved.
place in
Wallenstein
von
A
"Union"
Protestantism
repressionof
war, was
took
now
Austria.
Meanwhile
Spanish troops,
Palatinate
in
"League"
soon
cism
similar
(1583-1634).
The
one
under
Spinola,had
the
of the thither Tilly and the army followed. The land was conquered, Catholi
1620, and
enforced,and Frederick's electoral titlewith
of the Palatinate transferred to Maximilian
Northwestern
invaded
Germany, where Protestant possessionssince the
many
Peace
a
good
of Bavaria
share
in 1623.
bishopricshad become of Augsburg, was now
447
WALLENSTEIN threatened with
and the disasters to Protestantism
war,
which
foreign powers. already happened aroused Protestant done, however, except by Christian IV Nothing effective was of Denmark, to whom England and the Protestant Netherlands sent some slightaid. To the Emperor Ferdinand the enmity had
of the Danish
King
to raise
to Wallenstein
chief.
formidable,and he therefore turned
seemed a
new
adventurer, born
remarkable
This
nominally a Catholic, and A natural leader of men,
questionsof
no
race
or
imperialcommander-in-
as
army
a
Protestant, was
the richest noble of Bohemia.
now
he raised
an
in which
army
he asked
creed, but simply of capacityto fight,
had a force of great efficiency. and loyaltyto himself. He soon On April25, 1626, Wallenstein defeated the Protestant army under Ernst of Mansfeld, at the Dessau bridgeover the Elbe, the beaten forces to Hungary, whither they retreated following with in the vain hope of making effective stand in conjunction Bethlen Gabor, princeof Transylvania. the Emperor's enemy, beaten by was August 27, 1626, Christian IV of Denmark Tillyand the army of the League at Lutter. These successes Han followed up by the Catholics in 1627 and 1628. were Brunswick, and Silesia were conquered,then Holstein, over, Schleswig,Pomerania, and Mecklenburg. Wallenstein found
On
"
"
it impossible to capture the Baltic seaport of Stralsund, which aided by the Swedes, and thought it wise to make peace was before the able Swedish
might a
interfere.
treaty of May,
Accordingly,Christian
The
Catholics
IV
March
to
reap
6, 1629,
an
ordered the restoration to all ecclesiasticalproperty which had come Restitution"
therans,thus deprivingthe Calvinists of but
five
of the next
a bishoprics,
parish churches more
not
would
were,
have been the
the fruits of their
into Protestant hands from
territoriesruled
Protestants any
save
Lu
rightswhatever.
few years preventedits full execution, hundred monasteries, and hundreds of for
a
time, thus
had Catholic
success
transferred.
Many
continued, and had
the spoils.These over quarrelled of the "League," headed by Maxijealousy
the Catholics themselves
and disputes,
condition of
imperial"Edict of of Catholic possession
since 1552, the expulsionof Protestants of any by Catholics,and no recognition events
allowed, by
politics.
determined
had
great victories. On
The
was
1629, to keep his territories on
further share in German
no
Adolphus (1611-1632),
King, Gustavus
ADOLPHUS
GUSTAVUS
448
Bavaria, by
milian
of
power
which
of the great increase in
reason
had
Wallenstein
by the "League" that In September, 1630, the Emperor was his able general.
of
event
an
prime
were portance had occurred, though its consequences Adolphus of Sweden mediately apparent. Gustavus
small army had landed on the German coast on Two motives induced his interference in the
undoubtedly
as
champion
a
the Baltic
also desired to make
imperialattacks diate danger to his the
a
hostile power, he
but
on
ister,Armand which lieu had
be
26, 1630. He
war.
came
faith; but he
seaports
an
he in
saw
imme
they be held by great peril. Gustavus
Should in
drivingthe imperialforces out of Pomerania slowly,since he had no adequate allies.
moved
under
would
a
in
January, 1631, however, then
kingdom.
own
with
lake,and
Baltic
im im
not
June
Protestant
Swedish
a
the German
Sweden
succeeded
soon
of the
with
compelled to part
dismissal
Wallenstein's
before
led to a success Wallenstein be dismissed.
effected,now
ful demand
Even
imperial
the masterful
Plessis,Cardinal
du
considerable resumed
treaty with France, leadershipof Louis XIII's great min
he entered
into
;
In
Richelieu
financial subsidies
the historic
a
were
of hostility
(1585-1642), by
granted. Riche
France
to
the Habs-
burgs of Spain and Austria, and the ancient French policyof advantage of the French aidingtheir enemies for the political Protestants. if those Gusenemies were monarchy, even the tavus's next to secure important and difficult work was alliance of Brandenburg, which, though Protestant,had been and of Saxony, which had been neutral. On May imperialist, 20, 1631, Tilly captured Magdeburg, the inhabitants being treated with brutal ferocity. This loss of a great Protestant strongholdwas followed by an
alliance in June
between
Gustavus
and the Elector of Bran
denburg, and in August Saxony threw off its neutralityand On September 17, 1631, Gustavus, with joined the Swedes. little real help from the Saxons, won a great victory over The close at Breitenfeld, Tilly by Leipzig. imperialpower in northern Germany crumbled, and the Swedish King marched himself in Mainz, while to the Rhine, establishing victoriously the Saxons took Prague. In his extremity,the Emperor called and in April,1632, Wallenstein once to raise an on more army, that generalwas force. of a redoubtable at the head
DEATHS
GUSTAVUS
OF
Gustavus
againstMaximilian
marched
now
WALLENSTEIN
AND
of
449
Bavaria, de
featingTillyin a battle near Donauworth, in which that com mander Munich, the Bavarian capital, was mortallywounded. had
surrender
to
stein had
driven
the
Gustavus.
meet
other
the Swedish
to
Saxons
For
King. of
out
Prague, and
the two
weeks
some
Meanwhile
Wallen-
marched
armies
to
faced each
and was Nuremberg, but the fighting indecisive, northward Wallenstein marched to crush Saxony. Gustavus near
followed
him, and
16, 1632, in
November
slain.
defeated
His
Restitution
work a
a
him
fierce battle in which
enduring.
was
had
He
dead letter in northern
Leipzig,on
Liitzen, near
at
Gustavus
made
the Edict
and
Germany,
was
of
his memory
Protestantism. is deservedlycherished by German The control of Swedish affairs passed to the able chancellor, Axel Oxenstjerna,though the most capable Protestant general was
Bernhard
now
of Saxe- Weimar
(1604-1639). In Novem
ber, 1633, Bernhard
city of
captured the important south German to Regensburg, and opened the line of the Danube
Protestant
Meanwhile
advance.
Wallenstein
had
remained
comparatively inactive in Bohemia, partly jealous of large Spanish forces which had been sent to southern Germany, and with Saxony, Sweden, and France. Just what partlyintriguing he had in mind is uncertain,but the most probable supposition is that he aimed His
to
secure
for himself the
of Bohemia.
crown
failure to relieve
Regensburg was the last straw in rousing of the Emperor, and on February 25, the suspicioushostility soldiers as a result of imperial 1634, he was murdered by his own intrigue. On and the Swedish September 5 and 6, 1634, Bernhard badly defeated at Nordlingen,by combined imperial troops were and Spanish forces. In its way the battle was decisive as as Breitenfeld nearly three years before. That had shown that northern Germany could not be held by the Catholics; this that southern Germany could not be conquered by the Protes The war June 15, 1635, tants. to have ended; on ought now made the Emperor and Saxony. at Prague between was peace November siastical
propertiesshould
of those who decided
taken
12, 1627, was then
held
as
remain
the normal for
date.
forty years
them, and their ultimate
All eccle
in the hands fate should be
by a court composed equallyof Catholic and Protestant made of privileges for Calvinists. judges. No mention was
this peace few weeks. To
Yet
PEACE
THE
450
no
thirteen years aims original
to
was
the
more
WESTPHALIA
of Protestant Germany agreed in the
most
peace
OF
be had
war
for the wretched
continued
as
lost,and practically
land.
savagelyas it became
next
For Its
ever.
struggle, for on parties, the aggrandizement of Spain, France, and Sweden, in which succeeded by his son, Ferdinand II was France gained most. III (1637-1657), but the change brought no real Ferdinand of real leader alteration of the situation. Germany lacked men ship,the only conspicuousexceptionbeing Frederick William the "Great Elector" (1640-1688) of Brandenburg, but though he was he succeeded in enlarginghis territorialpossessions, too were
German
foughtout
young
to largely
soil with the aid of German
affect the
of the
course
war.
the "Peace At last, after infinitenegotiation, Sweden was made on October 27, 1648. was the German
a
shore of the Baltic.
Most
of
Westphalia"
firmlysettled
of Alsace went
on
to France.
independence of Switzerland was formally long-existing acknowledged. Brandenburg received the archbishopricof Magdeburg and the bishopricsof Halberstadt and Minden as compensation for surrender of its claims on part of Pomerania Maximilian of Bavaria kept his titleof Elector to the Swedes.
The
and part of the Palatinate,while the rest of the Palatinate was of the unfortunate Frederick V, restored to Karl Ludwig, son created. More important electoral title was for whom a new the Elector"
was
settlement. religious
secured the inclusion of
Lutherans,
taken
regarded as
were
one
the
abilityof the "Great the Calvinists who, with the against the party as over last secured full rights. The
Calvinists at and the year 1624 of Restitution was fullyabandoned ecclesiastical property was Whatever the norm. as
Catholics. Edict
Here
German
hands
should so remain. While of his of a lay sovereignto determine the religion the power modified by a provisionthat subjectsstillremained, it was in where divided religious worship had existed in a territory then in Catholic
or
Protestant
1624, each party could continue it in the
same
proportionas agreed change
then existed. Between Lutherans and Calvinists it was should be the date of the Peace, and that a that the norm of the
lay ruler to
one
the other form
or
of Protestantism
there
after should not affect his subjects.On the other hand, by accorded to the insistence of the Emperor, no privileges were Protestants in Austria
or
Bohemia.
SOCINIANISM
452 who
spent
a
year
in
Geneva, but found
it wise
to
leave for
Poland
in 1558, servingas physicianto the rulingfamilies of land and of Transylvania,helping to found Unitarian a
that
communion
in the latter
region,which
ultimatelyobtained
legal
standing. Those were
nus,
who
to the movement
destined to give their name
were
the two
Sozzinis,uncle and nephew. Lelio Sozzini (Soci1525-1562) was of a prominent Sienese familyand a student
and he lived for a opinionswere at firstEvangelical, friend year, 1550-1551, in Wittenberg,enjoyingMelanchthon's well received in Geneva, he was ship. Among other Swiss cities,
of law.
and
His
settled in Zurich, where
turned
his attention
to
the
he
died.
problem public in
Servetus's
of the
execution
Trinity,but
his
his lifetime. His more not made speculationswere distinguished nephew Fausto (1539-1604) was in Lyons in 1561 and Geneva in 1562. Although alreadya radical and influenced, though less than has often been represented, by his uncle's notes and papers, Fausto conformed Church outwardly to the Roman and lived from 1563 to 1575 in Italy. Thence he removed to Basel, tillhe went to Transylvania,in 1578, at the instance of The next year saw Biandrata. him in Poland, where he lived
tillhis death Thanks
in 1604.
Sozzini and others in Poland
to the labors of Fausto
the party gained considerable
foothold,and expressedits belief in the Racovian Catechism, on which Fausto had effectively labored, published in 1605, in Rakow, the city from which it took
its
name
and
headquarters.The
in which
these
catechism
"Polish
is
a
had
Brethren"
their
combination
remarkable
of rationalistic reasoning and a hard supernaturalism. The Testa basis of truth is the Scriptures, but confidence in the New is based
primarilyon the miracles by which its promulga tion was accompanied and especially by the crowning miracle The New of the resurrection. Testament, thus supernaturally The purpose of both attested, guarantees the Old Testament. is to show to man's understanding the path to eternal life. there above be in them matters Though there may reason, is nothing of value contrary to reason. The only faith that and they demand is belief that God exists and is a recompenser is by nature mortal and could not find the way a judge. Man Hence God to eternal life of himself. gave him the Scripture ment
and the lifeand
example of
Christ.
Christ
was
a
man,
but
one
SOCINIANISM who
lived
and exemplary obedience,filledwith peculiar
wisdom, and
divine and
lifeof
a
kind
a
of
453
therefore
was
rewarded
so delegateddivinity,
with
that He
is
a
resurrection
now
hearer
a
of
joy in God, prayer and thanksgiving,renunciation of the world, humility and patient endurance. Its consequences are forgivenessof sins and eter nal life. Baptism and the Lord's Supper are to be retained as commanded by Christ and possessinga certain symbolic value. Man's is asserted,and originalsin and pre essential freedom The
prayer.
life consists in
Christian
destination denied. The
most
attack
on
the Socinian polemic was the satisfaction theory of the atonement, which successful
portionof
its the
accepted. Satisfaction is no demand universally of God's nature. Forgiveness and satisfaction are mutually that the sins of exclusive conceptions. It is absolute injustice Christ's the guiltybe punished on the person of the innocent. death is a great example of the obedience which every Christian reformers
had
manifest; but that obedience was no greater than He o^gjfor Himself, and He could not transfer its value to others. Could it be so transferred,in so far as a should, if
necessary,
therebyrelieved from moral character would thereby be weakened.
felt himself
man
ness,
The
relation
peciallythat of
of Socinianism
to
the
effort for
later
righteous
Scholasticism,es
Scotus,is undoubted; but unlike that mediaeval
system, it rejectedall authorityof the church
and
found
its
in the
It rebelled interpretedby reason. Scriptures, and total de againstthe prevailingviews of human inability from the bondage pravity. It did not a littleto free religion of dogma and to favor the unprejudicedstudy of Scripture; but it had almost no conceptionof what religion meant to Paul, vital Luther be a personal relationship Augustine,or new, the believingsoul and God through Christ. tween Suppressed,largelythrough the efforts of the Jesuits in Po source
"
found
land, Socinianism and
even
more
supporters in the Netherlands
some
in England, where
it was
to have
no
littleinflu
ence.
SECTION
The
rigorof
Holland, where where
XV.
ARMINIANISM
Calvinism
produced
humanistic
traditions had
Anabaptism
was
a
in reaction,especially
widely spread.
never
It
died
out
manifested
and itself
ARMINIUS
454 in
an
emphasis
the
on
practicalaspects
more
and sharp creedal definitions,
inclination toward
thinker
attitude.
Such
Coornhert
(1522-1590); but
a
the
was
it
Dutch
religion, a dis a
tolerant
more
scholar
Dirck
its fullest expres (1560-1609) and his dis to
came
Arminius
of Jacobus
sion in the work
of
ciples. Arminius, whose relatives
glefor
1576
from
strug
educated
independence,was
Ley den,
of
killed in the Netherland
were
by friends at the University He was then sent to Geneva
1582.
to
In guild of Amsterdam. 1588, he entered on a pastorate in Amsterdam, winning distinc tion as a preacherand pastor of irenic spirit. In 1603 he was Franz Junius (1545-1602),as chosen to succeed the eminent professorof theology in Leyden, where he remained till his death. Though indisposedto controversy, he was appointed and to defend the "supralapsain 1589 to reply to Coornhert rian" position againsttwo ministers of Delft. The discussion the
at
had
last named
Did
of the
expense
the fall
as
a
fall,and
by which did
Or
then
Arminius
and predestination
congenialto Calvinism. and
his
Gomarus were
doubt
to
came
As
to
reprobation,and
the
could
then
permit
be carried out
studied whole
doctrine
ascribe to
and
freedom, which, however 442), had no place in pure
bitter controversy sprang up supralapsariancolleague in the soon
of unconditional
a
man
(ante,p.
A
(1563-1641), and
purposes.
permit that man of saving the method as the questions involved,
foresee election
he
Melanchthon
order of the divine
the decree
He
decree
(infralapsum)*!
some
the
election and
means
(supra lapsum)*? would
do with
to
"decree"
God
merchant's
between
Arminius
university,Franz
the Protestant
Netherlands
widely involved.
death, in 1609, the leadershipof the party taken by the court preacher Johan was Wtenbogaert (15571644) and by Simon Episcopius (1583-1643),Arminius's friend After
and
By
Arminius's
pupil,and them
soon
"Arminian"
be professorof theology in Leyden. views were systematizedand developed,
to
opposed the current emphasis on minutiae of doctrine, primarilyas a force for moral transforma viewing Christianity of tion. In 1610, they and other sympathizersto the number Dutch statesman, forty-one,at the instance of the eminent Johan Oldenbarneveldt lover of van religious (1547-1619), a of their faith called the "Redrew up a statement toleration, and
both
455
ARMINIANISM
monstrance,"1 from
which
gained the
the party
"
name
Re
againstthe Calvinist doctrine of absolute based on divine fore it taught a predestination predestination,' of grace. of the means would make knowledge of the use men Against;the doctrine that Christ died for the elect only, it receive the benefits asserted that He died for all,though none Over
monstrants."
of His
death
denying the abilityof
in
to
men
all is of divine grace. Pelagians (ante,p. 185). In
themselves not
It
except believers.
"
at
was
do
with Calvinism
one
anything reallygood the Arminians
Hence
oppositionto
of
were
the Calvinist
be doctrine of irresistible grace, they taught that grace may and they declared uncertaintyregardingthe Calvin rejected, that holding it possible
ist teachingof perseverance, received. lose grace once All
conflict. The and
that
Netherlands
Protestant
the
majority
vast
had
view
people
Calvinists,
were
support of the Stadholder
the
may
speedilyfilled with
were
of the
men
Maurice
favored Remonstrants by Oldenwere (1588-1625). The barneveldt,the leader of the province of Holland, and by the great juristand historian,the founder of international law, Hugo Grotius (1583-1645). The disputesoon became involved in
politics.The
Netherlands
classes and
of which
divided included
rights,"which
porters of "states chant
were
Oldenbarneveldt
the sup the wealthier mer between
and
leaders,and the national party of which Maurice
Grotius was
were
the head.
national synod to decide the controversy. The provinceof Holland, under Oldenbarneveldt, affairs and held that each province could decide its religious
The
national party
now
wished
a
proposal. Maurice, by a coup d'etat in July,1618, overthrew the "states-rights"party. Oldenbarneveldt, in beheaded on May 13, 1619, spiteof his great services,was and Grotius condemned to life imprisonment, from which he escaped in 1621. Meanwhile national synod, called by the states-general, a held session in Dort from November 13, 1618, to May 9, 1619. Besides representatives from the Netherlands, delegatesfrom England, the Palatinate, Hesse, Bremen, and Switzerland shared in its proceedings. By the synod of Dort, Arminianism Calvinistic in tone, condemned and "canons," aggressively was adopted,which, togetherwith the Heidelberg Catechism, and resisted the
1
Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
545-549.
GROTIUS
ARMINIANISM,
456
of the
basis
Calvinists
Church.1
Dutch it did
"
banished, but
the
againstthem though they were not to Netherlands
the
the
ianism
have
to
was
land, and
its home
type of piety
even
to
was
as
the
Dort
of Calvin-
Remonstrants
Maurice, in 1625, the letters. They returned,
of
dead
In
slowly,and still exists. Its intellectual and land was prevailingly Arminaffected by Socinianism. greater influence in England than in of John Wesley, prove, in the person
of association with its possibility a
views supralapsarianl
party grew
somewhat
was
individual
till1795. receive officialrecognition
type of pietyin the home
ethical,and
death
became
measures
of
synod
the
on
as
high-watermark
the
reached
synod of Dort istic creed-making. Immediately after
extreme
so
Gomarus's
adopt
not
"the
were
Not
the doctrinal
became
BelgicConfession (ante,pp. 433, 443)
the
as
and emotional
warm-hearted
of Christian truth interpretation
any
can
exhibit.
tius, in 1617, view
important theory
an
of Anselm
faction of the ers
the pen
of Gro-
atonement.
The
of this controversy there emerged from
Out
had
had
looked
injureddivine
viewed
of the
Christ's death
upon
as
reform
(ante,p. 263). The
honor
satis
the
of penalty for sin to outraged the payment Christ died, and had behalf of those for whom
it as
divine
justiceon representedthe
of
exaction
penalty as
a
fundamental
demand
be just. To be merciful but must nature, who may sufficient for all, Calvinistic conception,Christ's sacrifice was of God's
only for the elect in whose behalf He died. The Socinians had subjected these views to a radical criticism, punishment, or that the denying that God's nature demanded of an penalty due to one could justlybe met by the sufferings but
efficient
other
(ante,p. 453). To
replied. God His
is
Like
law.
chooses; but which
tempt.
to
Hence
great moral
ruler.
sense
is
the
wise
Christ's death
sacrifice of Christ
not
was
"
1
Sin is
an
is
a
now
offense
He
freelyforgiven but a divine government, showing that He vindicates the majesty of His "that
criticism Grotius
Socinian
earthlygovernor may pardon without making evident be to bring that His law would
a
holds
He
a
the
payment
against pardon if He the regard in law
into
for man's
con
sin
sanctityof the remits the penalty,
tribute to the
no
while God divine
government.
injustice.It
Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
550-597.
is the
In that divine
pardon
offer
to
only,and
were
not
all saved?
of
penalty.
ories of
for
Grotius
caused
the
gave
this the
Christ
sense
may as
He
repentance.
It relieved
the
their assertion that
by for
by denyingthe pay reply to the Socinians,a
answer
also gave, in the great sacrifice.
atonement
terms
all,and not for the of the penalty for sin,why then
He
for
reason
true
some
theory
payment
a
for satisfactory,
least in
was
such
on
of faith and
If that sacrifice was
Christ died for all. elect
earthlyruler,God
is undeniable.
of the Arminians
embarrassment
definite
condition
on
ingenuity of this
ment
wise
a
will receive it
all who
chooses, for eiample, The
Like
law.
tribute to offended
457
GROTIUS
HUGO
is the
message died, not
Yet, of all the the most
theatrical
and
Gospel is that but for general justice, of
the
me.
XVI.
SECTION
IN
ALISM
ANGLICANISM,
PURITANISM,
EPISCOPACY
ENGLAND.
IN
AND
AND
CONGREGATION
PRESBYTERIANISM
SCOTLAND
Queen Elizabeth's relations to the Catholics has been else where considered (ante,p. 438). Her position, at the beginning of her
reign,was
far from mies
united
abroad, it
of
With her people exceedingdifficulty. with plotsat home and ene belief, religious only by political manoeuvring of extreme
one
in was
skilfulness that she
was
able to steer
increased
a
successful
course.
by the divisions which
Her
appeared, after the beginningof her reign, those who accepted soon among of Rome. These her rejection were augmented, as that reign life which was advanced, by the quickened popular religious transforminga nation that had been previouslyrather spiritu allyapatheticduring the changes under Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary. the acceptance of her religious Elizabeth purposely made settlement as easy as possible. The church, in its officersand the older worship as fullyas Protestant services,resembled would sentiment tolerate. All but a fragment of its parish clergyconformed, and Elizabeth was well satisfied to leave them in their parishes,provided they remained undisturbed quiet, of their often Protestantism was hearty acceptance though doubtful and their capacityto preach or spiritual earnestness From often dubious. a political point of view her policywas
difficultieswere
England
wise.
spared such
was
PURITANS
THE
OF
RISE
THE
458
wars
as
devastated
France
and
Germany. the Queen the first, From
aggressiveProtestantism. Mary
had
come
under
faced, however, by
was
Many
who
the influence
admiration
had
been
of Geneva
a
more
exiles under or
Zurich
and
for their
thoroughgoing Protes of deep religious earnest tantism. prevailingly They were men Elizabeth whom must depend in her conflict with ness, upon Rome, yet who, if they could introduce the changes which they desired,the Queen believed would turmoil a situation kept at Yet the desires of these men at best with difficulty. are peace from a religiouspoint of view. They easilyunderstandable from the services what would they believed to be rem purge and procure in every parish an of Roman nants superstition, In particular, preaching minister. earnest, spiritual-minded, they objectedto the prescribedclerical dress as perpetuating the thought of the ministryas a spiritual in the popular mind to kneeling at the receptionof the estate of peculiarpowers, of the physicalpresence Lord's Supper as implying adoration of Christ therein,to the use of the ringin marriage as continuing the estimate of matrimony as a sacrament, and the sign of the in baptism as superstitious.Because they thus desired cross popularlycalled to purifythe church, this party, by 1564, was returned filled with
the "Puritans." of Mag (1527-1590), president Thomas dalen Sampson (1517-1589), dean of Christ Church, Oxford, both Marian exiles,the earliest Led
Puritan "the
by Laurence Humphrey College, Oxford, and discussion
"Vestiarian
the
of the
prescribedgarments Controversy." Cambridge Universitysym was
pathizedlargelywith
over
use
the Puritans.
But
in this matter
the
stronglyopposed to modification,and in issued his "Advertisements/'1 by 1566 Archbishop Parker fresh licenses from which all preacherswere requiredto secure the bishops,controversial sermons forbidden, kneelingat com and clerical dress minutelyprescribed. Under munion required, number of Puritan clergywere these regulations deprived of a their positions. who had learned in Zurich and Geneva to feel Among men could not be found that any worship for which Biblical warrant
Queen's policy was
1
Gee
467-475.
and
Hardy, Documents
Illustrative of
English Church
History,pp.
but
extreme
Field
THE
PURITANS
popularly effective pamphlet entitled An Admo Parliament, written by two London ministers,John
nition to the
To
OF
DESIRES
460
(?-1588) and
Thomas
Wilcox
(1549?-1608), in 1572. answered, in turn, by Cart-
it
Whitgift replied,and was wright. PresbyterianPuritanism was growing. To those more moderate than that it would Cartwright, it seemed require littlealteration of the existingchurchly constitution. relatively The obnoxious ceremonies could be discarded, the Prayer Book revised, elders instituted in parishes,and the bishops preserved as presidingofficers of the churches of each diocese A voluntary local organized as a synod, primi inter pares. of presbytery,was classis, a kind organizedby Puritan ministers in Wandsworth, near London, in 1572; and similar organiza tions sprang Meeting of ministers for preaching up elsewhere. and discussion the so-called "prophesyings" were begun "
about
the
vanced
by
by
a
All
this
time.
same
The
the Declaration
radical
Puritan
This
soon
aided
was
Canterbury,
on
became, in
by
the
Parker's
cause
was
ad
of Ecclesiastical Discipline, published
Cambridge scholar,Walter
young
in 1574.
"
a
Travers
the Puritan
sense,
succession
(1548?-1635),
to
the
standard.
archbishopricof
death, in 1576, of Edmund
Grindal
(1519?-1583), who
sympathized with the Puritans and was suspended for his conscientious objectionsto the Queen's orders to forbid "prophesyings." Cartwright and his fellow Puritans opposed all separation from the Church of England. Their thought was to introduce much of Puritan discipline and practiceas possible, and wait as for its further reformation Such a by the government. hope did not seem vain. Within the constitution and a generation, worship of the church of the land had been four times altered. be changed for a fifth time into what the Might it not soon Puritans deemed a more Scripturalmodel? They would agi tate
and
wait.
This
remained
generally. Naturally, there seemed unjustifiable. They ceived to be Scriptural at once. earlyCongregationalists. On
June
company
of the Puritans
whom
members
this
delay would establish what they con These were the Separatists or were
some
to
19, 1567, the authorities in London
prisoned the sembled
the programme
of such
seized and
im
Separatistcongregation,as for worship ostensiblyto celebrate a wedding. This had rejected the Church of England and had chosen at a
BEGINNINGS least two deacon. tion.
OF
officers Richard "
It
was
Whether
CONGREGATIONALISM
461
Fitz,minister,and Thomas
evidentlymoving remnants
of this
Rowland,
Congregationaldirec a congregation maintained
in the
subsequent corporate existence is not known. The first really conspicuous advocate of Congregational Browne Robert principlesin England was (1550?-1633), a student in Cambridge in the troublous time of Cartwright's brief professorship, and a graduate there in 1572. At first an advanced to adopt Separatist PresbyterianPuritan, he came principles by about 1580, and in connection with a friend,Robert in Norwich in Harrison, founded a Congregational Church As a result of his preaching he found himself speedily 1581. in prison. He and the majority of his congregationsought Here in Middelsafety in Middelburg, in the Netherlands. had printed,in 1582, a substantial volume burg Browne con three treatises. the Puritans One, directed against taining who would remain in the Church of England, bears its burden in its title: A Treatise of Reformationwithout Taryingfor anie, and of the Wickednesse of those Preachers which will not reforme commaunde and compel!them. tillthe Magistrate Another, A Booke which sheweth the Life and Manners of all true Christians, of Congregationalism. presentedthe fundamental principles According to Browne, the only church is a local body of believers in Christ,united to Him and to one experiential an other by a voluntary covenant. Such church has Christ a its immediate as head, and is ruled by officers and laws of His and chooses a pastor, a appointment. Each is self-governing ;
.
.
.
teacher, elders,deacons, and
designates;but
each
widows, whom
member
has
the
New
Testa
for the responsibility welfare of the whole. No church has authorityover any other, but each owes other to brotherlyhelpfulness.The system thus outlined was far more democratic than early essentially so Congregationalismin generalwas actuallyto be in its practice. Browne's system so closelyresembles the views of the Ana connection in thought at least baptists(ante,p. 368) that some seems well-nighcertain. Norwich, also,was largelypopulated by Dutch refugees. Yet Browne displayed no conscious in debtedness to the Anabaptists, and did not reject infant baptism. His emphasis on the covenant the constitutive element in the as church is much the Anabaptists. more positivethan among The probable conclusion is that Browne owed much to a some-
ment
"
PURITANS
462
AND
ANGLICANS
widely diffused Anabaptist way of thinking,rather than borrowed Browne's directlyfrom any Anabaptist source. own
what
stay in Holland
brief.
was
His church
was
turmoiled,and after
period in Scotland he returned to England, where he con formed, outwardly at least,to the Established Church in Octo from 1591 to 1633, ber, 1585, and spent his long remaining life, in its ministry. With such a record of abandonment of early that early Congregationalists principlesit is no wonder re sented the name "Brownists"; yet Congregationalism has been more never clearlyenunciated than by him. Under Grindal's archbishopricmany of the Puritan minis the Prayer Book in whole or in part, and the ters ceased to use establishment of the "Holy Discipline," that set forth in as Traver's Declaration called, of Ecclesiastical Disciplinewas a
went
on
Grindal
apace.
to
1604, in the
In
his
was
succeeded, however, from
1583
of
Canterbury by Whitgift. A thorough Calvinist in theology,he was martinet in discipline, and in a this had the hearty support of the Queen. He promptly issued articles enjoiningfull approval and use of the Prayer Book, prescribingclerical dress,and forbiddingall private re the hand of repressionrested ligiousmeetings;1 Thenceforth embit heavilyon Puritans and Separatists.This hostility was tered by the secret publicationof a telling satire againstthe and unfair,but extremelywitty and exasperat bishops,coarse ing,plainlyof Puritan origin,though disliked by the Puritans the "Martin as generally. Issued in 1588-1589, and known been fullyas Marprelate Tracts," their authorshiphas never certained, though probabilities point to Job Throckmorton (1545-1601), a Puritan layman. Puritan and Separatistassertion of the divine character of their systems was now rapidlyproducing a change of attitude in the leaders of their opponents, who may be called Anglicans. sermon
see
at
Paul's
Cross, in London, in 1589, Richard
Bancroft
as (1544-1610),to be Whitgift'ssuccessor archbishop, denounced not merely Puritanism, but affirmed a jure divino rightfor episcopacy. Adrian Saravia (1531-1613), a Walloon
theologian domiciled
in
England, advocated
the
same
view
Bilson to be later,as did Thomas (1547-1616), soon bishop of Winchester, in his PerpetualGovernment of Christ's Less the learned Richard extreme Church, in 1593. was
a
year
1
Gee
and
Hardy,
pp.
481-484.
MARTYRS
CONGREGATIONAL
463
of Ecclesiastical Polity,of 1594. Though episcopacy is grounded in Scripture,his chief over against argument in its favor is its essential reasonableness, (1553?-!600), in his Laws
Hooker
the
The
Biblicism of the Puritans.
extreme
foundations
of
a
high-churchparty had been laid. The and Separatism was greatly repressionof Puritanism From aided by the court of the High Commission. Henry VIIFs time it had been a favorite royalexpedientto control ecclesi astical affairs or persons by commissions appointed to investi gate and adjudicatewithout beingbound by the ordinaryproc of law. The system was esses a gradualgrowth. Elizabeth developed it,and made it more permanent ; but it did not be come a thoroughly effective ecclesiastical court till Bancroft of its members in 1587. had become one By 1592 it had fully attained its powers. The presumptionof guiltwas againstthe of proof was It could undefined. accused, and the nature examine and imprison anywhere in England, and had become of episcopalauthority. the rightarm Meanwhile, Congregationalismhad reappeared. In 1587 (1550?-1593), a lawyer of London, and John Henry Barrowe Greenwood arrested for holding (?-1593),a clergyman, were From their prison they Separatist meetings in London. smuggled manuscripts which appeared as printedtreatises in Holland, attackingAnglicans and Puritans alike,and explain A number were ing Congregational principles. including won, Francis Johnson
Church Congregational its
"pastor"
and
of
the
year
next
minister.
(1562-1618), a Puritan was
Greenwood Barrowe
in London
formed
and
1592
with Johnson
its "teacher," and Greenwood were
as
In
a as
April 6 hanged for on
in ecclesiasticalmatters. The denying the Queen's supremacy same passed a statute proclaimingbanishment year Parliament againstall who challengedthe Queen's ecclesiasticalauthority, refused to go to church, or were where other than the lawful its terms
of the
most
pelledto seek
a
London
controversy broke
out 1
Gee
and
Johnson
reign also
pp.
saw
Calvinism.
Cambridge, Hardy,
was
where
the dominant
in
"conventicle" Under com
continued
(1571-1623?) their teacher.
of Elizabeth's
reaction from
some
employed.1 were Congregationalists
Henry Ainsworth
closingyears
nings of
worship
refugein Amsterdam,
their pastor and
The
present at
where
492-498.
the
begin
By
1595
Peter Baro
a
(1534-
JAMES
464
THE
advocatingviews
been
1599) had
AND
I
called Arminian.
PURITANS that would
later have
been
discussion led to the publication, un the of Calvinistic "Lambeth Whitgift'sauspices strongly
der
This
Articles" j1but the tendency to criticiseCalvinism, thus started, increased,and through oppositionto Puritanism,in part, was to
become Elizabeth
succeeded
1625), who James to
his
and
more
VI.
characteristic of the
more
closed her
March
long reignon
Anglicanparty.
24, 1603, and
was
by Mary "Queen of Scots's" son, James I (1603had alreadyheld the Scottish throne since 1567, as All religious partiesin England looked with hope
accession,the Catholics because
of his parentage, the
of his Presbyterianeducation, PresbyterianPuritans by reason of his high conceptionsof divine and the Anglicanson account had devel to Presbyterianrule,which rightand his hostility oped in his long strugglesto maintain the power of the crown in Scotland. Only the Anglicans read his character correctly. "No bishop,no King/' was his favorite expression. In claim and action he was more no arbitrarythan Elizabeth ; but the from a popular and admired ruler country would bear much
which
it resented from
tative
sovereign.
and disliked,undignified,
a
unrepresen
his way to London, in April, 1603, James I was presented 2 with the "Millenary Petition," so-called because it was sup On
bear
posed to It a
was
a
very
thousand
a
moderate a
consequence,
signatures, though reallyunsigned. statement
of the Puritan
desires.
As
held at Hampton Court, in bishops and Puritans,in the royal
conference
was
January, 1604, between the leading Anglican disputant,besides the King presence No himself,being Bancroft, now bishop of London. changes of importancedesired by the Puritans were granted,except a "
translation of the Bible, which resulted in the "Author This ordered to conform. ized Version" of 1611. They were by convoca Anglicanvictorywas followed by the enactment new
in 1604, of tion,with royalapproval,
series of
elevating of the declarations and practices into church law many against here was which the Puritans had objected. The leadingspirit of Whit gift in the see to succeed soon Bancroft, who was now thoroughly Canterbury (1604-1610). The Puritans were alarmed, but
Bancroft
was
more
a
considerate
1
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom,
2
Gee
and
Hardy,
canons
pp. 508-511.
3
:
523.
in government
SEPARATIST than his declarations and
MOVEMENTS
465
previousconduct
would
have
proph
of ministers,estimated small number esied,and only a relatively variouslyfrom forty-nineto three hundred, were actuallyde also,from a gradual prived. Anglicanismwas gainingstrength,
improvement in the education and zeal of its clergy,which Whitgift and Bancroft did much to foster a conspicuousex and eloquent Lancelot Anample being the learned, saintly, drewes (1555-1626), who became bishop of Chichcster in 1605. Bancroft's successor as archbishopwas George Abbot (1611of narrow 1633), a man sympathies and strong Calvinism, un of the clergy,and himself in practical popularwith the mass disgracein the latter part of his episcopate. The loss of such felt by the strong hands as those of Whitgiftand Bancroft was Anglicans,and under these circumstances,not only Puritanism but Separatism made decided progress. A Separatist of far-reaching ultimate consequences movement had its beginningsprobably about 1602, in the work of John Smyth (?-1612), a former clergyman of the establishment, who had adopted Separatistprinciplesand now gathered a "
congregationin Gainsborough. Soon in the adjacent rural districts,and
adherents a
second
were
secured
congregation
gathered in the home of William Brewster (1560?-!644), at Scrooby. Of this Scrooby body William Bradford (1590-1657) From about 1604 it enjoyed the lead was a youthfulmember. ership of the learned and sweet-tempered John Robinson (1575?-1625), like Smyth a former clergyman of the Puritan of England, and like him led to believe party in the Church Separatism the only logical step. The hand of authoritybeing them, the Gainsborough congregation,led by heavy upon self-exiled to Amsterdam, Smyth, were probably in 1607. That centred in Scrooby, under Robinson and Brewster's lead followed the same road to Holland, in 1607 and 1608, ership, but established itselfin 1609 in Leyden. At Amsterdam into contact with the MenSmyth came convinced that their posi nonites,and by his own study was tion rejecting infant baptism was that of primitiveChristianity. In 1608 or 1609 he therefore baptizedhimself by pouring,and then the others of his church. Of unstable disposition, Smyth after soon quarrelledwith his flock,but two of its members, Thomas Helwys (1550?-1616?),and John Murton (?-1625?), led the return
of
a
considerable portionto England,and estab-
ENGLISH
466
lished in
BAPTISTS.
London, in
1611
or
THE
PILGRIM
FATHERS
1612, the first permanent
Baptist
congregation on English soil. In the contemporary Dutch controversies they had adopted the Arminian position,and "General therefore known were as Baptists." Apparently of the exiled remnants some CongregationalChurch of John and Greenwood son (ante,p. 463) kept up an organizationin London, but the effective permanent replantingof Congrega tionalism in England was when Henry Jacob (1563-1624), who had been of Robinson's congregationin Leyden, established a
in Southwark
church
in 1633,
seceded
this church
From
Baptistprinciples.They Baptists." By
on
named
in 1616.
and
hence
"Particular
was
practisedabout
1641, and
thence
portion
a
were
Calvinists,
them
immersion all
spread to
English
Baptists. in the
historyof the Leyden Congregational Church the decision to send its more active minority to was America. Robinson reluctantlystayed with the majority. In 1620, after infinite negotiation,the "Pilgrim Fathers" crossed the Atlantic in the Mayflower, under the spiritual leadershipof their "elder," William Brewster, and on Decem of the colony of Plymouth, of ber 21 laid the foundations chief event
The
which
William
Bradford
tanism
was
be the
wise
and
self-
planted in
thus
under
Abbot's
less
Puri
vigorousgovernment
of the the successors "lectureships," establishing "prophesyings." In parisheswhere the legalincum unable to preach sometimes hostile,or unwilling, or
was
old-time
with
to
England.
Meanwhile
bent
soon
Congregationalismwas
forgetful governor. New
was
was
the
"
of the
consent
financingafternoon
Puritanism
had
always
himself
incumbent
preachers,of laid stress
on
"
Puritan
money
stronglyPuritan a
strict observance
cast.
of
augmented by the Sunday. Its Sabbatarian tendencies were publication,in 1595, by Nicholas Bownde (?-1613) of his Doctrine of the Sabbath, urging the perpetuityof the fourth in Jewish rigor. Much Puritan commandment hostility was, when and that of Abbot also roused therefore, Archbishop James I issued his famous Declaration of Sports,in 1618, in for and dances the old popular games which he commended To the Puritan it seemed a royal com Sunday observance. mand Puritanism to disobey the will of God. was steadily force all through James's reign. The growing as a political "
"
LAUD
I AND
CHARLES
468
Charles I (1625-1649). A
of
personaldignitythan his father,of pure family life,and of sincere religion, he was quiteas exalted as James in his conceptionsof the divine right of Kings, arbitraryin his actions, and with no capacity to also marked He was understand the drift of publicsentiment. by a weakness that easilylaid him open to charges of doubledealingand dishonesty. From the first he enjoyed the friend support of
ship and
man
more
of the most
one
remarkable
of the
men
Laud
time, William
(1573-1645). the younger Laud been, under James, a leader among Anglicans. A vigorousopponent of Calvinism, he had argued had
early as bishops." as
1604
"that
1622, in
In
of the
with a
was
In many
the purest part.
was
be
true
no
the
that view
was
Puritans
respects he
and
the
was
of a
Eng
founder
to be wondered
authorities,to whom
Roman
then novel, believed him a Roman he was offered a cardinalate. So
Twice
heart.
without
the Jesuit,Fisher, he had true church, and a branch
"Anglo-Catholic"position ; but it is not
that both
church
universal,of which the Church
of the Catholic Church
land
contest
Church
held that the Roman
could
there
Catholic at to class him
mar a however, to do him a great injustice.Laud was dress and worship, tinet,intent on uniformity in ceremony,
was,
with
rough tongue
a
enemies.
many
At
bottom, with
real
piety of
pathy, he
had
someness,
of Lancelot
a
overbearingmanner
and
all his
that made
him
of sym
narrowness
the type, though not Andrewes. In 1628 Charles
of the winmade
Laud
bishop of the stronglyPuritan diocese of London, and in 1633 Charles's archbishop of Canterbury. To all intents he was chief adviser also in political affairs after the murder of the duke of Buckingham in 1628. The
country gentry, who
formed
the backbone
of the House
stronglyCalvinist in their sympathies,and the arbitraryimpositionof taxes to resent disposedpolitically Charles without scon parliamentary consent. put himself Laud's in disfavor in both respects. Under guidance he pro Arminians church preferments. To moted to prevent Calof Commons
were
discussion,in 1628, he caused a declaration to be pre shall "put his fixed to the Thirty-nineArticles,that no man own sense,"on any Article,"but shall take it in the literal and vinistic
grammatical 1
Gee
and
sense."
Hardy,
pp.
1
Parliament
518-520.
resented 2
these
actions.2
Ibid.,pp. 521-527.
AND
CHARLES
PARLIAMENT.
NEW
ENGLAND
469
proceeded to forced taxation, imprisoningsome refused to pay. who Roger Manwaring (1590-1653), a royal chaplain,preached in 1627, arguing that as the King ruled as those who refused taxes imposed by him God's representative, Manin peril of damnation. Parliament condemned were waring,in 1628, to fine and imprisonment,but Charles protected him him by pardon and rewarded by ecclesiastical advance ment, ultimatelyby a bishopric. Questions of royal right to of cause, and of taxation,as well imprison without statement the relations of King and Parliament, embittered of religion, as and after dismissingthat of, 1629, Charles determined to rule till without to meet parliamentary aid. No Parliament was of the Anglican party was The weakness that it had 1640. identified itself with the arbitrarypolicyof the King. Laud, with the support of the King, enforced conformity Puritan broken up. with a heavy hand. Lectureshipswere reissued. preachers silenced. The Declaration of Sports was Puritans began to despairof these circumstances many Under and political the religious outlook, and to plan to follow the the Atlantic. It was abstract religious no Separatistsacross libertythat they sought,but freedom to preach and organize as they desired. By 1628, emigrationto Massachusetts had be In 1629, a royal charter for Massachusetts was secured, gun. Charles
and
a
had
church
of many
formed
in Salem.
immigrants under
(1588-1649). Soon
there
the
were
The
year
1630
saw
leadershipof John strong churches
the arrival
Winthrop
about
Massa
John Bay, under able ministerial leaders,of whom Cotton (1596(1584-1652) of Boston, and Richard Mather the most 1669) of Dorchester, were conspicuous. Connecticut Hooker fully established in 1636, with Thomas colony was
chusetts
(1586-1647) as its chief minister at Hartford; and New Haven colony in 1638, under the spiritual guidance of John Davenport were (1597-1670). These men clergyof the English establish ment. They had no fondness for Separatism. But, like the
Separatists, they looked on the Bible as the sole law of church Their churches and they read it in the same organization, way. Till were organized,therefore,on the Congregationalmodel. 1640, the Puritan tide to New England ran full,at least twenty thousand crossingthe Atlantic. Charles's period of rule without time of Parliament a was considerable prosperityin England, but taxes widely believed
CIVIL
THE
REVOLTS.
SCOTLAND
470
WAR
such as the famous "ship-money," and enforced illegal, It was in Scotland, uniformity,kept up the unrest. religious
to
be
however,
that
the
broke.
storm
James
I had
succeeded
in
Presbyterianismlargelyby securingthe sup port of the nobles by grants of church lands. At the beginning of his reign Charles, by an act of revocation that was just, ordered the restoration of these lands, to the though impolitic, lastingadvantage of the Scottish church, though the command effect,however, was was imperfectlyexecuted. Its political lands and tithes largelyon of church the possessors to throw the side of the discontented Presbyterians. There now a was united Scotland, instead of the divisions which James relatively had fomented to his profit. the changes effected by James I, he had not Great as were dared alter the largerfeatures of publicworship (ante,p. 467). in 1637, in a fatuous desire for uniformity,Charles, But now, inspiredby Laud, ordered the impositionof a liturgywhich was of England. Its use, on that of the Church July essentially flared in opposition. 23, in Edinburgh, led to riot. Scotland to defend the true re In February, 1638, a National Covenant widely signed. In December, a General Assembly ligionwas deposed the bishops,and repudiated the whole ecclesiastical of
his overthrow
and
James
Charles
structure
which
This
rebellion,and
Charles
the
Scottish
So
was
formidable
was
had
erected
raised forces to attitude
that
an
since 1597. suppress
it.
agreement
patched up a truce in 1639; but in 1640 Charles determined of the war To pay the expenses bring the Scots to terms. prospect Charles Parliament
in
last
at
April,1640. religionwere
politicsand speedilydissolved
in
was
the
that followed the Scots
The
in
compelled to call an English old parliamentarygrievances
at
once
presented,and
Parliament."
"Short
to
Charles
In the brief
invaded England. successfully
war
Charles
of a Scottish forced to treat, and to guarantee the expenses of occupationtillthe treaty should be completed. There army no was help for it. The EnglishParliament must again be sum
was
moned, and in November, its work.
It
was
1640, the "Long Parliament"
evident at
once
began
that PresbyterianPuritanism
cast into prison. In July, majority. Laud was In January, 1642, abolished. was 1641, the High Commission of the Commons, the attempt of the King to seize five members
was
whom
in the
he
accused
of treason,
the precipitated
civil war.
In
for Parliament.1
East
and
stood for the King, the South
West
and
North
general,the
471
ASSEMBLY
WESTMINSTER
THE
Provision ab6lished episcopacyin January, 1643. for the creed and government of the church, and be made
Parliament must
of Elizabeth,as Parliament, quite in the spirit therefore,
sover
eign,called an assembly of one hundred and twenty-one clergy and thirtylaymen, named by it,to meet in Westminster men on July 1, 1643, to advise Parliament, which kept the power of The Westminster Assembly, thus hands. in its own enactment and Episcopa convened, contained a few Congregationalists lians,but its overwhelming majority was PresbyterianPuritan. had begun illfor Parliament, and to secure the war Meanwhile Scottish aid the Solemn League and Covenant, pledging the in England,Scotland, and uniformityin religion possible largest was acceptedby the Scottish Ireland,and opposing"prelacy/' and English Parliaments between August and October, 1643, and was soon requiredof all Englishmen over eighteenyears Scottish commissioners, without vote, but with much Assembly. The Assembly sat in the Westminster now influence, ofWorship and a thoroughly to Parliament a Directory presented of age.
Presbyteriansystem of church government in 1644. In Janu Parliament abolished the Prayer Book and sub ary following, stituted the Directory,which provided an order of worship that used in conservative Presbyterianand Con substantially liturgical Churches to the present day, without gregational though with suggestionsof appropriatesubjects of prayer, looked askance at the establishment of petition. Parliament Presbyteriangovernment, though finallyordering it in June, The
1646.
The
tion.
work
tainder
Assembly
The
laid before
Assembly
that witnessed the under the execution of Laud
saw
act
an
"
which next
be
must
judged one
preparedits
Parliament of
in opera abolition of the
set imperfectly
very
month
same
Prayer Book,
however,
was,
famous
Scotland
on
bill of at
of vindictiveness.
which confession,2
Adopted by
late in 1646.
a
August 27, 1647,
it
the General
it remains
the
standard of Scottish and American Presbyterianism.The Eng refused approvaltillJune, 1648, and then modi lish Parliament fied 1
some
For
sections.
important
In
documents
1647, the
Assembly completed
illustrative of
Hardy, pp. 537-585. 2 Schaff,Creeds of Christendom, 3
:
598-673.
this
period, see
Gee
two and
CROMWELL.
472
CHARLES
I
DEFEATED
catechisms, a
Larger, for pulpit exposition,and a Shorter,1 for the trainingof children. Both were approved by the Eng lish Parliament and the Scottish General Assembly in 1648. The Westminster have always Confession and catechisms ranked the notable In most expositionsof Calvinism. among general,they repeat the familiar continental type. On the question of the divine decrees they are infralapsarian (ante, of their chief peculiarities is that in addition to p. 454). One the familiar derivation of original sin from the first parents as "the root of all mankind," they emphasize a "covenant of works" and a "covenant of grace." In the former, Ad#m is head of the human regardedas the representative race, to whom definite promises,which God made included his descendants, and which he, as their representative, forfeited by his disobedi ence
for them
as
well
having failed,God
for himself.
as
offered
"
The
covenant
of works"
of
"covenant
grace" through to Kaspar Olevianus its fullest (ante,p. 443), though expositionwas to be in the work of Johann Coccejus (1603-1669), professorin Franeker and Leyden. It was an attempt to give a definite explanationof sin as man's own act, and to show a real human for his ruin. Another of these sym responsibility peculiarity bols is an emphasis on the Sabbath with the Puritan consonant development of this doctrine (ante,p. 466). and ecclesiasticaldiscussions were in While these theological the civil war its early course. On had run July 2, progress Moor near 1644, the royalarmy had been defeated on Marston of Parliament of little York, largelyby the skill of a member military experience, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), whose abilities had created a picked troop of "religious men." Not quite a year later,on June 14, 1645, Cromwell cut to piecesthe last field army of the King near Naseby. The next year Christ.
Charles him
This
gave
new
doctrine
covenant
himself
a
to the
up
is to
traced
be
Scots,who, in turn, surrendered
to the
by Crom which littlequestion well,was raised of finer distinctions of creed. So long as they op was and and "prelacy,"Baptists,Congregationalists, posed Rome welcome Puritans were in it. The rigidPresbyterianismof the parliamentarymajority was distasteful to the army as the older rule of bishops,and Cromwell as fullyshared this The army, EnglishParliament. a body of religious enthusiasts,in
1
Ibid.,pp. 676-703.
as
created
PROTECTORATE
CROMWELL'S
feeling. The
was
army
demanding
soon
a
473
largedegree of
toler
ation. This
prevented the
attitude of the army
full establishment
It dis sanctioned. Parliament Presbyterianism which used this situation to intrigue pleasedtJieScots. Charles now with the Scots to invade England in his interest, inducingthem to believe that he would support Presbyterianism. On August 17-19, 1648, the invadingScottish army was scattered by Crom in Eng This victoryleft the army well near Preston. supreme December land. On 6 following,"Pride's Purge" expelled Charles I all opposed to the army's wishes. from Parliament
of
was
then
and beheaded fidies,
on
Scotland
then
the next
the later Charles II
treasons alleged
and
January 30, 1649, bearing himself
great dignity. Cromwell reduced
for his
condemned
tried and
subjugated Ireland
(1660-1685)
near
with
1649,
overthrew
Charles's son,
Worcester
in 1651.
and
year,
in
per
positionhad been everywhere put down. Cromwell, though not identified wholly with any
Op
denomina
or Independent, and a practically Congregationalist, allowed.1 under his Protectorate a largedegree of toleration was Since the beginning of the war, however, about two thousand Episcopalclergymen had been deprived,and had suffered great hardship. Then as in earlier and later changes it is evident, nevertheless,that the great majority of the clergyeither were state to the new undisturbed or managed to adjustthemselves
tion,was
of affairs.
statesmanlike
Able, conscientious,and
as
Crom
militaryauthority,and was, as such, disliked,while the bickeringsof rival religiousbodies equally distasteful to a great majorityof the people of were England who could, as yet, conceive of only one established form of faith. Till his death, on September 3, 1658, Cromwell suppressedall disaffection. succeeded Oliver Cromwell was by his son, Richard, as
well was,
his rule
was
Protector; but the
new
that
of
ruler
was
a
man
of
no
force,and
prac
Royalistsand Presbyteriansnow anarchy On April, combined to effect a restoration of the monarchy. 14, 1660, Charles II issued a declaration "of libertyto tender in London. consciences,"from Breda,2 and on May 29 was had justhopes of being included in the But if the Presbyterians
tical
was
the result.
1
Gee
2
and
Ibid.,pp.
Hardy, 585-588.
pp.
574-585.
RESTORATION
THE
474
settlement,they were religious
new
doomed
to bitter disappoint
ment.
intended
comprehension of Pres Reynolds (1599byteriansin the national church. Edward made heretofore decided Puritan, was bishop of Nor a 1676), Richard Baxter (1615-1691),one of the most The saintly wich. offered a bishopric, of the Presbyterianparty, was eminent A conference between but declined. bishopsand Presbyterians held by government authorityat the Savoy Palace in 166 1,1 was Charles II was but led to little result. thoroughly immoral, a nd little reliance could be indifferent in and religion, weak, placed on his promises. Had he been a better or a stronger have
Charles II may
he could have
whether
it is doubtful
man,
some
stemmed
the tide of
first Parliament The against Puritanism. chosen after his restoration was fiercely royalistand Anglican. in 1661, and of Canterbury and York met The Convocations made in the Prayer Book, alterations were six hundred some but none looking in the Puritan direction,and in May, 1662, Act of Uniformity received the royal assent. the new By it2 of any other service than those of the revised Prayer the use and each clergy forbidden under heavy penalties, Book was oath of "un before August 24, to make was man required, feigned assent and consent to all and everything contained and prescribed" therein;and also,"that it is not lawful,upon take arms againstthe King." any pretense whatsoever, to intended to bar the Puritans from the These provisions were fifteen hundred effectual. From church, and as such they were thousand ministers gave up their placesrather than take to two national
reaction
had
been
never
Non-conformity acts
before, one had
been
the
outside
forced
was
of
Church
become
to
what
now,
it
England. Severer
Dissent.
in part by fear of conspiracyagainst By the First Conventicle Act, of 1664,
monarchy. fine,imprisonment, and alties for
ultimate
at
presence
service
a
Prayer Book, attended by household.
who
party
followed,induced
soon
the restored
any
Puritan
The
prescribedoaths.
the
person
had and
"in
Mile
"Five
The
Holy
preached to
1
Gee
3
Ibid.,pp. 620-623.
Hardy,
pp.
five
Orders a
or
were transportation
not more
Act," or
in accordance persons
3
of the
not
of the next
year,
same
forbad
pretended Holy Orders,"
"conventicle," and
588-594.
the pen with the
2
did
not
Ibid.,pp. 600-619.
or
take the
THE
476
REVOLUTION.
TOLERATION
April 4, 1687, he issued a Declaration of Indulgence,1 granting toleration. In itself it was a well-sounding, complete religious and from the modern standpoint,a praiseworthyact. Yet its motives
were
England
once
tantism
too more
obvious. a
Its
Catholic
Roman
aim
to
was
country, and
make
all Protes
alarmed, while lovers of constitutional government
was
in it a nullification of the power royal will. The vast majority of saw
thereby from made
ultimate
by arbitrary Dissenters,though relieved
refused grievous disabilities,
common
with
cause
1688, James
of Parliament
II ordered
the
to
churchmen.
support it,and
When,
the Indulgence read
in all
in April,
churches,
trial and, to the
bishopsprotested. They were put on of the had taxed na Protestants, acquitted. James delight tional feelingtoo greatly. William of Orange (1650-1702), had married Mary, the Stadholder of the Netherlands, who James's against daughter,was invited to head the movement seven
James.
On
James
November
fled to France.
5, 1688, he The
landed
Revolution
with
an
army.
accomplished,and proclaimed Mary were
was
February 13, 1689, William (III)and jointsovereignsof England. The clergyof the Restoration had asserted too long the doc trines of the divine rightof Kings and of passiveobedience to royalauthorityto make this change palatable. Seven bishops, headed by William Sancroft (1616-1693), refused the oath of allegianceto the new sovereigns,and with them about four hundred still the Lord's James II was clergy. To them anointed. They were deprived,as Anglicans and Dissenters had been before,and they bore themselves with equal courage. of earnest men Many of them were piety. They formed the Nonjuror party, which graduallydied out. on
Under could
the circumstances
no
Toleration
longer be
to
of 1688, toleration Dissenters. By the
Protestant
May 24, 1689, all who swore, or affirmed, the oaths of allegiance the juris to William and Mary rejected diction of the Pope, transubstantiation, the mass, the invoca tion of the Virginand saints,and also subscribed the doctrinal portionsof the Thirty-nineArticles,were granted freedom of not a territorial adjust worship. It was a personaltoleration, in Germany at the close of the Thirty Years' War. ment as Diverse forms of Protestant exist side by worship could now 1
Gee
and
Act2
denied
of the Revolution
of
Hardy, pp.
641-644.
2
Ibid.,pp.
654-664.
The
side.
COVENANTERS
THE
SCOTLAND.
amounted
have
Dissenters may
477 to
tenth of the
a
populationof England, divided between Presbyterians,Constillbound Baptists,and Quakers. They were gregationalists, to
but abilities,
such
Catholics. till 1778
In
they had
and
won
had
other dis
many
No
freedom. essential religious
granted to
were privileges
Roman come
establishment,and
tithes to the
pay
deniers
of the
Trinity or
to
effective relief of the latter did not
The
1791, and
not
was
Scotland, the Restoration
was
completed till 1829. a
of great turmoil annulled all acts af
time
suffering.The Parliament of 1661 fectingreligion passed since 1633. Episcopacywas, therefore, restored as in the time of Charles I. In September, 1661, four bishopswere appointed,chief of them James Sharp (1618Consecration ob was 1679) as archbishop of St. Andrews. tained from England. Sharp had been a Presbyterianminis All office ter, but had betrayed his party and his church. holders were requiredby Parliament to disown the covenants In 1663 Parliament enacted heavy fines of 1638 and 1643. from the now for absence episcopallygoverned churches, Pres it did not dare introduce a liturgy. Many though even now deprived,especiallyin south byterian ministers were them their parishionersabsented When Scotland. western selves from the ministration of the new appointees,they were not forthcoming,soldiers were fined,and if payment was quar and
tered to
on
them.
High Commission repression.Two years
In 1664
the instruments
of
a
of the covenants
oppressedsupporters
enanters, engaged in the Pentland
Court
later
of 1638 and
Rising.
It
was some
added of the
1643, or Cov
ruthlessly crushed, and the Presbyterianelement treated with increasing Sharp was severity. On May 3, 1679, in belated retaliation, followed by an armed ris This crime was murdered. speedily crushed at June 22 the revolt was ing of Covenanters ; but on treated with great Bothwell Bridge and the capturedinsurgents the later cruelty. Six months later the King's brother,James James II of England was practically put in charge of Scottish affairs. The extremer and uncompromising Presbyterians were Cameronians as now a proscribedand hunted folk, known was
"
"
"
leaders,Richard Cameron. numbered The in accession of James II, or VII, as he was Scotland, but intensified at first the repressionof the Camer
from
one
onians.
of their
His firstyear
was
the
time" "killing
; and
the Parlia-
PRESBYTERIANISM
478
made
of 1685
ment
"conventicle." as
in
death
ESTABLISHED the
punishment for
James, however,
England.
pursued the
soon
filled his council with
He
attendance same
at
a
course
Catholics, and
in
Indulgencegrantingfreedom of worship. As in England, this release of Catholics from penalty aroused of all shades of Protestants. the hostility Episcopaliansand and when William alike opposed; and Presbyterians were friends the throne of England they had many Mary mounted divided than in the northern kingdom. Scotland was more The Stewarts Scotch, and though were England, however. Episcopaliansdisliked the Catholicism of James they distrusted of "Dutch the Presbyterians the Calvinism William," whom favored. The Revolution triumphed, however, and on May rulers of Scotland. In 11, 1689, William and Mary became Parliament restored all Presbyterianministers ejected 1690 issued Letters
1687
of
since 1661, ratified the Westminster and declared Presbyterianism the
Confession form
(ante,p. 472),
recognized by the of Presbyterianism
legal establishment was laity,who continued their opposed by the Cameronian control of the church to any by civil authorityand hostility the failure to renew condemned the covenants, and by the Epis The latter, copalians,who were strong in northern Scotland. however, though in the status of a "dissenting"body, were permittedby a toleration act of 1712, to use the Englishliturgy. Protes between In both England and Scotland the long quarrels tants were, therefore, adjustedin similar fashion by toleration. government.
This
SECTION
One
of the most
XVII.
remarkable
THE
QUAKERS
productsof
the
periodof
the
Society of Friends, or Quakers. of the few religious geniuses one George Fox (1624-1691) was of a the of English history. Born in Fenny Drayton, son he grew up earnest and serious-minded,having "never weaver, At nineteen woman." drinking bout, to a or wronged man which he was nominal Christians,so disgusted invited by some that he him by the contrast between practiceand profession search for spiritual reality. Shams set on a soul-distressing was of all sorts he detested. His earlyassociates had been to some to be of his later peculiarities are extent Baptist,and many civil
found
wars
in
among
England
the
was
the
Anabaptistsof
the
Continent
or
were
rep-
479
FOX
GEORGE
war sects of the Englishcivilperiod. resented by the irregular His but the outward transformingand These trappings. were
in 1646. He felt that to Fox always central' experiencecame but an inner lightby is not an outward profession, Christianity soul. Revela which Christ directlyilluminates the believing tion is not confined to the Scriptures, though they are a true who true disciples. of God it enlightensall men Word are The Spiritof God speaks directlythrough them, givesthem "
In
lightwhere
inner
that
woman
or
He He
to be
rejected.The
ties.
The
of
abhorrent.
deignsto
use.
sacraments
are
the
Artificialtitlesare or
true
againsttendencies tures
or
needed Nor
was
hatred
rejected "
respect of
of the
truth
to
man
is
a
man.
deny legaltitles Christian. Slavery
did not
Fox
life. Such
to confine
express
protest
a
as
itselfin
a
that of Fox
all divine revelation to the
Scrip
and the Fathers of earlycenturies was a wholesome of Christianity. corrective to a one-sided interpretation its insistence on spiritual honesty less beneficial. to
sincerityand
The
Christian
judge. War is unlawful for a All Christianity to be true must
transformed, consecrated
but
unnecessary
Servilityin speech or behavior
true
to be
merely
not
are
veri spiritual
and
inward
are
needless corroboration
a
Christian.
a
degradationof like King
will,the
elements
outward
misleading. Oaths ful word
ministry. Since God gives ministryis that of any man A professional ministry is
began his stormy
Fox
1647
for service.
quickensthem
and
their message,
of all that
earnestness spiritual
of Fox's
of formalism, and
savored
beliefs,his
his demand
for
immensely attractive forces. experiencewere spiritual gathered in Preston By 1652 the first Quaker community was later the Friends Patrick in northern England. Two years
inward
had
spread to London,
eminent
earlyconvert
married
after she became
was
Bristol,and
Norwich.
Fox's
most
Margaret Fell (1614-1702),whom a
widow, and her home, Swarthmore
headquartersfor his preachers. In the circumstances of English life such a movement
Hall, furnished
a
with fierce opposition.Before 1661 one
hundred
he
and
no
met
less than three thousand
includingFox himself,had seventy-nine,
suf
fered imprisonment. A missionary zeal was early manifested which sent Quakers to proclaim their faith to as far distant pointsas Jerusalem, the West India Islands,Germany, Austria, and
Holland.
In 1656,
they
entered
Massachusetts, and
by
four
1661
had
been
conduct
of
aroused
police interference
of
good
a
organization,
of the
Spirit.
main
features in
face
kept
Fox
in
died,
laws
peculiar severity and
byterians their
the
hostile
authority.
prison,
and
About
their
of
son
Admiral
Quakerism and
became
at
of
the
freedom
ing in sending
father.
colonial The
experiment
ers,
like
and
granted
other
Charles
of
a
debt was
To
trophy
and
(1644-1718), toward
in 1666
preachers
to
II
the from
due
founded,
and in
find
to
After
England.
Quakers
in
fines.
determined in
of
deaths
its beliefs
eminent
Quakers
face
inclinations
after
He
Philadelphia
aid
Jersey in
New
of
grant the
Penn to
crown
and
a
great
begun. Act
of
freedom
(ante,
p.
of
their
more
of
worship.
1689
Dissenters,
them
faith.
in release
1682
Toleration
Penn
most
from
obtained
In
William
eight hundred
sylvania, in 1681, his
the
denied
some
Penn
1677-1678,
the
eminent
fully embraced
of
one
most
Penn,
1661,
as
once
literary defenders America
William
early
as
their
experiment.
Sir
the
their
Pres
conceal
to
in
with
the
financially by heavy
belongs
colonial
great
bore
effort
met
sober
it.
they, unlike
hundred
ruined
were
many
period, however,
this
four
the
on
them
year
watch
membership.
Restoration
defiantly maintained
but
out,
strict
the
no
the
1666
that
In
taken
made
want
mapped
were
of
since
Quakers,
by
distinguished
the
at
early
which
had
since
Congregationalists,
meetings,
order, and
body
Dissenters
on
of
conduct
ever
have
inspiration
opposition.
life and
have
against
immediate
discipline
the
would
the
the
established, by
1691,
which
in
necessity
were
extravagant
which
possible by
considerable
the
the
age.
Quaker
of
over
characteristics The
the
Meetings"
be
Before
the
saw
of
the
Monthly
could
Fox
any
belief
as
in
severity
made
were
well
as
in
explanation,
some
was
early Quakers,
of the
many
extravagances
though
this
for justification,
no
These
There
hanged.
though
"
QUAKERS
THE
480
476)
relieved
the
Quak
pressing disabilities,
I
VII.
PERIOD
been
has
question
THE
I.
SECTION
THE
to
tion. ternal
authority, of the dominance cultural
and
educational
the
sin and
the Middle
urged religionas a a
or
to
modern
all forms
religionover
of
singletype of worship as given territory,of original of the
worthlessness
essential
Ages
the
in support of either posi to be maintained by ex
of
life,of
allowable, at least within
alone
natural
of evil
man,
witchcraft, of the immediacy and arbitrariness of relations with the world, ancfeofthe other-worldliness
spiritsand the
a
whether
controverted
be
little may Its conceptions of Not
history.
POINT
TURNING
much
is to be reckoned
Reformation
SITUATION
RELIGIOUS
MODERN
THE
TO
TRANSITION
THE
divine
to the Middle religiousoutlook, all link the Reformation Ages. So, too, the problems primarily discussed, however
of
their solution
different
from
characteristic
that
of the
Middle
Sin and grace had been, since essentiallymediaeval. of Tertullian, the very of Augustine, if not rather the time of the Ref heart problems of Latin theology. They were so Luther himself However ormation. might reject Aristotle, the older Protestant philosophy was thoroughly Aristotelian. the ascetic view was repudiated, was Nor, though monasticism of the world rejected,least of all by Calvinism.
Ages,
On
of the
were
other
the
hand, the Reformation
sacramental
which
had
broke
the
dominance
controlled
Christianity and West East certainly since the second century. Baptism and and the Lord's highly valued, but Supper were preserved now they were regarded as seals to the divine promises, not as of grace. The exclusive channels Holy Spirit,who works when them He will,uses for His gracious purposes and how and where doubtless, but is, therefore,
wrought needing man's
by no
not
system
to
the exclusion
of other
means.
Salvation
direct, individual, and personal relationship, with God, bringing the soul into union Him, Furthermore, saintly or priestly intervention. a
relation to God
is not
one
481
of debt
and
credit,of
evil acts
be
to
the Middle
from
remembers, ism
were
the
are
natural
a
world.
PERIOD
state
fruits.
of reconcilia Nor
the
was
relations and to
God
less
a
characteristics
These
Ages.
MODERN
acquired, but
of the normal
the modern
tion with
be
THE
fields for service
the best
as
to
works
good
estimate
Protestant life
merit
and
purged of which
tion
OF
BEGINNING
THE
482
if
Yet
occupations of radical departure
link the
strikes
one
a
Reforma
balance, and
largely the worldly tendencies of human in suppressed by the Reformation, the movement also, how
in great measure be reckoned its first century and a half must of the Middle continuance Ages. Though a great religious
still
bodies
Reformation
use
originating,they various
formulas, and
longer
no
in that
indeed
in
move
bear
then
names
its atmosphere,
but
in
of modern
Christianity. for this change is assign an exact alteration was due not to a single leader impossible. The It has modified Christian of leaders. thought very or group has not completed, unequally. The transformation yet been measure
line of demarcation
To
after
than
more
centuries, if the Christian
two
is taken
into
view.
causes.
One
of these
government
It has has
world
as
whole
a
aided
been
been
the
by a great variety of steady secularization of
since the close of the seventeenth
Even
century.
important has been the rise of the professional, other than clerical, mercantile, and laboring classes to constantly In the Reforma influence. and political increasing education few. tion age leaders of thought and sharers in government were and Their number independence have been steadilyexpanding. This growth has helped to bring about, and, in turn, has been aided by, an increasingtoleration on the part of the state, which more
"
"
has
made
the
rise of many
the
easy
subdivision
enormous
of thinkers
groups
not
of Protestantism
and
directlyassociated with,
opposed to, organized religion.
or
Yet
the
most
of
potent have
atmosphere losophy, with
the
look
universe
upon
the
instruments
been
rise of modern
the
immense
consequent
and
upon
subsequent development
of the
and
and
interpretingthought
in effecting this change
man's historic
science
transformations
and
phi
in out
positionin it; and the method of examining
institutions.
DESCARTES
484
1650), a native
of France
SPINOZA
Catholic, spent
a
There
Netherlands.
of his
most
he
wrote
of 1637, his First Philosophy of 1641, his Principiaof 1644. To his thinking,only that is really
his Discourse and
Method
on
knowledge which the mind The is not intelligence. themselves another
on
and
life in the
intellectual
active
AND
the mind
fullyunderstands. objects and ideas involved
That
existence
erudition
which
present
dependent one that they must be analyzed and separatedinto sim the beginning of all Hence be reallyunderstood. to
are
so
plicityto knowledge is doubt; and no real basis, or point of departure,can doubted.
and
Mere
as
a
Descartes
If
examine
we
found
be
be
can
made
which
till a
cannot
be
Augustine,in his own in doubting, "I think,
found, with Even
thinking being.
therefore I am."
progress
so
the contents
of this
thinkingI,
and find in it ideas greater than it could of itself originate, be be without an adequate cause, there must since nothing can
we
a
cause
we
are
produce them.
great enough and real enough
to
convinced
God, and
of the existence
of
His
Hence
relation to
thought and being are united. Our ideas are true and Godlike only as they are clear and distinct of geometry. with a logicalclaritylike the demonstrations in God, Matter, though equally with mind having its source In the last analysisit is in all things the opposite of mind. has only extension and the purely mechanical motion imparted animals Hence to it by God. are merely machines, and the all
thinking.
our
relations between
In God
human
bodies
and
minds
caused
Descartes
great perplexities.
philosophy was, it was not its details which profoundly affected popular thought, but its till proved, be doubted assertion that all conceptions must have the certaintyof mathe and that any adequate proof must These matical demonstration. two to have principleswere Yet, influential as
momentous
Much than
the Cartesian
consequences.
logical though far more carrying Descartes's principlesto their
less influential in his
their author
in
own
age
the Netherlandish Hebrew, Baruch logicaldevelopment, was Spinoza (1632-1677). A pantheist,all is an infinitesubstance, all is God are equivalent, or nature, for with him the terms and known in two modes extension,of attributes,thought or attributes are the expression. As to which all finite persons or Descartes,to Spinoza clearness is the test of truth.
485
LEIBNITZ how
But
do
influential
One
know?
men
from
came
answer
mathematician, historian, statesman, and phi losopher,Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716), for the last fortyyears of his lifelibrarian in Hanover, and an earnest seeker German
the
Spinoza,who
in the universe
saw
Each
force.
of
indivisible centre
an
in
though the degree of consciousness
practicalunconscious
from
substance, Leibnitz be is a "monad," Each mirrors the universe,
one
infinite in number.
lieved substances
monads varies differing highest activity. The
the
to
Unlike
Protestantism.
and
Catholicism
of
reunion
of the
the monad clearer the consciousness,the nearer approaches the divine. God is the originalmonad, to whose all thingsare clear. All ideas are wrapped up in the perception
greater and
monad,
are
innate, and
to
drawrn
be
the characteristic test of
again is
Here
need
and
Spinoza
had
but
all that
seems
presented. No
Nor
do
the
Each
another; working of pre-
pointingto
aggregationsof monads
bodies really occupy space. and and time point, space
Descartes
influences
is the
established harmony, like perfectclocks hour.
clearness.
to
truth,which
monad
influence
mutual
out
which
the
same
constitute
is like a mathematical
monad
simply the necessary aspects their groupings are under which perceived. God created the and therefore,of all possible world to exhibit His perfection, evil is imperfection, seems worlds, chose the best. What moral wrong, which is never or physicalpain,and limitation, theless
necessary
in the
sense
Leibnitz's
better world.
are
that God
answer
was,
could
not
therefore,that
by the elucidation of their innate ideas. given by the Very different was the answer English thinker of the close of the seventeenth
eighteenthcenturies,John
the
Essay Concerning Human
mous
denied
Locke
have
most
and
men
show
know
influential
opening of
The
mind
1690
Locke
is white
paper,
which the mind sensation writes its impressions, on of bines by reflection into ideas, and the combination ideas givesrise to more complex ideas. Locke's purpose
which
a
(1632-1704). In his fa
Understandingof
the existence of innate ideas.
made
com
simple was
to
knowledge is justlysubjectto based on reasonableness judged by reason
that all that claims to be
criticism
as
to
its
experience. Thus tested,he finds the existence of God dem and effect;morality onstrated by the argument from cause Relike the truths of mathematics. is equally demonstrable
LOCKE
486
AND
SHAFTESBURY
reasonable. It may be above rea ligionmust be essentially be contradictoryto son beyond experience but it cannot These views Locke reason. developed in his Reasonableness of of 1695; the Scripturescontain a message Christianity beyond of unaided reason the power to attain,attested by miracles; "
"
but
that
be
cannot
message
miracle
contrary to
reason,
nor
could
anything essentiallyunreasonable. Hence, though sincerelyChristian,Locke had little patience with mystery in religion.For him it was enough to acknowl edge Jesus as the Messiah, and practisethe moral virtues a
even
which
attest
proclaimed,and
He
of
with
the
from
enlightenedcommon
Locke
dictates
was
is hardly
accord
distinguishable
sense. an
advocate
of toleration and
compulsion in religion.Religion's only proper
is essential reasonableness.
weapon
in fundamental
are
which
reason
less influentialas
no
of all
opponent
a
which
Nor
was
Locke
less forma
He had in political theory in England and America. in various directions, been preceded in this field, by Gro-
tive of deed
(1583-1645), Hobbes 1694). In his Treatises on
(1588-1679), and
tius
have
men secure
of the
natural
rule, and
when
of 1690 Locke
rights to life,liberty,and
these,government
governed.
Government
Pufendorf
In such
that
has a
(1632-
urged that
property.
To
established by the consent the will of the majority must
been
state
will is not
carried
out,
or
fundamental
rightsare violated,the people have the right of revolution. and executive The functions should be carefully legislative discriminated. The legislativeis the superior. However inadequate and fanciful this may be as a historic explanationof the origin of the state, its influence in the development of political theory can hardly be over English and American estimated. in the theory of morals was the significance view developed by the earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713) in his of 1711. Hobbes had Characteristics of Men attempted to find the basis of morality in man's constitution,but had dis Locke the selfishness. To covered there nothing but pure basis which reason discovers is the law of God. Though en tirelyreasonable,morality is stillpositiveto Locke, a divine is a being command. Shaftesburynow taught that, since man virtue consists having personalrightsand social relationships, in the proper balancing of selfish and altruistic aims. This Of
considerable
RISE
THE
OF
DEISM
487
harmony is achieved, and the value of actions determined, by inward "moral sense." Shaftesbury thus based rightand an not
This
the will of God.
on
constitution of human
the fundamental
on
wrong
gave
a
why
reason
itself,
nature one
even
who
which the case the divine existence with not was rejected. moral con nevertheless bound to maintain Shaftesbury was It removed the hope of reward or fear of punishment duct. Atheist and rejectorof as prime motives for moral conduct. morality could no longerbe considered,as they had generally it difficultfor Bishop Joseph Nor was terms. been, equivalent Butler (1692-1752) to preserve sense," Shaftesbury's"moral of the theistic interpretation "conscience," while givingto it "
"
a
divinelyimplantedmonitor SECTION
III.
DEISM
Locke's test of truth
formity to
common
and
AND
ITS
judge of
conduct.
OPPONENTS.
SCEPTICISM
reasonableness,in the
was
He
sense.
sense
morality as the prime conceptionof the universe "first cause," and moving The new knowledge of
religion.The Newtonian of a realm of law, created by a was order. in unchangeable mechanical civilization and foreignnations of long-established ligionslike the Chinese, enlargedmen's horizons and miliar other
Christian culture.
than
con
viewed
of
content
of
other
re
made
fa
All these influences led to
radical departurein Englishreligious thought,that known as of Cherbury (1583Deism. Herbert As earlyas 1624 Edward
a
the articlesof belief allegedto constitute in primitiveunspoiled held by all mankind religion,
1648) had enumerated natural
as simplicity,
His are
true
:
God
service ;
rewards
and
man
exists ; He must
repent of
punishments
worshipped ; virtue is wrong-doing ; and there
is to be
after death.
To
the later Deists
natural,universal reasonable John Toland's (1670-1722) religion.In 1696 came not Mysterious;1713 saw Anthony Collins's (1676Christianity published Mat 1729) Discourse of Freethinking;in 1730 was Old as Creation. thew Tindal's (1653?-1733) Christianity as these
seemed
a
In these works set
forth.
is held
on
statement
the main
of the content
of
features of the Deistic
positionwere
is acknowledged beyond or above reason belief without proof. What is believed without proof All that
is to be free,hence is superstition.To be rid of superstition the only rational thinker is a freethinker. The worst enemies
THE
488 of mankind
those
ARGUMENT
DEISTIC who
have
held
in
bondage to super stition,and the chief examples of these are "priests" of all All that is valuable in revelation had alreadybeen given sorts. "in natural reasonable hence men religion, Christianity that is,all that is of worth in Christianity is "as old as crea are
men
"
"
tion."
All that is obscure
tion is
and superstitious
real witness
to
above
or
worthless
revelation; they
in so-called revela
reason or
Miracles
worse.
are
no
either superfluous, for all
are
in that to which
of value
alreadypossesses ; they witness reason the insult to or they are an perfectworkmanship of a Creator who has set this world running by most perfectmechanical laws and does not now thus interfere with its ongoing. Deism authoritative seemed to destroy all historic Christianityand revelation. It was atheism, yet destruc as widely denounced tive as it was, not justly. In the thought of its advocates it and of religion from bondage to the superstitious was a rescue and purity. to primitiverational simplicity a return From a modern standpointthe weakness of Deism is evident. is as much Its primitiveuniversal,rational religion a figment of the imaginationas the primitiveunspoiledsocial and political dear to the eighteenth state of the unspoiledchild of nature so "
Its assertion that
century.
natural, "is right,"is shallow the actual facts of the historic Its God
was
afar
optimism. It had no religious development of
off,a being who
rules principles, essentially religious mechanical world a wonderfullycontrived He has nothing now Its merit was to do. of
ness
to
measure
claims. religious it by a standard
called out
power
is
were,
most
mediocre that, relatively
argument,
though any
power
answer
in
not
his
of
of its opponents often admitting a its results. of the
reason
Some
in the
excellent
Non
attempted considerable few realm
met
of
to
The
con
it is
Neither
it from
the
of the Deists it
by rational
of its
share
method,
flat denial
it
by a religion.Such Case
set
chief proof of its
meet
juror William
reply to Tindal, entitled
its age.
most
as
cer
worthi
estimate
to
viewed
the
men
moral
and
have
and replies,
many
race.
with which
it forced
that
foreignto entirely
its supporters nor its critics could standpointhere indicated. Deism
in motion
criticise and
to
the
morality,and
of
reasonableness
So
of
sense
for all established
once
tain
sideration of the fundamental
is
is,"that is,whatever
whatever
Law
of
was
of the
(1686-1761)
Reason
(1732).
BERKELEY
argued,not merely does
Reason, Law "
it is the
BUTLER
AND
hearts." God is above our will is wisdom prehend, "His own
find truth in
not
of
of all the disorders
cause
489
passions,the
our
the power of and wisdom
tions of
religion ; corrup to
man
com
will.
is His
goodness is arbitrary."
His
directly designedas
Less
an
Deism
to
answer
believed
but
"
the phi by himself to be destructive of all atheism" was of most generous losophyof George Berkeley(1685-1753),a man impulses,who attempted to found a missionarycollegein Ber muda
American
of the evangelization
for the
Indians, lived for
bishop of Cloyne in Ireland. To Berkeley'sthinkingnothing reallyexists but is no is other knowledge of what and ideas. There minds a
Island,and in 1734 became
time in Rhode
called matter
but
impressionin
an
Since ideas
minds.
productin
the
working due.
are
In
Such
what
sense
divine mind,
a
we
is God, and
call nature
impressedin
a
to
all our
Him
in merely subjectively is
us
minds.
our
of ideas range order constant
a
definite and
minds, though their realityto in
be affected
must
mind
ideas exist not
But
some
our
mind.
are
minds
since like
only by other be universal and constant, they must of a universal,eternal,and constantly minds
only affect like,our
can
minds, and
our
only in our thus denying is
ideas minds. in the on
our
perceptionof
the realityof By matter Berkeley would destroy that whole conceptionof the made world as a huge mechanism once magnified watch a for all by an all-wise Maker, who has nothing now to do with had held. substitute For it he would its ongoing,which Deism divine spiritual a universal constant activity.Though this con re ception of Berkeley has always enjoyed high philosophic them
our
own
"
"
spect, it is
and too
subtle
too
contrary
to
the evidences
for the average man. More famous in its own time, yet of far less
of his
senses
or
permanent
value, was
a
work
of
ability philosophic
Joseph Butler (1692-1752), earlyentered the Church of
Presbyterianby descent who had England and become bishop of Bristol in 1738, and in 1750. of 1736 was His Analogy ofReligion a work
a
labor,candor, and the
In
care.
premises,held equallyby the Deists
that God
human of nature
exists,that
knowledge ; ifthe
same
nature
in
moves
is limited.
God
difficultiescan
of immense
the Deists he starts from
to
answer
of Durham
a
their opponents, uniform course, and that
admittedly the raised againstthe
is be
and
author course
AND
BUTLER
490 of nature
as
HUME
the probabilityis againstrevelation, author.
have
the
most
attractive
that both
Their
also lead positiveresemblances conclusion. the same to Immortality is at least strongly probable. As present happiness or misery depend on con is now duct, it is probable that future will also. Every man in a state of "probation" as regardshis use of this life;it is on "probation" as to his future probable that he is also now does not warrant destiny. Our limited knowledge of nature declaration that revelation is improbable, much less impos a sible,and whether there has actuallybeen a revelation is a historic questionto be tested by its attestation by miracles and fulfilment of prophecy. Believed widely in its time an unan swerable answer to Deism, and as such long requiredin English and American Butler's cautious balance of proba universities, modern bilities utterlyfails to meet questions,and has been doubts than it answers. Its well criticised as raisingmore same
feature
is its moral
the divine regnancy of conscience A noteworthy attack alike on
fervor
over
Deism
in its exaltation
human and
of
action. on
much
of the
made Christianityagainst it was by the British philosopherof the eighteenth century, David acutest Hume (1711-1776). Born in Edinburgh, he died in that city. for some He lived in France some public employ years, saw but a highly Tory History of England, popular ment, wrote economist. and won deserved fame as a political During his last years he was kindly head of the regarded as the friendly, literaryand intellectual circles of his native city. His philo ably set forth in his Treatise of Human sophicalsystem was Nature of 1739 ; but this rather youthfulpublicationattracted the same it when ideas were little notice. Very different was in his Philosophical recast Essays of 1748 and his Natural His Hume of was one Philosophically, tory of Religionof 1757. the keenest of reasoners, standing on the basis of Locke, but current
with with
defenses
radical most
and
of
destructive criticism of Locke's
theories and
thoroughgoing religiousscepticism. Experience our knowledge, but we receive it as isolated im
gives us all mental im our pressionsand ideas. All connection between united and borne and effect, or as pressionsas related by cause by an underlying substance, are simply the inveterate but mental habit. baseless view-pointsof our They are the ways What in which our minds are accustomed to act. we really
and
advocates
many
French
supporters
CONTINENT
THE
ON
DEISM
492
Fran"ois Marie
was
(1694-1778), who
himself,Voltaire
Chief
fashionable.
became
Arouet, or,
had
these
of
as
he called
familiar with
become
during a sojournin England from 1726 to 1729. In had its keenest wit. No France Voltaire eighteenth-century but with vain, self-seeking, genuine hatred of philosopher, of religious at no one ever persecution, tyranny, especially tacked unsparing ridicule. organized religionwith a more Such a contest was, of necessity, more sharplydrawn in France In the latter country a certain degree than in Great Britain. of religious toleration had been achieved, and great divergence allowed. In France of religious was practically interpretation dominant. The Catholicism contest was dogmatic Roman its tenets
Deism
therefore,between
was,
and
singleassertive type
a
taire
was
Deist
true
a
of
Atheism,
or
on Christianity,
the
on
hand,
one
the other.
in his belief in the existence
Vol
of God
and
of a simple morality; consisting primitivenatural religion of all that rested on the authorityof Bible also in his rejection in in of his work and significance church. Of the extent or to appear fluencingthe French mind in directions that were of
a
in the
can
be
eighteenthcentury widely.
affected the
of
creed
there
Revolution
French
the
Frederick
of
Great
question. Deism
no
It
substantially
was
Prussia
(1740-1786); of Joseph Emperor (Austria,1765-1790) ; Holy Roman and of the marquis of Pombal (1699-1782), the greatest of
the
II, the
Portuguese influential
of the
statesmen
on
this side of the
(1706-1790) and
Thomas
century. Atlantic.
Jefferson
Nor
was
Deism
Benjamin
(1743-1826)
less
Franklin its ad
were
herents. Deism savage
lish
had work
powerful popular presentationin
the American
Paine
of Thomas
Quaker, whose
(1737-1809), the Sense
Common
Revolution
;
nor
was
son
the
of
brutal, an
Eng
of 1776 did great service to of 1791 his Rightsof Man
underlyingthe French principles his Age of Reason, in which Deism Revolution. In 1795 came form. Though unsparingly was presentedin its most aggressive and series it left of followers, representeda type denounced, a of of the traditional of criticism of the morality representation uncritical the basis of an and dealings,on the divine nature found which of the Scriptures, and unhistoric treatment a belated echo in Robert G. Ingersoll (1833-1899). less effective in defense
of the
GIBBON
PALEY
AND
493
scepticalcriticism on the early history of Christianity Gibbon advanced (1737-1794) in by the historian Edward the fifteenth and sixteenth chaptersof his great Historyof the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) deserves notice, not for itsinherent importance,but for the controversy that it aroused, and the lightthat it throws on the thought of the Gibbon In accounting for the spread of Christianity, time. its zeal inherited from the Jews, its teaching reasons as gave its strictmorality, of immortality, its claim to miraculous gifts, A
historian would organization.No modern far as they go. as probablyobjectto any of these explanations, its efficient
and
would
What
is their absolute
him
impress
of compre
want
whether Christian or other, religion, makes and of the forces by which religion conquests. But that critics in the was an ignorance equallyshared by Gibbon's usual orthodox eighteenth century. The explanationhad had been so convinced of the truth been that the first disciples of the Gospel by miracles that they were willingto hazard their lives in its behalf. The excitement roused by Gibbon's rather hension
of the nature
of
that
superficial explanationwas for directlysupernatural, permanent
result
less
causes,
spread of Christianity.Its
the
aid, with other influences,toward
to
was
suppliedother
it
one
the
of the Scripturesand Christian origins, historical investigation of the nineteenth century. which was to be so largelythe work
generalattitude
The
of tionalizing
orthodox
even
is best illustrated in the
eighteenthcentury Paley (1743-1805).
close of the
at the
work
period,and also the generalra in England, Christian presentation
of the
of William
of of Christianity written
with
Natural
and
1794
remarkable
of
clearness
of the Evidences Theology of 1802 were of style and cogency
His
View
reasoning,and long enjoyed high popularity.From he argues, we of the human an
infer
a
maker,
so
God
action and "the That
revealed
proof of revelation
a
has
it to
future
the wonderful
adaptation
the
made
men.
state
His The
will the rule of human
was
suffered for the miracles."
of revelation is
purpose
of rewards
and
Christ, and
its
given by in the miracles by to the first disciples was panied. "They who acted and suffered and
watch,
hand, the muscles, we infer arguments, therefore,prove the
body, the eye, almighty Designer. These
existence of God.
from
a
punishments." convincing force
which in the
it was cause
accom
acted
Paley then proceeds to defini-
EARLY
494
ENGLISH
ARIANISM
"Virtue
tion.
is the doing good to mankind, in obedience to the will of God, and for the sake of everlasting happiness." This
estimate of virtue is char prudentialand self-regarding acteristic of Paley'sage, as were his emphases on the evidential character the
of miracles
divine existence
and
on
which
a
mechanical
IV.
of
the
theory of evolution has since it is pleasantto note that Paley's
largelyrobbed of force. Yet thought of "doing good to mankind" oppositionto human slavery. SECTION
demonstration
ENGLISH
led him
to
strenuous
UNITARIANISM
It has
alreadybeen pointedout that on the Continent antiTrinitarian views were representedby some Anabaptists(ante, and Socinians the by (ante,pp. 451-453). Both types p. 369) penetratedinto England. Under Elizabeth "Arian Baptists" from
the Netherlands
Bartholomew have
the
burned
burned
were
Legate
and
Edward
distinction in
for their faith.
1612
With
The
ment.
became
Under
of similar last
I
views,
Englishmen
of the civil-war
evident.
more
James
In John
graduate, Socinianism had a who suffered much representative, imprison
(1615-1662), learned
more
Wightman, of being the
the controversies
period anti-Trinitarian views Biddle
in 1575.
Oxford
an
great Puritan
poet, John
Milton
(1608-1674), in
clined to Arianism was
in his later years. Biddle's chief convert Firmin layman, who fur (1632-1697),a London
Thomas
thered the publication of anti-Trinitarian tracts. With the dawn of the eighteenthcentury, with its rational
izingimpulsesboth clination to
in orthodox
and
and Deistic circles,
its in
in
of religion, these antimorality the essence Trinitarian tendencies were greatlystrengthened. The Pres byterian minister Thomas Emlyn (1663-1741) published his widely read Inquiry into the ScriptureAccount of Jesus Christ in 1702.
In
see
1712
Samuel
Clarke
James, Westminster,and deemed
(1675-1729),
the most
rector
of
St..
of the philosophical
Anglican clergy,publishedhis ScriptureDoctrine of the Trinity, in which he sought to demonstrate Arian views by a painstaking examination
of the New
Testament.
It was,
however,
among
the
the Presbyteriansand General Bap Dissenters,especially the largestfollowing. tists,that anti-Trinitarian views won In
1717
Joseph Hallet
and
James
minisPeirce,Presbyterian
UNITARIANISM
ENGLISH
495
The in Exeter, adopted Arianism. movement spread Dissenters, widely. The most learned of eighteenth-century
ters
Lardner
Nathaniel
its representative.On
(1684-1768),was
the Particular
and whole, the Congregationalists
Baptistswere
in numbers affected,and in consequence grew who at century went on, surpassingthe Presbyterians, little
been the
had
Act
of the Toleration
most
formist body. Arianism changed to Socinianism.
A
the the
as
the time
Non-Con
numerous
further
impulse was
when a clergyman of the establishment, given to the movement Theophilus Lindsey (1723-1808), who was already a Socinian, and hundred circulated a petitionwhich received some two signatures fifty askingthat clergymen be relieved from subscrip tion to the Thirty-nineArticles,and pledge their fidelity to in 1772 refused to receive the Scripturesalone. Parliament
it. In the
1773
next
Lindsey withdrew organized
year
Closely associated with
a
the establishment, and in London. Unitarian Church from
1804), a Dissentingclergyman, an of oxygen,
coverer
French
(1733Joseph Priestley
Lindsey was sympathizer
a
Revolutions, who
chemist, the dis
eminent with
American
the
spent the last ten
years
and
of his life
the Toleration Pennsylvania. Parliament in 1779 amended Act by substituting professionof faith in the Scripturesfor the required acceptance of the doctrinal part of the Thirtyall penal acts againstdeniers of the and removed nine Articles, Trinity in 1813. This older English Unitarianism was formal and clear in its rejection of "creeds of human intellectual, composition,"and insistence on salvation by character. It often intellectually was able, but had little^influence on pop ular religious life. Its effect in producing a similar move in New ment considerable,though that grew England was also out of the generalrationalizing tendencies of the eighteenth in
century, and
was
on
the whole
less dryly intellectual than
its
counterpart in England. SECTION
The been the
V.
development of noted
a
PIETISM
IN
GERMANY
scholastic Lutheranism
has
already
Though nominallybased on fixed dogmatic interpreta a practically
(ante,pp. 441-444).
it was Scriptures, tion, rigid,exact,
and
demanding
intellectual
conformity.
SCHOLASTIC
496
Emphasis
was
laid
constitutingthe
on
LUTHERANISM doctrine and
pure
respects the field had grown
some
Catholicism,for if Catholicism belief and
sacraments,
which
dogmatic tionship between taught had been
of the
sufficient elements
it also
Lutheranism the
narrower
the
sacraments,
Christian than
as
life. In
that of Roman
equallydogmatic regarding laid an emphasis on good works, rejected. For that vital rela was
and
believer
God
which
Luther
had
largelya faith which con The sisted in the acceptance of a dogmatic whole. layman's the he was role was which largelypassive,to accept dogmas from the pulpit, assured were pure, to listen to their exposition and share in the ordinances of the to partake of the sacraments the practicalsum of the Christian life. church, these were Some evidences of a deeper piety,indeed, existed,of which in the hymns of the age are ample proof,and doubtless many dividual examples of real and inward life were to be religious external and dogmatic. found, but the generaltendency was the tendency often,though only partially It was justly,called "dead orthodoxy." Pietism the for tian
was
a
substituted
breach
with
very
these
tendencies,an
assertion of
a vindication primacy of the feelingin Christian experience, the laityof an active share in the upbuildingof the Chris
life,and
the
world.
him
from
the
assertion of
a
have
strict ascetic attitude
toward
been
assignedto it,Anabap Catholic tist influences,Roman mystical piety, the example of the Reformed ecclesiasticallife of Holland or England. The All these may have contributed subject is a difficult one. for Pietism be can something, but so far as a definite cause given it is to be found in the teachingand example of one of the notable most religiousfiguresof the seventeenth century, PhilippJakob Spener. in born on Spener was January 13, 1635, in Rappoltsweiler, ascetic mystic, The True Christianity of the German Alsace. Johann Arndt (1555-1621) roused him, and its impressions of the edificatory were deepened by translations of some His student years in Strasstreatises of the English Puritans. there and he saw burg familiarized him with Biblical exegesis, and a care in catechetical instruction far church a discipline beyond what was customary in most Lutheran circles. Further studies in Geneva deepened these impressionswithout weaning Many
sources
Lutheranism.
In 1666
he became
chief pastor in the
SPENER'S
AIMS
AND
WORK
497
He felt the need city of Frankfort. but found himself hindered,because all of church discipline, of the city government. Under authoritywas yi the hands such leadership was as permitted him, catechetical instruction speedilyimproved. His first considerable innovation occurred of house a littlegroup in 1670, "when he gathered in his own like-minded people for Bible reading,prayer, and the discus the whole aiming at the deepen sion of the Sunday sermons life. Of these circles, to which ing of the individual spiritual the name was given (hence Pietism),the first collegia pietatis that in Spener'shome. was Christian life Spener These plans for cultivating a warmer
commercial
prosperous
"
put forth in his Pia
desideria of 1675.
The
chief evils of the
the bad example picturedas governmental interference, of the clergy,the controversial of the unworthy lives of some and and the drunkenness,immorality, of theology, interpretation of reform he proposed of the laity. As measures self-seeking the gatheringwithin the various congregationsof circles ecclesiolcein ecclesia for Bible reading;and since all believers which had been practically contention are priests a Lutheran and watch helpfulness.Christianity forgotten for mutual is far more intellectual knowledge. Controversy an a life than is unprofitable.Better trainingfor the clergy is desirable. and An experimentalknowledge of religion, a befittinglife A new of them. should be demanded type of preachingshould be practised, designed to build up the Christian life of the hearers,not primarilycontroversial or exhibitoryof the argu mentative abilities of the preacher. That only is genuine Chris tianitywhich shows itself in the life. Its normal beginningis birth. a spiritual transformation,a conscious new Spener also certain ascetic tendencies,like the English Puritans, showed in food, drink, and dress,and rejecting moderation inculcating time
he
"
"
"
"
the
ism
theatre,dances, and cards,which
regarded
as
bitter
"indifferent
contemporary
Lutheran-
things." Spener's efforts
en
contro opposition,and aroused enormous of heresy. Falsely so, as indicating accused He was versy. standards ; but rightly any intentional departurefrom Lutheran in the sense that his spiritand ideals were so totallyunlike those of contemporary Lutheran orthodoxy. His work involved from the creeds and theological to the Scriptures a going back of dogmatism. Spener'sfeeling interpretations that, if "the
countered
AND
SPENER
498
heart"
differences of right,
was
FRANCKE intellectual interpretation were
not relatively merely opposed to the Lu unimportant, was theran emphasis on destructive of it. "pure doctrine,"it was The two pointsof view were mutually exclusive. Spener un with the Bible, and doubtedly greatlypopularizedfamiliarity the authorityof confessional standards, as giving undermined in final logical form what the Scriptures had to teach. A result the way for,rather than to of this Biblical study was to prepare of the nature and historyof the Scrip effect,an investigation themselves. tures Spener greatlyimproved the religiousin of introducinga struction of youth, and achieved his purpose fed,and warmer more strenuous, Biblically popularChristian life. in spiteof his pro of Spener'sdisciples, At Frankfort some from church worship and the sacraments. tests, withdrew Spener'smeetings consequentlymet with police opposition, and he was glad,in 1686, to accept a call to Dresden as court preacher.
Meanwhile, the Pietist movement
sityof Leipzig. In Francke
Hermann there
Its members
study
of the
experiencedwhat
in
2031.
A
But
in 1687
birth regarded as a divine new John on Liineburg and engaged in writinga sermon couple of months' stay with Spener,in Dresden, com
Francke while
Scriptures.
and scientific,
its method at first instructors,
were
the approval of the universityauthorities.
it had
he
In pleted his acceptance of Pietism. in Leipzig,lecturingto the students with great following. Leipzigwas soon moil.
instructors, August founded associates,
one
the
the Univer
spreadto
of the younger (1663-1727), and a few 1686
for collegiumphilobiblicum
a
had
An
electoral edict
soon
forbad
Francke
1689 and
to
in the
the
back
was
townspeople
good deal meeting of
of tur
a
citizens
Undoubtedly Francke's lectures led some criticalat students to neglectother studies and to assume a the leadershipof the Leipzigprofessorof the titude. Under Benedict ology,Johann Carpzov (1639-1699),the university of work. authorities limited Francke's one Carpzov became the most unwearied of Spener'sopponents. Francke's position in
"
conventicles."
became a
so
uncomfortable
call to Erfurt
Meanwhile
as
that he
was
glad,in 1690,
accept
"deacon."
Spener's path in Dresden
was
not
clergylooked upon him as a stranger; the universities, Leipzigand Wittenberg,jopposedhim.
Saxon
to
easy. two
His
The Saxon meet-
IN
FRANCKE
500 and
MISSIONS
HALLE.
his combination
experiential ; and
parish practicewas highly helpfulfor he began a school for poor children,and
his students. him
in such
that
he
established
To
these, in 1697, he added
in
1696
Pcedagogium. These
educational
managed in
were
sand
he established hundred
and
the
from
of spirit
children
Latin
a
school.
renowned, and all
At
his death
thou
two
instruction.
under
were
numbers
fittingschool, the
soon
Pietism.
that
In
1698
a Orphan House, which numbered All these he died. thirty-fourinmates when
of which
all parts of
in
continued
have
without
maintained
were
were
1695
his famous
foundations,most were begun almost lieved
his famous
foundations
hundred
two
offered to
was
outside
In
its fame
such
children from
were
classroom and
of the
and
means,
to
answer
the
present,
sincerelybe
Francke
in
Gifts flowed
prayer.
doubting Francke'
Without
Germany.
to
s
faith,
just to note that he understood the art of honorable of nobles who and of enlisting friends. The number publicity, One were was reallyremarkable. patrons of his foundations it is but
further
foundation
may
be
called almost
his
That
own.
was
Institute,established in 1710 by his friend,Karl Canstein (1667-1719), for the publi Hildebrand, Freiherr von Bible
the
cation
of the
form.
The
One
their circulation in
Scripturesand
institute has done
notable
feature
a
of these
noble
to the
work
activities in Halle
inexpensive present day. was
the zeal
for missions there
aroused.
erallystillfailed
Francke recognizethe missionaryobligation,
and
to
his associates
were
At
a
time
to it.
awake
when
When
Protestants
Frederick IV
gen
(1699-
1730),of Denmark, wished to send the first Protestant mission in 1706 in Tranquethem aries to India, in 1705, establishing them he found bar, then belonging to Denmark, among in Halle, Bartholomaus Francke's students Ziegenbalg and
eighteenthcentury not less sixtyforeignmissionaries went forth from the University
Heinrich than
Pliitchau.
During
the
the most its associated foundations, of whom Christian Friedrich Schwartz famous (1726-1798), who was labored,from 1750 to his death, in India. CertainlyFrancke's of Halle
name
and
deserves
high placeon
the roll of
missionaryleadership.
By the time of Francke's death, in 1727, Pietism had passed its high-watermark. further leaders equal in It produced no abilityto Spener many,
and
Francke.
notablyin Wiirttemberg.
It continued A
to
spread in
statisticalestimate
Ger
is diffi-
OF
RESULTS
PIETISM
501
cult,as Pietists did not separate from the Lutheran Churches ; but Pietism undoubtedly affected Germany very widely and vital type of piety. It greatlyim for good. It fostereda more and the qualityof the ministry,preaching, proved the spiritual It increased the share of the Christian trainingof the young. It greatlyaugmented familiarity laityin the lifeof the church. with the Bible, and the devotional study of the Scriptures. shadows
Its
its insistence
were
on
conscious
a
conversion
of entrance into through struggleas the only normal method the world, the kingdom of God, its ascetic attitude toward the illustrated in Francke's severe repressionof play among children in his foundations, its censorious judgments on those Pietists as irreligious, and its neglectof the in who not were tellectual elements in religion.It produced very few intellec tual leaders. But, on the whole, the judgment on Pietism must
predominantlyfavorable.
be
life of religious
for the One made
Protestant
fruit of Pietism deserves
radical of the
service of great value
a
Germany.
notice in
of interpretation
the
to
most
It did
church
a
contribution of value
historyby
of the
one
Pietists,Gottfried Arnold
(1666-1714), a professorin Giessen, and
Spener, for a short time a thenceforward livingin comparative retirement in Quedlinburg. church Since the Reformation historyhad been polemic and had regarded all thinkers as to be rejectedwhom the church Kirchen of their own und age rejected. In his Unparteiische friend of
Ketzer-Historie of 1699 and is to be deemed is to be
He
read much
had
ception. He
judged
on
a
fruitful
conclusion than
with
forward
As
a
new
his
place in
the
deemed
so
age
merits, and
own
their
own
No
the
even
con man
him.
views of
historyof Christian
is
who has conceived always a danger to a man rather to the idea, Arnold pushed his interpretation that the
there
had
orthodox.
been Yet
truth
more
he
gave
with
to
the heretics
church
historya
step of decided importance.
SECTION
One
his
introduced
of the ancient heretics.
heretic because
a
so-called heretics have
thought.
Arnold
1700
of the
though
VI.
most
far from
ZINZENDORF
notable
MORAVIANISM
results of the Pietistic awakening,
approved by
reconstitution of the Moravian
AND
the
Pietists in
general,was
Brethren, under
the
the
leadership
ZINZENDORF'S
502
Zinzendorf.
Nicolaus
EARLY
LIFE
Ludwig, Graf
Zinzendorf,was Dresden, on May was a high electoral court and a friend of Spener. officialof the Saxon Zinzendorf's father died shortly after his son's birth,the mother married again,and the boy was brought up, rather by his grandmother, the Pietistic solitaryand introspective, Gersdorff. Even Katherine von marked as a boy he was by the two traits which always characterized his religious life of
in
born
von
His
26, 1700.
father
"
passionatepersonal devotion
and
Christ
to
the
conviction
is only known Christ, at least in Christianity. as the time he was ten tillhis seventeenth year he studied
that God From
in Francke's
Poedagogium in Halle. Its rigorrepelledhim, Francke's zeal, and his but he gradually came to appreciate was religiousnature quickened in 1715 in connection with his firstcommunion. The insistence of his familythat he should 1716 to Wittenberg from enter public employment sent him to 1719 to study law. Though a decided Pietist,his experi than before in Wittenberg gave him a kindlier feeling ences toward
orthodox
In
Lutheranism.
and
1719
1720
he took
a
long journey to Holland and France, forming the acquaintance and making his religious of many distinguished principles men, clearly,though tactfully,evident. On his return journey through Castell he fellin love with his cousin,but he thought Graf
Heinrich
of Reuss,
XXIX,
some
for him
work
to
thereby had indi ultimatelymarried, in
Heinrich's
him
sympathetic wife.
The
most
in 1721.
his friends in
Berthelsdorf,about
Yet
he
to
Dresden, and
enter
the
more
even
made
the electoral
primarilyinterested
was
in "heart-religion,"
the cultivating
among
Dorothea, who
of his relatives led him
wishes
service in Dresden in
He
sister,Erdmute
1722, Graf a
do.
suitor,and
God
believingthat resignedhis pretensions, cated
favored
more
a
Pietistic sense, on
his estate
of
Dresden, where as friend,Johann Andreas
seventy miles east
of
patron he appointedhis like-minded Rothe, to the pastorate. Here in wholly unlooked-for fashion his life-work The
was
old Hussite
to meet
church
him. of Bohemia
had
evil days. long maintained
fallen
on
refugein Poland, where it had its episcopalconstitution,but findingthe difficultiesincreas ing, had preserved it by persuadingFrederick Ill's Calvinistic court preacher in Berlin,Daniel Ernst Jablonski,of the Part had found
Polish Hussite ordination
in bishopric
War
Years'
Thirty
The
1699.
had
and
Bohemia
persistedin
of the
consequences
Protestantism
Bohemian
to
it had
structive,and
to accept training,
by ancestry and
church the
to
503
MORAVIANS
THE
de
been
neigh
the
and under only in concealment boring province of Moravia persecution.As early as 1722 the German-speaking Mora of vians began to seek a refugein Saxony under the leadership
Zinzendorf allowed them to the carpenter, Christian David. found a villageon his Berthelsdorf estate, which they named
Herrnhut, and Zinzendorf sides tual
where
at first
they
Zinzendorf state
and Rothe
a
first. The
refugees
separate church, while that of
in incorporation
was
immigrantsbe began their spiri
he
allowingthem a refuge,but by 1727 hard at leadership.The task was was
numbers.
to these
paid little attention
divided,their aim
were
collected in considerable
the Saxon
Lutheran
specialadditional meetings On the other hand, collegia pietatis.
church, though with
as
in
localSpener's plan of customs permitted an organizedvillageto give itselfa secular these customs its own rules. Under organizationand make Herrnhut
"elders"
chose
for
its secular direction in
Zinzendorf,as lord of the estate, had of
of
a
certain indefinite right
and all this was sealed by leadership, in Berthelsdorf such spiritual power
Out
of these institutions for the
service
communion
a
August 13, 1727,
on
that of the rebirth
reckoned
has generallybeen of the Moravian Church. that that date
1727.
of leadership
the
of village
spiritualorganization soon the of four developed from An executive committee grew. and by 1730 was regarded as exercisingministerial eldership, functions. A generaleldershipwas formed, of which the first
Herrnhut, originallysecular, a
holder, in Herrnhut to
advance
monasticism
1733,
was
societysoon His
cause
without
Dober.
Leonhard
seemed at home vows
or
a
and
body
Zinzendorf
To
of soldiers of
abroad
"
celibacy,but
a
new
bound
the
Christ,
Protestant to
their
and the men by daily prayer and worship. The young women were separatedfrom ordinaryfamilylifeby 1728, young and each class placed under strict superintendence.Children after the manner from their parents were brought up away of the Halle Orphan House. The community even attempted ideal was that of a to regulatechoices in marriage. The community separate from the world, yet ready to send forces Lord
"
MORAVIAN
504
MISSIONS
anywhere for Christ's kingdom. Yet two tendencies this development. The Moravian confused would element gladlyhave seen the establishment of a separate denomination, work
to
full revival of the
a
ancient
Moravian
Church.
Zinzendorf
clung firmly to the Pietistic idea of an ecclesiola in ecclesia. He would state church, only keep them part of the Lutheran within it,where a warmer hearta special life, a spiritual group should be fostered. The movement much met religion," soon Lutherans, but from opposition,not merely from orthodox of Herrnhut's and as Pietists,both by reason peculiarities, tendencies slowlywon separatist.On the whole, the separatist "
the upper hand. The Moravian
anywhere in the service of Christ soon gave a noble missionarydevelopment to the move which lost. No Protestant it has never ment body had been awake and none is so consecrated to the duty of missions, so to this service in proportionto its numbers to the present day. A journey to Copenhagen to attend the coronation of Chris tian VI (1730-1746) of Denmark brought Zinzendorf into contact
go
natives of the Danish
West
Zinzendorf
Herrnhut
with
Greenland.
to willingness
sionary enthusiasm. Nitschmann began Christian David
and
returned
As a
a
to
India Islands and
result Leonhard
mission
to
aflame Dober
the West
Indies in 1733.
others to Greenland
later
a considerable party, led (1704-1792), began labors in
with and
of
mis
David
in 1732, and Two
years
Gottlieb
by August Spangenberg For this Georgia. outreaching work Nitschmann of the mod first ordained the a bishop was Moravian succession ern by Jablonski in 1735. "
"
Meanwhile
Zinzendorf
's relations with the Saxon
government
becoming strained. The Austrian authorities complained, without ground, that he was enticingtheir subjects. Ecclesi astical complaints were 20, 1736, he renewed, and on March found opportunity to banished from Saxony. Zinzendorf was his work in Ronneburg in western on Germany and in carry the Baltic provinces. In 1737 he was ordained bishop by he journeyed to the West Jablonski in Berlin. In 1738-1739 were
in London, where Moravian work India Islands ; in 1741 he was had been several years in progress. By December, 1741, Zin zendorf
was
in New
York, and
tlement
which
effect in
Pennsylvania,Bethlehem
Moravians
Christmas
on
from
Georgia "
a
town
he named were
the set
beginning
to
destined to become
MORAVIAN
THE
headquarters of the
American
the
sojournin toward
a
CHURCH
America
was
Zinzendorf
movement.
full of activities. He
"of all the scattered German
union
505
made
s
great efforts
Protestant
forces
in Pennsylvania,he began missions to the Indians, he organ and plantedschools. ized seven or eightMoravian congregations
superintendenceof Peter sailed for Europe, and In January, 1743, Zinzendorf Bohler. in December, 1744, Spangenberg was put in charge of all the Indian mission work American as bishop. Its most famous the David Zeisberger(1721-1808), who worked among ary was of Georgia from Creeks 1740, and from 1743 to his death in labor for the Iroquois. established under
Itineracywas
Herrnhut
thus became
the
hive of
a
missionaryactivity.Mis
begun in Surinam, Guiana, Egypt, and South Africa. mission In 1771, after repeated attempts, a permanent was The names of its earlymission fields established in Labrador. effort. They were characteristic of Moravian show one pre and hard places, devotion, patience requiringpeculiar vailingly and this trait characterizes Moravian missionarylabors to the sions
were
present. Meanwhile, Moravianism
in was
spiteof
dislike of separatism, In 1742 it fullya church.
Zinzendorf's
becoming
more
by the government. By 1745 the Church Moravian was thoroughly organized with bishops, elders,and deacons, though its government was, and stillis, Presbyterianthan Episcopal. The English Parliament more by a law of 1749 recognizedit as "an ancient Protestant Epis did not give up his theory of Yet Zinzendorf copal Church." was
an
so
recognizedin Prussia
ecclesiola in ecclesia.
ties resulted
with Negotiations
in his recall from
the Saxon
authori
in 1747, the accep the Moravian body the
banishment
Augsburg Confession by in 1749 as a portionof the Saxon next year, and its recognition state church, with its own specialservices. By this time Mora vianism was developing a liturgyof much beauty and a hymnody of largefulness. of the During the time of his banishment Zinzendorf and some and cultural peculiar Moravians developed certain theological criticism. itiesthat were the source His emphasis of deserved relation to Christ as the heart of religion took on sometimes on sentimental a expressionin word and hymn. Since Christ, to his thinking, the Creator, our relation to God the Father is was
tance
of the
MORAVIAN
506
of Christ.
the Father
to
as
CHARACTERISTICS Since the Holy Spiriteffects the
birth,the designation"Mother"
new
Zinzendorf
ate.
always
brought Christian in a way that wounds
made
much
of the
at
was
His
that of Adam. become
tians must God
led to much
were
at the
as
Zinzendorf
s
His
sentimental. Zinzen
side of Christ as insistence that Chris the
littlechildren to enter
the
kingdom
puerilityof expression. These
heightof their manifestation
with
side.
wounded
from
appropri Christ,
of sufferings
fanciful and
once
this the case with Peculiarlywas dorf picturedthe church as drawn from
to him
experience into connection
and
Eve
seemed
between
of
peculiarities
1747 and
1749,
This period they corrected themselves. large measure themselves "the sifting called by the Moravians time." was Zinzendorf himself ultimatelylargelyturned away from them. Yet, at the most, they must be regarded as but blemishes on who could say of his devotion to Christ, the character of one in
but
as
few
"I have
can:
one
Zinzendorf 's life from
1749
property had
His
England.
passion. It
Moravians, and he now debts were assumed, as
is He."
1755
to
been
spent unstintedlyfor the
himself
found
spent mostly in
was
almost
bankrupt. His was by the Moravian body, and fitting, graduallydischarged. This financial need led to a growth in constitutional development. A collegiate Moravian director became board of control, ate was established,which soon a affairs were superintended,and the taxes by which Moravian led to their representa soon paid by the several congregations tion in a generalsynod, meeting at regularintervals. Zinzendorf s last few years were spent chieflyin pastoral activities. His strengthhad been lavishlyspent, and he was On May 9, 1760, he died bereaved of his wife and only son. in Herrnhut.
to
Church, which
Moravian
The
and
renew
made
no
was inspire,
serious breach.
Zinzendorf
had
America
to
Herrnhut
It
was
much
fortunate,however, that its
in 1762, and
his
called back
was
continued
death, thirtyyears later. Not a man thusiasm like Zinzendorf, he wras marked to
so
firmlygrounded, so that his death
practicalleadershipfell to Spangenberg, who from
done
his
guidance of genius and en by equal devotion,
his great practical sense, and high organizingabilities. Under strengthened and grew; strong, wise guidance Moravianism its criticised peculiarities were
generallydiscarded.
His work
THE
508
William
Law
not
was
(ante,p. 488) but of 1728
RELIGIOUS
only
SOCIETIES a
vigorousopponent
his Serious Call to influenced
a
Devout
John
and
of Deism
Holy Life
and
remains one Wesley, of the monuments of English hortatoryliterature, though it is seldom read. The Isaac to be feared now Congregationalist, Watts (1674-1748), long since forgottenas a theologian,has well been called "the founder of modern English hymnody." His Hymns of 1707 and The Psalms of David, Imitated in the Testament of 1719 broke down the prej Language of the New udice both sides of the Atlantic then existingin nonon prelatical English-speakingcircles against the use of all but rhymed passages of Scripture. They express a deep and vital piety. Some
profoundly
combined
efforts of
were significance
being made
for
life. Such were the "societies," the earliest religious of which formed in London was men by a group of young about 1678, for prayer, reading the Scriptures, the cultivation of a religious life, frequentcommunion, aid to the poor, soldiers, and prisoners, and encouragement of preaching. They sailors, spread rapidly. By 1700 there were nearly a hundred in Lon don alone,and they were to be found in many parts of England in Ireland. and even One of these societies was formed by John Wesley's father, Samuel Wesley, in Ep worth in 1702. In many they resembled Spener'scollegia (ante, pietatis ways but had further them. no they Spener to They were p. 497), of the estab composed almost exclusivelyof communicants lishment. as Many of the clergylooked upon the movement a
warmer
said fanatical,and after 1710 it measurably declined,though the "societies" were to continue and be of importance in the beginningsof Method
"enthusiastic,"or
ism.
These
as
would
"societies"
gave
now
be
the pattern to
a
more
outreach-
ing work, initiated by Thomas Bray (1656-1730). Bray was of appointed commissary Henry Compton, bishop of London (1675-1713), in Maryland in 1696, and in 1699 and 1700 was in that colony strengtheningAnglican churches. Impressed with the need of Bibles,libraries, and religious he literature, founded the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, on March Convocation 8, 1699. supported it, and led to the foundation June 27, 1701, of the Societyfor the Propagation on of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which to develop into a was great missionarysociety. Both have carried on their work in
THE to the
and to the work in NeW
colonies
509
Anglican strictly of the latter-named the establishment of Epis England and its development in the American
measure increasing
copacy
WESLEYS
present. Both
were
due. primarily
were
Yet these efforts
at best local and
influ in their^ partial in spiritual England was
were
of the people of lethargy, yet blindly conscious of sin and convinced of the reward and retribution. Emotions of loyalty realityof 'future The
ence.
mass
Christ, of salvation through Him,
to
of
present transform
a
It needed the appealof vivid been aroused. directed to conviction of the heart rather earnestness spiritual
ing faith had
not
"
than
to
That
a
considerations of prudence or cold logical argument. in transformation effected was England, the profound
results of which
primarilythe
speaking lands, was "
and
brothers John labors
whose
to
were
debt
work
of three
put those lands permanentlyinto
Their father,Samuel
of Non-Conformist
were
been among
ejectedclergy
the
Wesley (1662-1735),had
ferred the ministryof the establishment,and was, his death, rector of the rough country parishof of earnest
he was disposition, religious
tical,a writer of the book woman
a
devoted
Their
of Job.
Anglican. of perhaps more
of nineteen and
a
brood
John
John
Wesley
took much
if were
was
on
unprac
commentary her husband
either parent, In a household
eight died in infancy,hard work perforcethe rule. Of this large
the fifteenth and born
from
the mother.
force from
children,even was
a
A
(Annesley),was
mother, Susanna
sons
pre
1695 to
Epworth.
strengthof character, like
The
stringenteconomy
from
somewhat
Lifeof Christ in Verse and of
of remarkable
a
but
the
"
have
had grandfathers
Both
of 1662.
on
men
make
parents of the Wesley brothers
ancestry.
man
English-
them.
to
The
all
to
Wesley and George WhitefieldEngland and America vastlydiffer
Charles
and spiritually,
ent
in beneficent streams
flowed
June
Charles the
eighteenth.
17, 1703, Charles
on
Decem
Both were from the burn saved with difficulty ber 18, 1707. ing rectory in 1709, an event that made an ineffaceable impres of John, who thenceforth regardedhimself sion on the mind ua brand snatched from the burning." In 1714 as literally John the
entered the Charterhouse Westminster
School
guished themselves
for
two
School, in London, and Charles years
later.
scholarship.In
Both 1720
boys John
distin
entered
METHODIST
THE
510
Christ Church
after,and that, in 1726, he was become
such
John's
was
chosen
a
Charles
followed him
intellectual attainment
Fellow
for that honor
candidate
a
whither
College,Oxford,
six years
WHITEFIELD
CLUBS.
of Lincoln
John
must
be
College. To in holy orders,
and therefore, on September 25, 1725, he was ordained a deacon. his ordination the spiritual With strugglesbegan which were to last tillhis
conversion,in 1738, and perhaps in a
beyond
sense
that time. From
1726
to
1729
father's assistant.
John
On
Wesley was for the September 22, 1728, he
part his
most
ordained
was
priest. During his absence from Oxford, in the springof 1729, Charles Wesley and two fellow students,Robert Kirkham and William Morgan, formed littleclub,primarilyfor a in their studies,but which soon engaged in reading progress On his return to helpfulbooks and frequent communion. Oxford in November, 1729, John Wesley became the leader of a
the group,
which
soon
attracted
other
to realize William
guidance it sought
students.
Law's
Under
ideals of
a
his
conse
Morgan's influence it began visitation of the prisonersin the Oxford jailin August, 1730. The members fasted. Their ideals were derided high-churchly. They were called the "Holy Club/' and by the university.They were that stuck, the nickname student hit upon a finallysome in the had been in currency "Methodists" though the name far as what previous century. They were yet from very stilla company Methodism to be. was They were painfully souls. As bent on working out the salvation of their own resembled the Anglo-Catholic then were, matters they more crated life. Under
"
of the nineteenth
movement
century than the Methodism
of
history. An
Whitefield. of
an
club,earlyin 1735, was George in Gloucester on December the 16, 1714, son
important accession Born
in poverty, enteringOxford illnessin the springof 1735 brought a crisis
he inn-keeper,
in 1733.
A
severe
to the
had
grown
up
in his religious from which he emerged in joyous experience, with God. In June, 1736, Whitefield consciousness of peace ordination,and at once, young sought and received episcopal as a preacher. No career began his marvellous such pulpit Anglo-Saxon of the eighteenth century showed in A man absolutelywithout denominational feeling, power. such feelings ready an were usuallyintense,he was age when as
he
was,
GEORGIA
IN
WESLEYS
THE
WHITEFIELD.
511
preachanywhere,and in any pulpitopen to him. Sometimes unlike of religious censorious as to the genuineness experiences
to
his nature
his own,
in the
was
His self-seeking.
was
message
highestdegree simple and God's
Gospel of
the
un-
forgiving
and grace, and of peace through acceptance of Christ by faith, a consequent life of joyfulservice. His few printedsermons little
give
ing,with part
a
continents
of two
of his active
in
were
as
the expressiveness,
1744
once
to 1748
1740
from
sixth visit was
large
accompanied by
was
the
there witnessed, the "Great less in the middle colonies,
great division of of his work.
and
again on this side 1752; again in 1754
1763
to 1765.
of the
him
saw
in 1751
more
A
In 1738 he ministrywas spent in America. back in America, and his In 1739 he was
his success Awakening"; nor was though there and in New England there was value feelingas to the permanent spiritual years
audiences
before him.
melted
wax
Georgia. preachingin New England in upheaval ever greatest spiritual was
Dramatic, pathetic, appeal
his power. voice of marvellous of
sense
he
In 1769
and came
The
Atlantic,
1755.
His
for his last
preachingtour, and died in Newburyport, Mass., on September He had given himself unstintedlyto the service of 30, 1770. Protestant churches of every the American family. He was no organizer. He left no party to bear his name, but he awak ened thousands. None
Club
of the leaders of the Methodist
was
destined long
influ have much in Oxford, nor did their movement which was then in scholastic and re the university, on ence The death of their father on April25, 1735, whom ebb. ligious to remain
in EpWesley would gladlyhave succeeded, if possible, worth, left the Wesleys less bound to home, and both now gainedemployment as missionaries to the new colonyof Georgia, the settlement of which had been begun by General Oglethorpe, in 1733. they They sailed in October, 1735. On the voyage exercises and efforts for their were unremitting in religious
John
of twentybut in the ship was fellow passengers; a company The six Moravians, headed by Bishop David Nitschmann. of this company cheerful courage had Wesley that the Moravians
yet his. Savannah him
the
From
he met
them
in a
a
trust
he learned much.
storm
convinced
in God
Soon
that after
was
you
know
not
reaching
Spangenberg (ante,pp. 504-506), who
embarrassingquestion: "Do
John
asked
Jesus Christ?"
THE
512
WESLEYS
IN
GEORGIA.
MORAVIANISM
He is the Saviour of the world." "I know Wesley answered: Spangenberg responded : "True, but do you know He has saved you?" The Wesleys' labors in Georgia were strenuous, yet most un successful. Charles Wesley returned home in disgustand ill health
in 1736.
John
continued.
He
showed
his marvellous
abilities by conducting services in German, French, linguistic and Italian. little societyin In May, 1737, he founded a Savannah the warmer for cultivating life. He worked religious
indefatigably, yet He
with littlepeace
of mind
or
punctilioushigh-churchman. He conspicuouscase was that of Sophy Hopkey, was
way
up
He
gave
her and
a
in every
woman
her friends every
believe his intentions earnest, but down clerical celibacy and between
and
A
A
tact.
he
to
encouragement sawed
lacked
a
suitable to be his wife.
to others.
comfort
vein of
see
possible Wesley,
superstition always present in which led him to decide important questionsby the first verse of Scriptureto which he should open, or by drawing lots,led him now of decision as to the marriage. to the latter method The lot fell adverse, and Wesley naturallyaroused the resent and of her relatives. In a pique she of the young ment woman married objectedto her hastilyanother suitor. The husband dis continuance in attendance on Wesley's intimate religious felt that she was cussions. Wesley now not making proper and refused her the sacrament. preparationfor communion, No wonder her friends charged that this was the act of a dis gruntledsuitor. Wesley's influence in Georgia was at an end. He had to leave the colony Suits were started againsthim. back in by stealth. On February 1, 1738, John Wesley was England. As on his outward voyage, he had feared death. In I have a his bitterness of disappointmenthe could only say : fair summer religion."Yet he was a preacherof marked power, mis he had labored unsparingly.He had made a good many lack of Christian not those which show takes, but they were matrimony.
"
consecration.
Fortunatelyfor their distressed state of John Wesley's return both brothers course
with
a
of
mind, within
were
a
in familiar
Moravian, Peter Bohler, delayed in London
week inter till
May on his way to Georgia. Bohler taught a complete selfconversion, and a joy in surrenderingfaith,an instantaneous believing.But though before sailingBohler organized a
CONVERSION
WESLEY'S
JOHN
"society,"later to be known which John Wesley was one
513 of Society,"
the "Fetter-Lane
as
originalmembers, neither his conversion," That experience, brother was as yet at peace. from a serious illness, to Charles Wesley, then suffering came on May. 21, 1738. On Wednesday, May 24, the transforming That evening, as he recorded, he to John. experiencecame to an Anglican "society"in AldersgateStreet, went unwillingly London, and heard Luther's prefaceto the Commentary on "About Romans read. a quarter before nine,while he [Luther] the change which God works in the heart through was describing I felt I did faith in Christ,I felt my heart strangelywarmed. assurance trust in Christ,Christ alone, for salvation; and an mine, and given me, that He had taken away my sins,even was Of the far-reaching from the law of sin and death." saved me be no question. It de of this experiencethere can significance mode of termined thenceforth Wesley's estimate of the normal the lightof all his theothe Christian life. It was entrance on after even measure gradually, logicinsight. Yet it was in some it,and by preachingand observinga similar work in others and with God, that he entered into fullfreedom from by communion fear and completejoy in believing. of the Moravians, who John Wesley determined to know more had helped him thus far. Less than three weeks after his con Zinzendorf He met his way version he was to Germany. on in Marienborn, spent two weeks in Herrnhut, and in Septem It was a happy visit for Wes ber, 1738, was back in London. Yet he was not pleasedwith ley. He saw much to admire. of the
"
all. ence,
felt that Zinzendorf
He
and
that
limitations.
Moravian
Much
as
treated
was
piety was
he owed
not
to the
with too great defer without its subjective
Moravians, Wesley
was
outreach-
active in religious attitude,too littlemystical,too in their wider needs, to be fullya Moravian. ing to men
too
John
and
Charles
offered,findingmany
Wesley
now
pulpitsclosed
preached as to
opportunities
their "enthusiasm," and
speaking chieflyin the "societies" in and about London. Early in 1739 Whitefield was developinga great work in Bris tol,and there on February 17 he began preachingin the open entered into friendly He now to the coal miners of Kingswood. Harris (1714-1773), who had been work ing with great success, since 1736, as a lay preacher in Wales. invited John Wesley to Bristol. Wesley hesiWhitefield now relations with
Howel
METHODISM
514
ORGANIZED
but the opportunity to proclaim field-preaching; and on April2 he began the Gospel to the needy was irresistible, thenceforth to be his practicefor more in Bristol what was than fiftyyears, as long as strengthpermitted. Charles Wes followed his example. While without Whitefield's ley soon John Wesley was dramatic power, a preacher with few equals in popular effectiveness earnest, practical, fearless. Thence forward he was to tour England, Scotland,and Ireland. At of i n the in his tacked, especially early part ministry, peril could mob daunt him, or interruption from no violence, danger his preaching, Under could check him. under that of Whiteas exhibitions of bodily excitement fre field,remarkable were cried out, fainted,were and women torn with quent. Men To the working convulsions. both preachers these seemed of the Spiritof God, or the visible resistance of the devil. ex They are the frequent accompaniments of great religious citement among the ignorant and uncontrolled,and the dis favor with which they were regarded accounts for much of the which these preachersencountered from the regular opposition clergy. John Wesley'sgifts an as organizerwere pre-eminent. Yet the creation of Methodism was a gradualwork an adaptation tated about
"
"
of
to
means
circumstances.
In Bristol he founded
in 1739
his
"society,"and began the erection of the Late that year he secured in firstchapelthere on May 12, 1739. old "foundery," which became the first chapelthere. London an had also joined in the Thus far,in London, the Methodists Fetter-Lane Society,which Peter Bohler had founded Moravian in 1738 (ante,p. 513). Wesley's ideals were leadinghim away increased when, in This separationwas from Moravianism. from ZinOctober, 1739, PhilippHeinrich Molther, justcome firstreallyMethodist
had doubts zendorf, asserted in Fetter-Lane, that if any man he had no true faith,and should absent himself from the sacra
awaiting in silence tillGod should renew his religious hope. Such teachingfound littlesympathy from Society was activity. The Fetter-Lane Wesley's strenuous and founded divided. a Wesley and his friends withdrew purely Methodist "United Society" in the Foundery, on July of 23, 1740. Wesley continued on friendlyterms with some the Moravians, but thenceforth the movements were indepen ments
and
prayer,
dent of each other.
WESLEY'S
516
THEOLOGY
vain to obtain episcopalordination for them; but would not allow the sacraments to be administered by unordained men. While
the common basis of Wesley stood theologically on Evangelicaldoctrinal tradition and regarded his societies" as of England, two disputesled to considerable part of the Church regardingperfection.Wesley believed controversy. One was it possiblefor a Christian to attain rightrulingmotives love and to his neighbor and that such attainment would to God free from sin. To Wesley's cautious and sober judgment this aim rather than a frequentlycompleted achievement was an have appeared to some of his followers. No however it may man was ever more positivethan he that salvation evidences "
"
"
"
itselfin
a
lifeof active,strenuous
obedience
to the will of God.
A second
disputewas regardingpredestination.Wesley, like the Church of England generally of his time, was Arminian, but he had derived a specialparentalhostility to Calvinism, which seemed to him paralyzing to moral effort. Whitefield was Calvinistic. A hot interchangeof letters took place between Their good personal the two Evangelistsin 1740 and 1741. in large measure. restored relations were Whitefield soon found of Huntingdon a supporter, in 1748, in Selina,countess but to Methodism, (1707-1791), a wealthy widow, a convert far too dominant character to yield to Wesley's insistent a leadership. She would be her own Wesley, and, like Wesley, founded and superintended societies" and chapels the firstin thus beginningthe Brightonin 1761 Lady Huntingdon'sCon She made Whitefield her chaplain. Her "Connec nection." "
"
"
"
tion"
was
Calvinist.
In
1769
the
predestinarian controversy
of intensity.At the "Conference" position.Whitefield 1770, Wesley took a stronglyArminian attacked died that year, but Wesley was by Augustus fiercely of "Rock of Ages." author the Toplady (1740-1778), hymn the Swiss John defended by his devoted disciple, Wesley was William de la Flechere (1729-1785),who had settled in England of in 1760 (Fletcher and accepted a livingin the establishment The effect of work. to do notable Madeley), where he was
broke
out
with renewed
these discussions
was
to
confirm
the
Arminian
character
of
"Lady Huntingdon's Connection" and these Calvinistic Dissenters be regarded as parallel must rather than as hostile movements. Their fundamental spirit of that the same was as Wesley. essentially
Wesleyan
Methodism.
Yet
Methodist
The his
movement
His responsibilities.
After and
brother
from
1771
London.
He
to
his death
shared con
not the iron constitution of John.
on
always
was
Wesley
in his
long had part
Charles
labored
He
itinerated seldom.
Charles
1756
John
enormously.
grew
but Charles had travels,
stant
517
but few intimates who assistants,
friends and
had many
AMERICA
IN
METHODISM
Bristol,
29, 1788, he preachedin
March
conservative
more
in
than
John, and
the hymn-writer, as Anglican. His great service was Chris not merely of Methodism, but of all English-speaking tianity. John's unwise marriage to a widow, Mrs. Mary Vazeille,in 1751, was unhappy. He devoted himself all the all the multitudinous Over more unreservedlyto his work. more
he exercised
of Methodism
concerns
absolute
wise but
a
au
thority. Naturally,as the "societies" grew and preachersmul for authorityto administer the sacraments, tiplied pressure rose ordained men this Wesley resisted long; but episcopally were few, and
the force of events
irresistiblein
the pressure
made
spiteof Wesley's insistence that his
movement
was
within the
establishment. Methodism
was
carried to America
by PhilipEmbury
(1728-
in 1766, and Robert York began work in New Strawbridge(?-1781),who was laboringin Maryland about the time. A vigorousearly preacher was same Captain Thomas
1773), who
(1724-1796) of the British that, in 1771, Wesley sent
Webb work
1816)
a
"
1773
Then grew
land even
most
wise choice.
the first American the storm
came
in
spiteof it.
was
no
United
With
These
States
there
were
promisingwas
Francis
Asbury (1745all lay preachers. By
were was
held in
Philadelphia.
RevolutionaryWar, peace, in 1783, dependence
in no
the
but Methodism
longerdesirable,and pressingthan
more
over
"Conference"
of the
So
army.
the sacramental
England, as in many Episcopal Churches
on
Eng
questionwas regionsof the to which
the
Wesley had tried in vain, in 1780, ordination for clergymen for America from the bishop to procure of London. that bishops and He had long been convinced presbytersin the ancient church were one order. He therefore, as a presbyter,felt empowered to ordain in case of necessity. At Bristol,on September 1, 1784, he and his intimate disci Coke ple, Thomas (1747-1814), like Wesley a presbyter of
Methodists
the
could
resort.
establishment, ordained
Vasey
as
for presbyters
Richard
America
; and
Whatcoat the next
and
day,
Thomas "
assisted
WESLEY'S
518
ministers"
other ordained
by
tendent"
for the of
such.
brother
was
great, and
to
the American
work.
same
the Church His
ORDINATIONS "set" This
Coke
disliked
as
indeed, a
was,
England, though Wesley Charles
"apart did not
the
superin
a
breach
then
see
with it
as
The
necessity blame Wesley.
act.
believer can non-prelatical Regret has often been expressedthat Wesley and the church thus compelled to separate. It would of his affections were solution other than have been of infinite advantage if some division could have been found; but in the existing state of ideals and organization it seems well-nighimpossibleto conceive what adjustment could then have been proposed with success. Under date of September 10, 1784, Wesley notified his action no
Methodists, and also informed
them
that
he
appointed Asbury as well as Coke "superintendents." In December, 1784, Wesley's newly consecrated ministers held a in Baltimore, at which ordained "conference" Asbury was "elder" and "superintendent,"and it was "agreed to form a Methodist By 1788 Coke and Asbury Episcopal Church." called "bishops," and that title thenceforth were supplanted Once "superintendent" in America. begun, Wesley in the had
course
of the next
few
years
ordained
for
ministers
Scotland,
and
finallyEngland. of great importance. Wesley of 1784 was Another event force in Methodism. had been thus far the controlling By a "Deed of Declaration," of February 28, he now provided that those who should preach in the chapels should be such as the and otherwise defined the pow should recognize, "Conference" the self-govern-, of that body. It was a great step toward ers Antigua, Newfoundland,
ment
of Methodism.
Wesley's strengthand activities continued to the end. a
work
On
which
March
had
English lower and largelyto affect America. SECTION
VIII.
almost
2, 1791, he died in London, having done
largelyrevolutionized
of the
unabated
middle
SOME
the
condition religious
clasess,and
EFFECTS
OF
was
even
more
METHODISM
felt beyond the range of its nominal Its influence on the older Non-Conformist adherents. bodies was stimulatingthough very unequal. Their condition The
great Wesleyan revival
was
in the first half of the eighteenthcentury
was
one
of
decay.
EVANGELICALS
THE
519
Wesley and Whitefield at first; but as the revival continued the younger men caught its zeal. This was the Congregationalists, especiallythe case among of all. Their preaching who profited most was quickened,their zeal revived, their numbers rapidly increased. Many acces from those awakened sions came to them to by Methodism irksome. the Methodist whom to was Many came discipline from them parishesof the establishment. By 1800 the Con gregationalists occupied a very different positionin England The Particular Baptists also shared in from that of 1700. Their leaders looked askance
this
at
less extent, since their Calvinism was The Gen to Wesleyan Arminianism. antagonistic
growth,though
intense and
to
eral Baptists,in spiteof a considerable leaven of Socinianism, divided the General also gained by the revival. They were "
BaptistNew on byterians, and
the other
Socinianism
dwindled.
Nor
humanitarian val methods
of 1770,
Connection
the
were
were
was
too
almost
were
dominant
were
zeal
hand,
being Evangelical. The among
unaffected. Their
them.
Pres
Arianism numbers
Their noble moved. Quakers much more manifest, but the revi never
foreignto their spiritto
make
much
im
pression. sympathizers in the establishment. These em men were generallyin agreement with his religious l ife mani phases, on conversion,a confident faith,a religious the other hand, they fested in active work for others. On adopted few of his peculiarmethods, and in generalwere marked Calvinism rather than theologically by an extremely moderate the spiritual Whitefield was by his aggressiveArminianism. father of many. rather never a They were body. They were and to it the name a Evangelicalor lowofuthinking, way church was these Evangelicals were given. Conspicuous among John Newton slave-dealingshipmaster. a (1725-1807), once first Converted, he became one of the most helpfulof preachers, in London. in Olney and then as rector of St. Mary Woolnoth His hymns express his cheerful,confident faith. Thomas Scott in Olney, successor (1747-1821), Newton's best known for his Family Bible with Notes was a commentary of immense Atlantic. both Richard of the sides popularityon Wesley
won
many
"
Cecil (1748-1810) in later life
was
one
of the most
influential
preachersin London. Joseph Milner (1744-1797) made Hull influence through his much an Evangelicalstrongholdand won
EVANGELICALS
EMINENT
520
after his death by History of the Church of Christ,continued he emphasized the development his brother, Isaac, in which of Christian
biography
than
rather
disputes of Christi (1750-1820), was long a professorin in making the tone of that university
anity. Isaac Milner Cambridge and aided which a work largelyEvangelical, by Charles Simeon (1759-1836). in clerical ranks
Several not
Such
century, and
Newton's
continued
was
there in power
instrumental
were
Evangelicalopinions. 1800), the greatest English poet
of
eenth
the
William
was
in the
Cowper
(1731-
of the latter half of the
warm
friend.
spread
In Hannah
eight More
(1745-1833) Evangelicalism had a supporter personally ac and theatrical circles of quainted with the literary, artistic, London, a writer of tracts and stories of unbounded popularity and herself of generous
and
self-denying philanthropy. Zachary
Macaulay (1768-1838),
father
mined
slave trade.
opponent
John
of the
of the
historian,was
a
That
received
evil had
deter
It had been vigorously Wesley's severest condemnation. effective enemy opposed by the Quakers. Its most was one of the most eminent of Evangelicallaymen, William Wilberforce (1759-1833). Wealthy, popular,and a member of Parlia verted" in 1784 through the instrumentality con ment, he was of Isaac Milner. In 1797 he publishedhis Practical View of the Prevailing ReligiousSystem ofProfessedChristians in the Higher and Middle Classes in this Country Contrasted with real Christian ity. It proved one of the most popular of Evangelicaltreatises. In 1787 he began his lifelong battle with slavery,resulting in the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, and of slaveryitself in 1833. throughout the British dominions The Methodist in its philan movement was forward-looking thropic sympathies, and the Evangelicalsshared this trait. Methodism, under Wesley'sleadership, sought to aid its poorer members to provide work, to care for the sick,to financially, furnish schools and cheap reading,and to overcome the coarse and brutalityof the lower classes. ness The awakening of the new of humanitarianism had one spirit of its noblest illustrationsin John Howard (1726-1790),a quiet, religious, country landlord, interested in schools and model cottages, a worshipper in Congregationaland Baptist congre chosen high sheriff of Bedford gations;Howard was in 1773. He was shocked at the moral and physicalfilth inexpressibly "
AGENCIES
RELIGIOUS
NEW
521
their officers supportedby what of the jails,
they could wring separationof proper
no prisoners,not by salaries; dis release for those acquittedtilltheir fees were no prisoners, visited prac charged. Thorough in all that he did, Howard ticallyall the jailsof England, and laid the horrible results
the
from
in 1774.
Parliament
before
did
then
He
similar work
a
for
Much remained to be Scotland, Ireland, and the Continent. done, but he deserves the titleof the "father of prisonreform." devoted
His
last years were to ascertain methods
devotion
Russia.
his life in southern
him
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge had been
The founded a
cost
to
efforts equally self-sacrificing prevent the spread of the plague. His to
great
movement
gave
impulseto the diffusion of Christian literature.
made
that
1799
the
formed
(ante,p. 508), but the revival
in 1699
in London. had
Concern
Wesley
of his chief agencies, one publishingconstantly. In interdenominational Religious Tract Society was Even
been
in 1789, the Methodist earlier,
founded
Book
this side of the Atlantic.
on
The
ReligiousTract Society,which was to be merged with into the American Tract Society,was other local organizations begun in 1812. Pietism had set the example of extensive and cheap publicationof the Bible through Baron Canstein's great New
York
foundation
in Halle, in 1710
(ante,p. 500). In 1804 the Brit
Foreign Bible Societywas founded in London through fol the efforts of Evangelicals. Ireland and Scotland soon lowed; in 1808 the first of a series of local societies was or and out of consolidation the American ganized in Philadelphia, into existence in 1816. Bible Society came By their work the
ish and
present
diffusion of the
enormous
Scriptureshas
been
made
possible. Some as
form of
religious teachingof
and organizedreligion,
catechetical instruction.
children is probably as
old
much
of
the Reformation
Though attempts
age
and
with
unschooled
in the
Sunday (1735-1811),an
Gloucester.
made
were
the first systematicand successful efforts lier,
made
to
even
ear
reach the poor
Christian trainingon a largescale were schools,founded in 1780 by Robert Raikes Evangelicallayman of the establishment,of a
In the absence
of
public education, he sought
to
"R's," and in Christian of paid teachers, on the only day,
give the ignoranttrainingin the three fundamentals
Sunday,
when
by the
means
children
were
free.
Attendance
at church
THE
522
required. Raikes
also
was
SCHOOL
SUNDAY
proprietorof
was
the
Gloucester
of these activities. The published accounts work spread with great rapidity. Wesley and the NonA Societyfor Promoting Sunday favored them. Conformists organized in Schools throughout the British Dominions, was in Philadelphia formed A similar societywas in 1785. London in 1791. was as rapid as Though the growth of the movement it was partly permanent, it was not without clerical opposition, of its noveltyand partlyas a desecration of Sunday. account on The secular instruction rapidlydecreased,and the paid teacher place to the voluntary leader. No Christian agency has gave church life. become more fullypart of normal modern
Journal, which
IX.
SECTION
AWAKENING
MISSIONARY
THE
Catholic missions in the Reforma The development of Roman tion age was rapid and fruitful (pp. 429, 430, 565). Lack of
geographicalcontact with heathen lands and internal problems Dutch efforts. With prevented any equivalent Protestant in begun in Ceylon, Java, and Formosa conquests work was the seventeenth century. The first Englishforeignmissionary the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel organization, in New into existence by act of Parliament England, came the Massachusetts in 1649, in response to the efforts among his Indian Indians of John Eliot (1604-1690). At its expense Bible
and
other
Propagation in 1701 Danish notable
of
printed. Gospel in Foreign
works, the
were
Pietism
(ante,p. 508). German missions
from
1705
missionary career had
504). Quakers in
made
The Parts
Society for
produced
(ante,p. 500).
of the
Moravians
some
organized
was
onward
the
the
Halle-
In 1732
the
began (ante,p.
missionaryefforts.
in Great aroused peoples was Britain by the voyages of discovery in the Pacific,under conducted by Captain James Cook (1728government auspices, Interest
1779), from
non-Christian
1768
to his death.
These
discoveries awakened
the
missionary zeal of William Carey (1761-1834), a shoemaker, then a Baptistpreacher,and who was of to show himself a man remarkable talents as a linguist and a botanist,as well as of The result of his thought unquenchable missionarydevotion. his Enquiry into the Obligation was of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens of 1792. In October of that
THE
524
SECTION
England
X.
had
THE
"ENLIGHTENMENT"
GERMAN
well advanced
ENLIGHTENMENT
in its
(AUFKLARUNG) and Deistic,rationalistic,
There development before the rise of Methodism. the two streams long ran parallel.If Methodism, theologically, it was to older doctrinal conceptions, return even more a was feelingsof the nation. appeal to the strong, deep religious an In Germany Pietism, with its emphasis on feeling, preceded the Enlightenment (Aufklarung),though continuing to run when that developed. The to the latter movement parallel Pietism had to come. sure Enlightenment in Germany was the grasp of confessional orthodoxy, but it had raised broken leaders to take the intellectual place of the theological up no older dogmatic theologians. The eighteenth century, with of the English Deists its criticalrationalistic spirit ; the works of and their opponents; and the radical popular modification invaded in France, necessarily Deism Germany and found the of confessional intellectual field vacant, through the discrediting The of Pietism. orthodoxy and the constructive inefficiency result was the rapid growth of the Enlightenment, as it styled itself. To call it rationalism is not quite just,though that it shades. Its chief im It representedmany largelybecame. than in England or in France, by its portance is that, more it prepared the way for a great critical and constructive work reconstruction in theology,which, in the nineteenth century, lands. to spread widely throughout Protestant was Leibnitz's speculations too deep to pro (ante,p. 485) were duce a profound impressionon his own age, though later they of powerful effect. Thomasius were (ante,p. 499) spread a without rationalistic spirit, working out a system. His influ in developingan attitude of mind, so that he marked ence was has not untruly been described the "road-breaker of the as Chris however, was Enlightenment." Its great protagonist, tian Wolff (1679-1754). Not a creative genius,it was Wolff's and fortune so to embody and giveexpressionto the unformed the philosophical inarticulate thought of his age, as to become and theological leader of two generationsof his countrymen. Skilled in mathematics, like most of his and of the philosophers in the preceding century, he began lecturingon mathematics Halle in 1707. Here his philosophyrapidlydeveloped,in close connection with that of Leibnitz,whose deeperthoughts,howUnitarian
WOLFF
CHRISTIAN
525
alone is true, Wolff held, which be demonstrated by logicalcertaintyakin to mathematics. can be deduced from the innate contents Truth must thus rationally he
ever,
grasped.
never
That
by experience "pure reason." All that comes world is composed is merely contingentand confirmatory. The of the mind
the
"
simple substances, each endowed of Leibnitz's with force, though not with all the qualities of these sub monads (ante,p. 485). Bodies are aggregations of
of
infinite multitude
an
laws.
world
The
stances.
is
a
soul is that in
The
huge machine, ruled by mechanical us
is conscious of itself and
which
of
of knowledge and with capacities objects. It is endowed desire. Their completeness of fulfilment is pleasure,their in completeness,pain. Hence have a cause. Since the world is contingent,it must other
exists and
God
has made
The
the world.
laws
of all rational
thinking and actinggive us the divine attributes. Since com pletenessis the highest aim of all being, all that aims at the be virtue. must completeness of ourselves and other men of rightaction are embodied, as with the the principles Hence Deists, in the fundamental divinelyappointed constitution of Wolff did not man. deny that there might be revelation, though, if so, it could contain nothing not in agreement with miracles impossible,though improbable, and reason are ; nor of each would imply two acts of equal power, the interruption the order
of nature
and
after the event.
its restoration
Wolff's
and optimistic. He is going on individually, breach with the to largercompleteness. Here a was socially, that older theology,both of orthodoxy and of Pietism, and one of a logical demonstra to its age with the conclusiveness came tion. God, natural religion,originallyimplanted morality,
of
view
and
man
was
progress
individual
toward
and
racial
not perfection,
super
sin and
from ruin, supernaturalrescue if Wolff allows the proper regard,even are objectsof religious Nor is man little standing room to revelation and miracle. a the hopelessor incapablebeing of the older theology. of his Pietistic colleagues Wolff's views aroused the hostility William I in Halle. They procured from King Frederick The to was even royal sentence (1713-1740) his removal.
revelation
natural
or
them
strenuous. surprisingly
leave
the
He
found
ordered, in 1723, to forty-eighthours, or be hanged. Wolff
universitywithin a refugein Marburg, and
was
was
honorablyrestored
to
by Frederick
in 1740
Halle
become
ever,
during the
thought
The
had
of was
years
he
work
little to
added
in Halle
his
tillhis death.
large section
a
had, how
of
Germany.
over.
influential in
radical,but
Less
that
in Halle
of Pietism
sway
fourteen
become
His
the Great.
property, and
common
achievements His
REIMARUS
MOSHEIM.
526
aiding the
new
attitude of
Lorentz Johann Mosheim von (1694?thought, was and finally in Gottingen. The 1755), professorin Helmstadt admired most preacherof his time, master of a styleof brilliancy latitudiin Latin or in German, his influence was essentially narian. He had no sympathy with the dogmatism of the or The thodox. no emphases of the Pietists awakened response German
in him
;
He
touched
on
the
rationalism he support the extreme fields of religious thought, and his
could
nor
most
whole, favored
chief service issued
and
in 1726
ante
fashion.
father of modern
In his Commentarii
church
partisan bias, and of
expense
which a
aimed to
cause
and
to
More
tell events As
work
extreme
the whole
de rebus Christianorum
He
desired to be free of all
in remarkable
succeeded
defend.
style,his
history."
colorlessness.
some
in 1755, embraced
of 1753, he treated the earlier centuries in Mosheim well deserves of "the the name
Constantinum
ampler
spread of the Enlightenment. His field of history. His Institutiones, first
in final form
story of the church.
influence,
the
in the
was
of Wolff.
His
at
measure
is the first church
the
history without
exactlyas they happened, of its learning such, and by reason
long survived
rationalism
soon
his death. found
its
in representatives
Samuel lleimarus Germany. Hermann (1694-1768), long a highlyreputedprofessorof Oriental languagesin Hamburg, and the leader in scholarlycircles there, had travelled in England in earlylife, and had there adopted Deist views, in defense of which he wrote issued till not much, though his works were after his death, when they were put forth by Lessingbetween and 1778 as fragments found 1774 in the libraryof Wolfenbiittel hence Wolfenbuttel Fragments,the publicationof which "
aroused
immense
is that
discussion.
As
with
the
Deists, all that is
natural
religionwhich teaches the existence of a wise Creator, a primitivemorality,and immortality all ascertainable by reason. The world itself is the only miracle and the only revelation all others are impossible. The writers of the Bible were honest men, but were moved not even by fraud true
"
"
LESSING selfishness. It is
and of
curious commentary the condition on that Reimarus's writings, though widely
a
thought in Germany
criticised, were
less valued
no
527
others
by
as
a
defense
of
religion
atheism.
againstmaterialism and the publi Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781), to whom cation of Reimarus's due, eminent as a writingswas religious himself ranking as and artistic critic, dramatist and a literary German classic writer with Goethe and Schiller, though not a agreeingwholly with Reimarus, presentedin his Education of As the Race of 1780 a theory of much the Human plausibility. individual passes through the successive stages of childhood, The Scriptureshave youth, and manhood, so does the race. is moved Childhood been given by God to meet these needs. in that and rewards punishments. For men by immediate with training, for obedience. temporalblessings is
condition the Old Testament
promisesof long life and
its
is
Youth future
ready
and
success
is
without
hope
a
guide is
reason, as
or
feelingin educated ligionbelonged to a past human development. The views truths or
the
effect of the
is ruled
by duty,
fear of
or
to
inferior present stage of
an
Enlightenmentwas
a
wide diffusion of the
the valuable in the Scriptureswere and its morality,divested of miracle of natural religion
alone
that what
were
supernatural. Jesus
personalcentre
of faith.
acteristic of much many
manhood
But
punishment as its motives. though perhaps God may yet send some its aid. Lessing' s work spread wide the Germany that the historic Christian re
of reward
further revelation
lesser goods for in that state, for men
with its present self-surrender and eternal
fittingguide.
rewards
of
and
sacrifice present ease happiness. For it,or
Testament
the New
Its
to
divine book
a
by 1800,
and
of the was
was
This
a
moral
was
teacher
rather
rationalism,and
was
than
a
char
thinkingof Ger strongesttheological to continue
powerfulin
the nineteenth
by side with it,confessional orthodoxy and Pietism continued, though with decreasingintellectual appeal,
century.
Side
Yet be called semi-rationalism. much, also, which may the age was characterized,also, by vigorouspolemic against and
and superstitions,
large development of voluntary and popular beneficence,and provisionfor popular education. The eighteenthcentury was also marked, and nowhere more than in Germany, by the development of textual and historical a
BIBLICAL
528
SCHOLARSHIP
studies of the Bible which cism.
The
Greek
a
initiated the modern
English scholar,John
Testament, based
on
Mill
in the year of his death. Jean scripts, brought up in Geneva, later an Arminian 1684 to his
death, won
fame
as
explainthe teachingof
collation le Clerc
of
manu
(1657-1736),
in Amsterdam
from
exegete, through his attempts
an
the
criti
(1645-1707), published
careful
a
periodof
Scriptureswithout
dogmatic prepossessions approaching them not to discover proof texts, but their actual meaning. Johann Albrecht Bengel (16871752), long head of the theologicalseminary in Denkendorf, in Wiirttemberg, a man of Pietistic leanings,was the first to Testament recognizethat New manuscriptsmay be grouped in families,and to establish the generallyaccepted critical that a more difficult reading is to be preferred. His canon to
"
Gnomon,
Index, of the New
or
remarkable
Testament, of 1742, was
thus
the most
far
produced. Nothing, he de clared, should be read into the Scripture,and nothing there contained omitted, which could be drawn out by the most it rigidapplicationof grammatical principles. Wesley made the
commentary
basis of his Notes
temporaneously Johann and New
Amsterdam, Testament
Textual
the New
upon
Jakob
Testament
Wettstein
of 1755.
(1693-1754), of Basel
spent nearly a lifetime of labor with
on
his Greek
Reading, published in 1751-1752. thus given a great exegesiswere
Various
criticism and
Con
sound
advance. To
Astruc
(1684-1766),royal professorof medicine in in his Conjectures of 1753, due the announcement, Paris, was of the composite character of Genesis. The theory won essen Jean
tial support in 1781 from Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (1752later the called in often rationalisticprofessor Gottingen, 1827),
"the founder
of Old Testament
latter part of the nineteenth extensive recognition. won
criticism,"but it is only in the century that Astruc' s discovery
In Johann
August Ernest! (1707-1781), professorin Leipzig from 1742, Germany had a teacher who not only aided greatly that awakening of classical thought and ideals which affected German intellectual life in the closingyears of the eighteenth century, but the The
same
one
who
carried to New
which principles
meaning is to
historical methods
be
he
Testament
applied to ascertained by the same
in the
one
interpretation
classical literature.
grammatical and
field as in the other.
Reimarus
AND
REIMARUS
SEMLER
529
(ante,p. 526), in his seventh Fragment, publishedby Lessing life of Christ to
rigid historic methods, like those appliedto secular history. His the mythical,or the legen total rejectionof the supernatural, dary left his results barren enough, but he raised questionsof method and conclusion which have constituted the problems since. Johann of this investigation, in large measure, ever Salomo Semler (1725-1791),professorin Halle from 1752, was of Pietistic training, ration a conservative though in manhood alist. His importance was in the paths he indicated rather than in the results he achieved. He distinguishedbetween the permanent truths in Scriptureand the elements due to the in 1778, for the first time
times in which
subjectedthe
the several books
were
He
written.
denied
the
equal value of all parts of Scripture. Revelation, he taught,is in Scripture,but all Scriptureis not revelation. The creeds of the church are a growth. Church historyis a development. In particular he made a distinction between Petrine,Judaizing i n the and that was Pauline, anti-Judaic, parties, earlychurch,
play a great role in
to
later discussions.
SECTION
Nothing the
characteristic of the earlier half of
more
eighteenthcentury
common
did
The
sense. a
remarkable
than age
work
in
dominance
the
was
of
"reason,"
or
unemotional, intellectual. It
that questioning
which
had
been
ac
ancient superstitions tradition,in sweeping away of that which abuses, and demanding the rightfulness
cepted and
on
claimed
met,
authority. the
as
tion.
The
"return
by
seemed
EOMANTICISM
XI.
to
But
it
cold and
was
one-sided.
It
was
eighteenth century opposi on, by an claims of feeling asserted themselves, voiced in a immense
went
nature," that
was
too
often
the
a
nature
conjured up appreciation
imagination,but accompanied by a renewed of the classical and the mediaeval,and the revival of a sense of the supernaturalin religion, often vague and obscure, but creatinga totallydifferent atmosphere in which man's claims as a feeling,rather than as a purely thinking,being were asserted. Its most
effective apostlewas
Jacques Rousseau (1712manifested was throughout Europe. evident than in Germany. Lessingshared
1778) ; but the movement Nowhere
was
it more
Jean
IMMANUEL
530 it.
toph alism ent
there conspicuousliteraryrepresentatives
Its most
Johann
Wolfgang Friedrich
Goethe
;von
(1749-1832)
Schiller (1759-1805).
von
the
not, indeed, swept from
was
habit
KANT
of
the mastery
thought
contended
Johann
The
than
were
Chris-
older ration
but field,
more
on
and
a
totallydiffer
equal terms
for
that of Romanticism.
"
Philosophy, in the eighteenthcentury, had seemed to lead to no thoroughfare. Leibnitz had taught that all knowledge elucidation of that which was an was wrapped up innate in the monad. Wolff had affirmed the power of "pure reason" the other hand, Locke had to give the only certainties. On had by experience,and though Hume taught that all comes and sub pushed to scepticismall conclusion based on cause on stance, he had viewed, like Locke, all knowledge as founded British and the The German tendencies were experience. ap It be the work of Kant to was parentlymutually destructive. basis which should be and supersedeboth, on a new to combine of modern the starting-point philosophy,and to give a value which neither earlier partieshad recognized. to feeling native of Konigsberg, Immanuel Kant a (1724-1804) was where"all his life was spent. His paternalancestry, he believed, was
Kant
Scotch.
earliest influences
His
became
development
in the
a
teacher
was
slow.
Study of though he did quacy, profoundly influenced nitz-Wolff.
He Hume
were
Pietist.
In
1755
Universityof Konigsberg.
His
held at first to the school of Leib awakened
become
doubts
as
to
its ade
Hume's
disciple.Rousseau him with the "discovery of the deep of man." In 1781 came Kant's hidden nature epoch-making blow the Pure Reason struck work, primarily a Critiqueof dominant at the then philosophy of Wolff. His formative treatises rapidly followed, and his thought was soon powerful in Germany. had By 1797 his mental and physicalpowers ruin. A littleman begun a decline which was to end in pitiful in physicalstature, never married, of strict moral uprightness, he devoted himself to his task with singularsimplicityand fidelity. Kant's respects a theory of knowledge. system is in many not
"
With
the school of Locke
edge something, or mind
from
without.
that the mind
some
and
stimulus With
he held that in
Hume "
Leibnitz
has certain innate
the content and
"
our
comes
knowl to
the
Wolff he maintained
transcendent qualities,
in the
HERDER.
532
SCHLEIERMACHER
Only of 1793. Emphasizing morality as of the practicalreason, the he reduces religion Evil and the categorical to theistic ethics. practically impera for the obedience tive contest of man. One ruled by this prin ciple of moral good the categoricalimperative is pleasing of God. Of this sonship Christ is the highest to God, is a son Bounds
of Reason prime content
"
illustration. The
invisible church
to moral
obedient
this obedience. of God.
"
law. Its
visible church
The
develop kingdom not theology was to
will be the
Christian
to
of all those
is a union
complete achievement
contribution
Kant's
is the ideal union
of doctrines,but his vindica rationalizing interpretation tion of man's profoundestfeelings bases of practical as religious his
conviction and
moral
conduct.
of the Bible impulse to the historical interpretation Gottfried Herder was von given by Johann (1744-1803), in earlylife an intimate with Goethe, influenced by personalcon A decided
tact
with Kant, and From
an
eager
supporter of the romantic
to his death
he
move
preacher in Wei His Spirit of Hebrew mar. Poetry appeared in 1782-1783. in 1784-1791. His Philosophyof the Historyof Mankind Re is the embodiment of that which ligion, especially Christianity, of mankind. is deepestin the feelings The Scripturesare to be of the times understood in the lightof the views and feelings in which the several books were written. They are, therefore, literature. is true and permanent What a religious essentially in them be distinguished from the temporary and local. must ment.
Out
of this romantic
theologianof
German whose
1776
work
movement
land
"
the
came
influential
most
opening nineteenth century, religious thought far outside
the
has moulded
ders of his native
court
was
Friedrich
Daniel
Ernst
and
one
the bor
Schleiermacher
(1768-1834). The son of a Prussian army chaplain,he was educated by the Moravians, fellunder the influence of the views of Wolff and Semler, and was then greatlyimpressedby Plato, In 1796 he became Spinoza,Kant, and Romanticism. hospital chaplain in Berlin, then a centre of the Enlightenment, and there
published in
directed
to
thoughts were
a
1799
his remarkable
rationalistic circle. set
forth.
From
In
1804
Addresses these to
1807
on
Religion,
his fundamental he
was
professor
in Halle.
in Ber In the year last named he settled once more In lin,becoming a little later pastor of the Trinity Church.
1810,
on
the
foundingof
the
Universityof Berlin,he
was
ap-
SCHLEIERMACHER
533
of theology,a post pointedprofessor in 1834.
death
his Christian
which
he
occupiedtillhis
he set forth his mature
In 1821-1822
Belief Accordingto
the
views in
Principles of the Evangelical
Church. is that he took prime significance results of previoustendencies,and
Schleiermacher 's his
system the
own
into
up
to
gave
basis,and to the person of Christ a meaning theology a new largelyignored in his age. Orthodoxy and rationalism had both made intellectual religionessentially acceptance of an To system and an externallyauthoritative rule of conduct. the orthodox religion based on assent to the truths of revela was tion and obedience to the will of God.
the rationalistsit was
To
acceptance of natural
theology and of universal morality as Both partiesin the eighteenthcen certained by the reason. and moralityas primarilymeans for religion tury looked upon securing a happy immortality. To Schleiermacher the sole is inward, in the feeling. In itself religion basis of religion is neither a body of doctrines,revealed or rationallycertified, nor a system of conduct, though both belief and conduct flow from
religion.
Schleiermacher
much
took
from
and Spinoza,Leibnitz,
experiencewe perceivethe antithesis of the against a principleof unity and changing over These antitheses giveus the Absolute and eternal In
manifold
our
out
all would
whom
would
with
that which
and
permanency. "
God
"
with
be chaos ; and the world, without which all The Absolute is throughoutall. God is there
be empty. in His world. fore immanent
nitz,a microcosm,
Kant.
a
Man
is,in himself,as with Leib
reflection of the universe.
As
contrasted
is universal,absolute,and
eternal,he feels him word, dependent. This
in a self finite,limited, temporary of dependence is the basis of all religion.To feeling "
bridgeover the gulfbetween the universal and the finite, into to bringman harmony with God, is the aim of all religions.Hence the worth of each religionis to be measured by the degree in which this result,which is the aim of all,is accomplished. Hence religions are
not
grees
tory human thus
of are
to
be divided
a
true
sense
consciousness far known
to
and
All advances
adequacy. in
into true
religionthroughout
his
fuller manifestation revelations, a
to
of the
men,
false,but into relative de in
immanent
is Christianity
God. the
Of
all
religions
best, since it most
what it is the aim of all religions to achieve. fullyaccomplishes
SCHLEIERMACHER.
534
HEGEL
to all religion, sin problems are those most fundamental and pardon, separationand reconciliation. And in the Chris tian religion the person of Christ is the central element. He is
Its
Himself
the reconciliation of the finite with
temporal with
the
eternal,the union
therefore,the Mediator Schleiermacher
of God
the universal,the and
of this reconciliation to others.
strongly Christocentric.
was
He
man.
The
is,
Hence
life thus
and God is now unitingthe temporal and the eternal man immortal. An immortality in duration is a great hope, but of liferather than a mere true immortalityis a quality question "
"
of duration.
Doctrines
these fundamental
religious experiencesdefin but these ex themselves intellectually; ing and interpreting planationshave only a relative and secondaryvalue. They have changed and may change. They are simply the forms in which abiding truth from time to time expresses itself. In Schleiermacher's view, moralityis the result of the proper is a part, the family,the understanding of that of which man community, the state, the world. Such an enlargingview of his real place in these relations will drive out selfishness and nor self-centring. religionmorality; Morality is not religion, but religion is the main aid to morality. It asks the question what insistently, ought to be, in the light of the Christian are
consciousness. Schleiermacher too
as
radical,by the rationalists
by as
the
too
influenced modern
has more,
the power
thingsas they
mental
processes
Philosophy
was
under difficulties,
by helm
contained
system
It denied
Johann
orthodox
visionary;
religious thinkingin variously.
more
or
Kant's
of
condemned
was
are
two
evident
of his but
Protestant
no
day one
circles
points of difficulty.
of intellectual processes to give knowledge in themselves, and it did not explainhow
in all individuals. necessarilythe same developed in the clarification of both these are
the
Gottlieb
influence of Romanticism, into idealism, Fichte (1762-1814) and Friedrich Wil-
consistent Schelling(1775-1854) ; but in more form and with a stricter realism,though predominantlyideal istically, by Hegel. Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) was a native of Georg He at Tubingen. Stuttgart,educated taught in Jena, with From from 1801 to 1807. 1808 to 1816 he scanty following,
Joseph von
535
HEGEL
1818
year
gymnasium school in Nuremberg. The in Berlin, his appointment to a professorship rapidlyrose to that of the first philosopherof
of the
the head
was
saw
his fame
where
died of cholera,at the height of his in spite This distinction was in 1831. activity, He
his day in Germany,
reputation and of his
and obscure uninteresting
of
manner
in presentation
the
classroom.
Hegel
To
is
universe
the
constant
a
development The
Absolute, that is,God, through struggleand effort. lute is
and spirit, mind
by which
laws
involve three
itself out
thinks
in
movement
stages, a
antithesis.
"the
the two
But
are
a
thesis.
its limitation
its oppositionor
proceedstillit encounters
This
direction
"
the
always
logically.These one
Abso
with
is in accordance
development
its
of the
but aspects of the
one
Abso
lute,and both thesis and antithesis unite in a higher union, the synthesis.Over againstthe idea,"the thesis,as its antithesis, "
is nature the union
is who unite in highersynthesisin man, Since all is the Absolute mind and matter.
but the two
"
of both
developingin accordance with the laws of all thought, the laws of thought are the laws of things; and since our thinking is a fragment of that of the Absolute, in so far as it is true, it gives minds, and is the true knowledge of the things outside our us in all minds
same
portionsof
are
of the finite
since
part of the
a
the Absolute
is spirit
to
to
come
one
Absolute.
Since
we
consciousness,a prime duty
realize its relation to
the Absolute-
realization is religion.Religion may, indeed, begin, as become with Schleiermacher,in feeling ; but to be true it must is an real knowledge. Every religion attempt thus to know complete realization. God, of which Christianityis the most
such
always strivingto reveal Himself ; yet this outworking must always be through the three necessary stages of develop Thus the Father is the divine unity the thesis. He ment. the antithesis. The Himself in the Son uniting objectifies love is the Holy Spirit the synthesis.The whole process gives God is the thesis. the Trinity. So regardingthe incarnation. from finite humanity, the antithesis. Both He is distinguished the God-man. unite in the higher synthesis, Hegel's system did much to substitute for the older sharp distinction between
God
is
"
"
"
the
divine
and
the
unity so prevalentin The
human, modern
profundity,power,
the
sense
fundamental
theology. ingenuityof Hegel's views
Protestant and
of their
THE
536
be
SCHOOL
TUBINGEN
procrusteanlyphil osophicalnot to lead to reaction. Though their reign in Ger was comparatively short, they had much followingin many Great Britain throughout the latter half of the nineteenth cen tury, and have long been influential in America. cannot
questioned. Yet they
SECTION
XII.
FURTHER
too
were
GERMAN
DEVELOPMENTS
Hegel'stheory of development had to New
Baur
Testament
a
criticism in the work
significant application of Ferdinand
(1792-1860),professorin Tubingen from
1826
to
Christian
his death,
Tubingen school in theology. The essential features of his interpretation sketched by Baur were in his account of the partiesin the Corinthian Church, published thenceforward in 1831, and were developed in a series of bril liant studies,which won disciples.All historical progress, many with Hegel,must be through the three stages of thesis, Baur felt, antithesis,and synthesis. Semler (ante,p. 529) had already taught the existence of Petrine (Judaizing)and Pauline parties These gave the elements of the Hegelian in the early church. Baur triad. a so taught, began as essentially Christianity, This the thesis the positionof all Messianic Judaism. was the original Apostles. The necessary antithesis inevitablyarose and Pauline was Christianity.Petrine and Pauline views struggledfar into the second century ; but the inevitable syn thesis came eventually,in the Old Catholic Church, which hon unconscious that they had ored both Peter and Paul, and was stood in serious opposition. ever The most debated use made by Baur of this reconstruction of the earlyhistoryof the church was a redatingof the books of the New Testament. They must displaythe biases of the show various aspects of this development that is,they must "tendencies." Applying this test, Baur found only Romans, Galatians,and the Corinthian epistles genuinely Pauline, since they alone showed traces of the conflict. The others did not it reveal the struggle, be dated and hence must later,when had become Revelation was earlyand Juda a forgottenstory. of the Gospels izing. In 1847 Baur turned to the investigation Matthew reveals Judaizing tendencies, methods. by the same and is the oldest. Luke is probably a reworking of Marcion's (ante, p. 57) gospel. Mark sought to hide the conflict,and and
founder
of the
new
"
"
"
GERMAN
is not of the
is later,while John controversies
with
only irenic
but
later half
of the
greater part of the New in the second century.
Testament
The
Baur's discussion aroused Its ultimate
numbers.
effect
earlychurch
on
sults have
been, however, the best
and
century.
therefore,written
and
opponents
in great
Testament
debates
of the
second
investigation immensely enlarged the
New
knowledge
537
betrays familiarity
was,
advocates
beneficial. These
most
was
GROUPS
THEOLOGICAL
of its literature. Baur's
to
answer
Their own
re
the
of adequate conception of the significance There were Christ in the development of the early church. importantdifferences between Judaic and Pauline Christianity ; but to reduce the intellectual reactions of nascent Christianity other shades to these only is far too simple. There were many of unlikeness. Above all,an increasingknowledge of the sec ond century, and an appreciationof its atmosphere impossible
ories.
had
He
no
it inconceivable that the books which time, makes he assignsto it could,for the most part, have been then written. in Baur's
They are not of that age and outlook. By the time that Baur began his work, and for the next gen divided into three main eration, German theologianswere On
groups.
tion of the them
none
extreme
one
stood the rationalists, the continua
type of the closingeighteenth century. Among Eberhard of greater influence than Heinrich was
(1761-1851), professorfrom 1789 in Jena, who spent the latter part of his long life (1811-1844) as professor Gottlob
Paulus
in Heidelberg. An opponent of all supernaturalism,his Life of the rationalism of Jesus of 1828 is typicalof the woodenness of his period. Christ's walking on the water, he explainsas
viewing Christ through disciples, The the mist as He walked on the shore. feedingof the five with thousand freedom was accomplished by the generous which Christ bestowed the little food He had, thus awakening the generosityof those in the throng who had a largersupply. a
misunderstanding of
Christ's
death
aroused
by
was
no
the
real event.
earthquake,and Confessional orthodoxy of the had a notable representative in (1802-1869), professorin Berlin Between
the
the
largelyinfluenced
revived
He
returned most
Ernst from
stood
in the
tomb,
His
disciples. uncompromising pattern Wilhelm Hengstenberg
1826
to
to
his death.
"mediating" school, of by Schleiermacher, sharing his warmth
two
extremes
a
"MEDIATING"
THE
538
THEOLOGIANS
Christian
feeling,perhaps generallyintensified, strongly de voted, like him, to the personalChrist, but disposed to accept of the results of criticism, especially regardingthe Biblical many and narratives. inspiration Most influential of these "mediating" theologians was Neander Johann August Wilhelm (1789-1850). Of Hebrew Mendel, he took the name by parentage, originallyDavid which he is known his new at baptism in 1806, to signify birth. student
A
under
influence that secured he filled with
which
der turned
in
Schleiermacher for him
a
Halle, it
his teacher's
was
in Berlin professorship
distinction till his death
in 1850.
in 1813, Nean
his attention to church
historywith a series of re markable monographs, and in 1826 published the first volume of his History of the Christian Religionand Church, at which he labored for the rest of his life. Distinguishedby thorough of the sources, Neander's use conceptionof the historyof the church was that of a divine life gainingincreasingcontrol over the
lives
of
Hence, Neander's
portraits. Its
life is manifested
That
men.
work
individuals.
series of strikingbiographical its over-emphases on the influence
was
weakness
in
a
was
individuals,and
its scanty appreciationof the institutional Yet it put church historyon a corporate lifeof the church.
of or
plane of
new
influence
the
were
students, and heart
the
makes
helpfulor
death.
Few
have
been
the critical views which
A was
from
was
third Isaac 1827
vice in
a
his lips,and
personally
more
Tholuck
was
exercised
(1799-1877), who a
by Friedrich became a professor
chair in Halle
sympathies,yet
from with
1826
to his
acceptance of
in many features, he turned Halle from the had dominated since the time of Wolff to the
Evangelicalismwhich still characterizes it. As was distinguished.His kindness to English students
"The
trust.
frequentlyon
men
personal influence
in 1823, but held of Pietistic A man
rationalism
Christian
childlike,unaffected
theologian,"was
Gottreu
in Berlin
as
beloved.
more
similar
August
of Neander's
his character.
expresses
A
his
his writings significant as personal intercourse with his
Quite
achievement.
a
preacher he
and
American
unwearied.
of the "mediating" school important representative (1809-1884), a student in Tubingen August Dorner to
1832, and
number
an
of German
instructor
there in 1834.
universities he closed his
After career
ser as
STRAUSS
540
had
John preferred
Matthew, but
to
Miracles
are
The
them.
to the others.
Strauss
gave
the firstplace
of the
Gospels were by eye-witnesses. inherentlyimpossible; but the Gospels are full of like those ordinary rationalistic interpretations, none
of Paulus
(ante,p. 537), are ridiculous;the assertions of the like Reimarus ultra-rationalists, re (ante,p. 526),that they were counted with intent to deceive,are impossible. The only ade quate explanationis that the simple,natural life
are
covered
with
over
expectinga Messiah who lookingfor the fulfilment
myth. would
be
The
men
facts of Christ's of that
wonder-worker
time
were
they were of Old Testament prophecy ; they had great true ideas,such as that the race is partlydivine and partly These human, that it rises above death by union with God. attributed were to, or regarded as impersonated in, Christ. a
Testament Jesus lived ; but the Christ of the New in all His superhuman characteristics essentially,
;
is
therefore,
creation of
a
myth. Strauss' attacked the
s
book
aroused
the views
an
of every
controversy. He had party in contemporary Germany, enormous
orthodox, the rationalists of all shades, the
theologians.He barred
unsparing denunciation.
met
"
mediating'*
He
was
de
theologicalemployment, and lived an em bittered existence. Yet, lookingback from the lapseof nearly of a century, it is evident that his work placed three-quarters the investigation of the life of Christ on a new plane,that he and that the dis answered conclusivelythe older rationalists, all further
cussions which
he
inauguratedhave
been
of immense
service.
Though the legend,that is,the transformation of the actual facts by retelling and accretion,is generallypreferredto the otherwise perplexingin the myth, such explanationof much Gospels is widely accepted. Strauss' s estimate of the relative low historic value of the Johannine Gospel,though not undis puted, is very generallyentertained. His preferencefor Mat thew has almost universallygiven place,especially since the labors of Heinrich sees
in Mark
other main Christ's
Julius Holtzmann
(1832-1910),to
a
view
that
the oldest narrative,and positsby its side,as the and Luke, an of Matthew earlycollection of source
sayings.
Granting the velopment
youthful work in the de scholarship,two fundamental
services of Strauss's
of New
Testament
criticisms of his method
as
a
whole
remain.
Either
the church
STRAUSS, created that which those
importantin
Christ is the
unconsciously ; or and
is
share
who
source
conclusion is true; but it acceptance than the latter. Nor torical
the
his essential
former
of interpretation
the
541
RITSCHL
RENAN,
figureof Christ, albeit
of the church.
If Strauss
positionwere
right,the
much
seems
difficultof
more
his purely human life of Christ, though largelyde the construction of a reallyplausi the
has
veloped to the present, led to of the As one ble picture that could long be maintained. of the ablest livingstudents of the historyof the investigation fail life of Christ has asserted,its results have been essentially ure.1 The sayingsof Jesus Himself, and the beliefs of the early church
witnessed
as
by
the
rich Loofs
demand, as Friedletters, of contends,2 a Being impossible
Pauline
(1858-) of Halle of humanity. classification merely in the categories of the in large measure, Strauss's work was the inspiration, French scholar,Ernst Renan (1823-1892). His Life of Jesus, also to the work of 1863, was indebted,though in less measure, the charm with of other German The literary students. skill, life which Renan's marvellous pen depictedthe purely human work of a Galilean peasant prophet, gave Renan's enormous and permanent popularity. Yet it was sentimental,theatrical, and, in its use of the sources, fundamentally insincere. Infi nitelysuperior to Strauss in literaryart, in other respects work
Renan's The
most
stood
on
a
far lower level.
of the potent influence alike in the interpretation
historyof the earlychurch and
of
theology in Germany
during
the last
Ritschl (1822has been that of Albrecht half-century at first of the school of Baur, he broke with 1889). A disciple
its main his
contentions
Originof the
when
he
published the second
Old Catholic Church
Petrine thesis and
Pauline antithesis
in 1857. are
not
edition
of
Baur's
Hegelian adequate explana
differ There were growth of the early church. but all partieshad a greater fundamental unity in own ences, ing the mastery of Jesus. Nor are the unlikenesses of early resolvable into two Christianity sharplyantagonisticparties. There into shades of opinion. Christianitycame were many and no philosophical, empty world, but one filledwith religious, Gentile soil,the institutional ideas. By them, especially on tions of the
1
Albert
2
What
1916.
Schweitzer is the Truth
(1875-), The Quest of the about
Jesus
Christ,1913
Historical
; also Wer
war
Jesus, 1910. Jesus
Christus,
RITSCHL
542
truths of Christianity were profoundlymodi simple,primitive fied, resultingin the theology and institutions of the Old .This fertile and illuminating Catholic Church. interpretation Protestant scholars. is that most widely acceptedby modern Ritschl began teaching in the University of Bonn in 1846. In 1864 he became professorin Gottingen,where he remained Here he published,in 1870-1874, his chief the tillhis death. and Recon work, The Christian Doctrine ofJustification ological ciliation. Ritschl had few personal disciples, but the propa of his
gatinginfluence Ritschl
was
great.
influenced by Kant's
much
the basis of
feelingas
writingswas
assertion of moral
certaintyand practical
denial of absolute
intellectual knowledge, and by Schleiermacher's affirmation of consciousness as the foundation of conviction. Yet religious Schleiermacher's
assertion of the normative
consciousness
was,
consciousness
is not
to
his that
thinking,too of the
value
of religious real individual. The
individual,but
of the
that
community, the church. Nor is that consciousness of abstract speculative knowledge. It has to do with a source personalrelationshipsthose of God and eminently practical, sin and salvation. Hence "natural" the religious community philosophictheology is valueless. Philosophy or speculative give,as with Aristotle, a "first cause" ; but that is far from may Such a practical revelation is made to us a loving Father. only through Christ. That revelation is mediated to us through Christian
"
"
the consciousness ment,
as
the New and
His
Hence of the first disciples.
the Old
Testa
background, and especially revealingtheir religious Testament, as recordingtheir consciousness of Christ value. To ascertain the re Gospel, are of supreme
ligiousconsciousness recorded in the Old and New Testaments, no only normal historical theory of inspirationis necessary, investigation. Though Ritschl thus rejectedmetaphysics as an aid to of a theory of knowledge much Christian truth, he made use Lotze advocated (1817by the philosopherRudolf Hermann 1881). While it is true, Lotze held with Kant, that things be known, he affirmed that as they are in themselves cannot in their attributes or activities. A brick they are trulyknown sidewalk. is known, and truly known, to me as a pavement To may
the ants be
a
whose
home.
mounds
What
of sand
it is
rise between
or abstractly
the
bricks
in itselfI have
it no
of
means
543
If that knowledge in its attributes is one cpnduct it is a "value judgment." So Ritschl
knowing.
affectingmy
held that to those who Christian
TENDENCIES
GERMAN
RECENT
in contact
came
community, Christ
was
with
in the first
Him
truly a revelation of what
is in love,the pattern of what man be, the bearer of may of the king and the Founder God's moral authorityover men, As such He was dom of God. trulyknown ; but to ask whether God
of of two natures, or was one person Trinity,is to ask what the experienceof the early church a and what could not answer, only metaphysics could assert or arouses deny. This recognitionof what Christ is and signifies, He
was pre-existent,
was
that is trust and love toward God through Christ. faith in men, attitude is accompanied by the forgivenessand re This new
moval God
constituted the barrier between
of sin,which
and justification
the
"
"
new
and
man
itself
relationship expresses
in desire to do the will of God and to live the life of the king Christian life is essentially reconciliation. The dom social, hence Redeemer, redeemed, and the redeemed community are "
inseparableconceptions.These believed
have
been
never
more
ideas
salvation
of
Ritschl
clearlyformulated, in later
history,than by Luther. blind have been by no Ritschl's spiritual means disciples be found followers,and much variety of interpretation may
church
them.
among
Their
influence among
those
in
leadershipin
thinkingis great. Among them religious tioned the prince of church historians,Adolf von German
may
be
men
Harnack, of
Berlin (1851-), his eminent younger contemporary, Friedrich KatLoofs of Halle (1858-) ; and of theologians,Ferdinand tenbusch
of Halle
(1851-) and
Wilhelm
Herrmann
of
Mar
general,the Ritschlians have been marked by of piety. and a contagiouswarmth life, an earnest, vital religious In spiteof the spread of Ritschlianism the school of Baur was continued in modified form, with Hegelian outlook in meta by Otto Pfleiderer of Berlin (1839-1908). physics,
burg (1846-).
In
conservative than
More
the Ritschlian school,yet with much problems, is Reinhold Seeberg (1859-)
influence from
modern
of
presents "a modern
Berlin,who
positivetheology." emphasis of Ritschl was almost in evitable. His rejectionof metaphysics, his assertion of the fundamental and in uniformity of religiousexperience now Yet
the
a
reaction
from
the
were days of primitive Christianity,
sure
to
arouse
question.
RECENT
544
GERMAN
TENDENCIES
rise of the study of comparative religions was certain to awake whether that of inquiry principle growth un der the influence of external religious and philosophical ideas
Especiallythe
Ritschl himself had
which
to the develop appliedso brilliantly of Christian doctrine,when that was ment once planted in the not to be applied,as he had not, to the beginnings world, was of Christianity itself. The result is the rising, though as yet far from dominant, Religions school which counts geschichtliche such representatives William Wrede as (1859-1906)of Breslau, Bousset Wilhelm (1865-) of Gottingen,and especiallyErnst
Troeltsch
(1865-) of Heidelberg.
It is evident that German
theological development is stillin
progress.
SECTION
ENGLAND
XIII.
IN
lifein Englishreligious
century
dominated
was
by
the
THE
NINETEENTH
CENTURY
opening years of the nineteenth spiritual awakening of the great
the
revival,which was leadingto largeseparationfrom the establishment (ante,pp. 518, 519). In the establishment Methodist that
revived zeal
representedby the Evangelical,or lowchurch of party, like the Methodists, keenly alive to works and missionary activity(ante,pp. 519-523) ; yet it practical far from dominating the Church of England as a whole. was and its good works were Its enterprise in contrast to the apathy in general. Intellectually, of the establishment all partiesin of England stood on the basis of the rather pro the Church vincial discussions of the eighteenthcentury. Theology was looked
upon
tellectual both
was
in the
rationalistic fashion
same
demonstration,
combined.
The
authoritative
of
or
of stirrings
new
system of in
a
"
revelation,or
intellectual forces
were
felt however.
English poetry flowered into splendid the opening years of the nineteenth century. Romanticism, as powerfullyas in Germany (ante,p. 529), was beginningto produce an intellectual atmosphere wholly unlike that of the precedingage. The novels of Sir Walter Scott are being blossoming with
familiar illustrations of this
anism, largelydue and
was
movements.
to
be
to
the
new
outlook.
Methodist
manifested
new
revival,was
multitudinously in
All the tendencies
ideals. thinkingand religious
A
were
sure
humanitari-
developing, reformatory
to affect
theological
COLERIDGE
Probably the of the
thinking stimulatingforce in the religious
most
of the
first quarter
nineteenth
century
Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), eminent
Samuel erary
545
as
of
poet, lit
a
in his early 1799, led to ulti
Neo-Platonist
philosopher.A
critic,and
that
was
Germany, in 1798 and litera of German mate acquaintancenot only with the masters and but with the thought of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling, ture outlook then fully unfamiliar in England. a philosophical rounded worked out a Coleridge never system. His most of 1825. Over his Aids to Reflection volume was significant of Paley he held to a distinction be againstthe rationalizing and tween understanding." To Coleridge reason reason "inward of intuitive perception, beholding," an was a power truths are directlyperceived.This "moral by which religious
sympathies,study
"
"
in
"
"
"
has, as its associate "conscience," which is an the moral and has as its postulates ditional command, reason"
divine lawgiver,and a external based not on
uncon
law,
a
future life. Religiouscertaintyis thus
consciousness. proofs but on religious In Hence, he has been called the "English Schleiermacher." of the broadthe forerunner most respects Coleridge was of thinking; but in his emphasison the church as church way higher and nobler than anything "by law a divine institution, established,"he prepared the way for the high-churchparty. continued The work of Coleridgein its religious aspects was master Arnold (1795-1842), who began his famous by Thomas of profoundand simple Chris ship of Rugby in 1828. A man tian faith,his helpfulness to his pupilswas great. His views much
resembled
those
of Herder
(ante,p. 532). The
Bible
is
in the lightof the times in which to be understood literature, it was written,but its divine truth finds us. Biblical criticism was fashion, furthered,in a very moderate (1791-1868), dean of St. Paul's,Lon by Henry Hart Milman don, from 1849, by his Historyof the Jews of 1829, in which he a
His most Testament. to the Old applied critical methods of 1855. his Historyof Latin Christianity valuable work was Not willingto be reckoned to the broad-church school,yet Denison John Frederick contributingmuch to its spread,was of a Unitarian minister,he Maurice (1805-1872). The son became conformed the establishment, and to chaplain of In 1840 he was appointed to a Guy's Hospital in London.
chair in
of King'sCollege,
which
he
was
deprivedfor
his
opin-
BROAD-CHURCH
THE
546
TENDENCY
Working Men's in inaugurating a Christian instrumental College,and was In 1866 he was socialist movement. appointed to a pro fessorshipin Cambridge. To Maurice's thinking,Christ is under the curse of all humanity. None of God. the Head are All are need no other reconciliation than a recogni sons, who of their sonship,with the filiallove and service tion by them such recognitionwill naturallylead. All will ulti to which forever lost. mately be brought home to God and none in his theology,but primarilya Not unlike Maurice very Frederick William Robertson (1816-1853), great preacher,was under educated Evangelicalinfluences,then passingthrough ions in 1853.
a
period of
From
1847
The
year
intense
to his
after he founded
questioningto
earlydeath
he
was
a
the
broad-church
minister in
position.
Brighton.
No
of the last century have been so influential on sides of the Atlantic as those of Robertson. Spiritual
English sermons both
discerned rather than intellectually spiritually proved. The nobilityof Christ's humanity attests and leads to faith in His divinity. Much influence in the spread of broad-church opinionswas wielded by Charles Kingsley (1819-1875), rector of Eversley, the novelist,and by Alfred,Lord Tennyson (1809-1892), whose Sim of 1850 was In Memoriam fullya broad-church poem. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1815-1881), to be reckoned were ilarly dean of Westminster,and Frederic William Farrar (1831-1903), caused in 1860 dean of Canterbury. Great commotion was by the Essays and Reviews, in which a group of Oxford scholars sci in the lightof contemporary tried to present Christianity and by the trial of Bishop John and historical criticism, ence truth
must
William
be
Colenso
(1814-1883) of Natal
for his Pentateuchal
publishedin 1862. The broad church was, however, were relatively strictly speaking,a party. Its numbers never, few, but its influence on English religious thought, in varying degrees,wide-spread.In the last half-centuryEngland, like of other Protestant lands, has witnessed the steady advance Biblical criticism, championed conspicuouslyby Samuel Rolles Driver Kelly Cheyne (1841-1915), (1846-1914) and Thomas
criticism
both
of Oxford.
Evangelicalor low-church party has remained largely the representedin the Church of England, especially among laity. The
AND
NEWMAN,
KEBLE,
548
ableness of the church.
all these
To
PUSEY
men
the
of recent
course
seemed
menacing. The formal beginningof is usually associated the with Anglo-Catholic movement of July 14, 1833, in Oxford, on the National Keble's sermon the Apostasy. In September of that year Keble formulated events political
for principles
which
he and
his associates stood.
salvation is through receptionof the body and in the
Eucharist, which
is
validlyadministered
The
blood
way
to
of Christ
only through
of the in apostolicalsuccession. This is the treasure which church church in all ways be restored to the must a those
"
purity of
its undivided
earlycenturies. month The Newman of the fa same began the publication Tracts for the Times, which gave to the movement mous they fostered the name "Tractarianism." By 1835 these associates and fully the support of one had won who, next to Newman, after Newman's
defection,was verie Pusey (1800-1882). A
its leader,Edward
to be
of great earnestness fullyultimatelyto become the head man
Bou-
and
of the piety,Pusey was so that it was Anglo-Catholicmovement, largelycalled "Puseythe revival of primitiveChristianity. ism" to Pusey it was Of these Tracts,of which ninety were wrote issued,Newman twenty-three. Keble, Pusey, and Froude, with others, also the of England was Newman the Church To contributed. Protestantism and between Rome; but as the golden mean the writers emphasized increasingly those doc series went on trines and practiceswhich, though undoubtedly ancient, are Thus, Pusey taught the re popularly identified with Rome. generativenature of baptism and the sacrificialaspect of the Reserve commended. Lord's was was Supper. Confession of of the Bible and the proclamation to be practisedin the use in Tract by Newman, the ninetieth religioustruth. It was "
1841, that aroused
most
Thirty-nineArticles
controversy.
were
not
to
be
Newman
held that the
interpretedin
accordance
with the intention of their authors, but in the "sense of the forbad the con Catholic Church." The bishop of Oxford now tinuation of the
Tracts.
heightof his influence when Tract Ninety numbered was published. The Anglo-Catholic movement doubt the clergy. Newman hundreds of followers among was of England, and on of the Church ing,however, the catholicity Newman
October
was
at the
9, 1845, he made
his submission
to
Rome.
Several
PARTY
ANGLO-CATHOLIC
THE
549
com clergyand laymen followed him into the Roman the most distinguishedwas Henry Edward munion, of whom in 1851, and Manning (1808-1892),who conformed to Rome
hundred
created
was
excitement
Great
caused
was
Pius IX
England by Pope
the re-establishment in
by
1850
cardinal in 1875.
a
in
of the
which had been in abey episcopate, since the Reformation. extreme an Manning became ance who ultramontane supporter of papal claims, unlike Newman, was always moderate, and who, though the most eminent of not given a cardinalate till Catholics, was English Roman diocesan
Catholic
Roman
1879.
conversions to Rome
These
in
few
a
years
with increasingly troduction
of
the
which
changes encountered
These
under
As
ever.
established,it concerned
"enrichment"
usages
AngloPusey's able
stronger than
was
became
doctrinal modifications
blow to the
severe
the storm
Catholic party, but it weathered and leadership,
a
were
itself
liturgy,by the in
of the
had
Protestantism
much
its
discarded.
popularand legalopposition;
by the ritualistshave been largely 1860 the English Church Union, now widely ex organizedto support high-churchfaith and prac
but the modifications desired In
secured.
tended, was
is stilla
movement high-church
The
tice.
growingforce
in the
England. To a degree unparalleledin other coun are tries,the laityof England, with conspicuous exceptions, in disposedto regard disputesbetween the various parties the of England as clerical problems, so that lay religious Church of
Church
life in the establishment
is
uniform
more
than
might
be sup
posed. would be Anglo-Catholicmovement zeal. its profound religious that failed to recognize the worshipand the theologyof the church Romanized
estimate
Any erroneous
If it has
of the
preferto say Catholicized it it has shown marvel and unchurched. lous devotion,especially to the poor, neglected, the lower It has done much to regainthe hold of the church on "it would
"
classes which
to
have
almost
ceased
when
began. Its sympathy with the destitute
ment
has
seemed
been
and intelligent
awakening The
aly in
of
sister Protestant that
minorityof
it
was
the
the
and
It has self-sacrificing.
alike religion,
in faith and
state church
of
good
the
delinquent been
a
real
works.
an Ireland/always
governmentally supported church
was population,
move
disestablished in 1869.
anom
of
a
It has
NON-CONFORMISTS
THE
550
this change in its fortunes with
endured
diminution
no
of effect
iveness. nineteenth
The
century
of the disabilitiesresting on
in
The
Trinity.
Test
Marriages were
1828.
worship in
by
a
steady diminution
Non-Conformists.
In 1813 the Uni
repealof penal acts againstdeniers and CorporationActs were abolished permitted in dissentingplacesof
Non-Conformists
1836.
the benefit of the establishment for
marked
relief by the
tarians obtained of the
was
freed from
were
in 1868.
In 1871
degrees in
abolished
taxes
all
for
religious
at the Uni
theology,were tests, save versities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham. In 1880 Nonservices were Conformist permitted at burials in churchyards. steadilygrown, and is supposed to em brace at least half the populationof England. Its strengthis in the middle classes. It has produced preachers of great has
Non-Conformity
and
power,
has
had
and in scholarship
inent than
its scholars and
work
the Church
its social workers, but in for the unchurched it has been less em
of
The
England.
tendency
among
the
bodies has been strongly largerEvangelicalNon-Conformist federation. toward Since 1893 England and Wales have been organizedinto a complete system of local "councils,"embrac Methodists, Presbyterians, ing Baptists,Congregationalists, and Quakers, each local church being primarilyresponsible for its own territory thus preventingcompetition. These "coun "
cils"
are
united
National
Council
Three
movements
in "federations,"and of
EvangelicalFree of interest have Edward
all
culminatingin
the
Churches.
taken
placeamong
English
Irving (1792-1834) was a Scottish Presbyterianminister in London, of eloquence and mystic ten dencies. By 1828 he had become persuaded that the "gifts" of the apostolicage would be restored if faith was sufficient. Though no claimant to them himself, he believed by 1830 In 1832 he was that his hopes had been fulfilled in others. deposed from his Presbyterianministry. Soon after,six Apos tles were believed to be designatedby prophecy, which num ber was The body similarlycompleted to twelve in 1835. thus led took the name Catholic ApostolicChurch. In 1842 elaborate ritual was an adopted. The Apostleswere regarded The of of Christ the as speedy coming Holy Spirit. organs The was long expected,but the last Apostle died in 1901. church is represented also in Germany and the United States. Non-Conformists.
A second movement
551
againstthe unspiri-
in the earlyyears of the nineteenth Groups of "brethren," who claimed faith and Chris
century.
their
as
England. John
of reaction
out
grew
ARMY
the establishment
tualityof tian love
SALVATION
BRETHREN.
PLYMOUTH
only bonds, gathered in
Ireland
and
western
through the labors of great increase was Darby (1800-1882), formerly a clergyman, in the
Their
Nelson
vicinityof Plymouth about 1830. They are therefore generally To their thinkingall be nicknamed "Plymouth Brethren." and hence formal ministries are lievers are priests, to be re jected. Creeds are to be refused. The Holy Spiritguides all true
believers,and
apostolicmodel. tionalism, the
in faith and
worship after the all denominaThough professedlyrejecting unites them
"brethren"
pelledto corporate
of
acts
themselves
found
and discipline,
least six groups. an Darby was Through his efforts the "brethren"
land, France, Germany, their eminent
Among
divided
into at
indefatigable propagandist. were planted in Switzer and
Canada,
adherents
are
speedily com
the been
have
United
States.
George
Miiller
(1805-1898), whose remarkable orphan houses in Bristol were and to prayer; supported,he believed,largelyin direct answer Prideaux Samuel Tregelles(1813-1875), the eminent student of the Greek The
text
of the New
important of these
most
vation Army.
organizationsis the Sal
new
Its creator, William
Connection
New
Testament.
Methodist
Booth
a (1829-1912), was minister, who, after successful
in in Cardiff, began similar labors in London 1864, out of which an organizationin militaryform, with mili the name Salva tary obedience, developedin 1878, to which
revival work
Army was given in 1880. Always stronglyengaged in practical philanthropyas well as street evangelism,the philan thropicwork was developed on a great scale from 1890 onward, when Booth published his In Darkest England and the Way Out. In spiteof its autocratic militaryform, the Salvation Though open to the charge Army is in many respects a church. tion
of occasional cent
lands, as English-speaking
well
Switzerland, Italy,the Scandinavian The
most
ing,the
powerful impulse toward
world
nineteenth
over,
century
that came
was
from
immense
an
delinquent,and
for the defective and
work
to all
it has done arbitrariness,
has
benefi
extended
France, Germany, lands, and the Orient. as
to
modern
contributed the
and
work
think religious by England in the
of
a
naturalist who,
DARWIN
552
though A
EVOLUTION
Christian believer in early life,was all his maturer tolerant agnostic, Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882).
a
a
years
AND
of great keenness of investigation, remarkable powers of and transparent honesty in his use of facts and generalization, man
in
his readiness
observations done
under
did
all inferences which
abandon
to
not
his
warrant,
the constant
long
handicap of
and
continued
patientwork
ill health.
A
was
of
voyage
nearly five years, 1831 to 1836, as naturalist of the surveying ship Beagle,laid the foundations of his knowledge. In 1859 his OriginofSpeciesby Means in which came ofNatural Selection, elaborated
he
his theories
of evolution
and
of the survival of
reached practically the fittest, contemporaneouslyby his friend, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913). No scientifictheory since
Newton's
doctrine
of gravitation(ante,p. 483) has been so modified in de transformingin all realms of thought. Much tails since promulgated, the theory of evolutionary develop
though accepted with varying degrees of fulness,has profoundly modified much theological thinking,and has to be taken into most serious consideration even by those who deny its applicability to the realm of religion. ment,
SECTION
XIV.
Presbyterianismwas Scotland and
under
Scotland
William
were
DIVISIONS
SCOTTISH
established and
united
Mary
into
one
AND
as
the
in 1690.
kingdom
REUNIONS
church
state
In 1707
of Great
of
England Britain;
of Scotland the independent rightsof the Church were safeguarded. Under Queen Anne, in 1712, two important acts but
passed by Parliament. By one the status of a tolerated communion was given to episcopacy,then stronglyintrenched were
in northern
Scotland.
The
other, destined
of infinite trouble,permitted the
great landlords, to
ministers
on
hostile
be
to
the
"patrons,"usuallythe
force
appointments parishioners.Controversies
of
source
crown
or
Presbyterian were
soon
tur-
In 1718 an moiling the Scottish church. seven anonymous teenth-centurywork, The Marrow of Modern Divinity,was reof Thomas Boston (1676-1732), published at the instigation of Ettrick,a zealous popular preacher. The Marrow seemed antinomian to a largeportionof the ministry,as so putting an the necessityof emphasis on faith in Christ as to exclude even
repentance. Boston
won
sympathy.
In 1722
the "Marrow-
SCOTTISH
CHURCHES
FREE
553
by the General Assembly. They rep resented unquestionably,however, a warm Evangelicalspirit.
men"
censured
were
of these
One
a preacherof Stirling,
of
Erskine
Ebenezer
"Marrowmen,"
denounced
power,
(1680-1754),
all limitation
of the
choose its minister,in 1733. He disciplined by his synod, and he and several associates deposed by the General Assembly in 1740. Before these of the
power was were
to congregation
founded
completed they had church, ultimatelyknown as were
censures
free
but rapidly,
grew
was
first Scottish
Secession
the
turmoiled
soon
the
the
over
Church.
It
questionwhether
burgesses of the Scottish cities could properly swear authorized by the laws" support "the true religion
the
.
In
Scotland.
Burgher,
or
.
divisions occurred,but most united, in 1820, as the United ers of
Gillespie(1708-1774), the installation of and
over
the General
deposed by
was
he and
like-minded
became
the Relief Church.
1765
and
they
ministers founded
counted
hundred
one
cession Church
thousand and
the
various the
hundred
one
to
Assembly in
These
Thomas
in participate unwillingcongregation,
an
popular support, especiallyamong By
divisive.
continued
Carnock, refused
minister
a
into Anti-
Secession Church.
question of patronage
The
divided
Church
Burgher sections. Further sub of the Anti-Burghersand Burgh
and
Nonjuror,
of
.
the Secession
1747
to
and
1752.
In
1761
which organization secessions won large
more
earnest-minded.
twenty congregations,
adherents.
In 1847
the Relief Church
combined
the United as
Se
the United
PresbyterianChurch. Under
these
circumstances
the state
church
was
robbed
of
good deal of its spiritualstrength. Rationalistic thought penetratedScotland as the eighteenthcentury advanced, as con temporaneously in England and Germany. Hume's specula a
tions (ante,p. 490) were without influence. The result not the growth of what was called Moderatism, which was was con in trolling
the latter half of the
ential well into the
Christianitywas ential
or
favored would
the reaction from
cism, and
It
chosen
and
influ
the Moderates than
generally stronglyexperi
believed that the patronage system
was
appointment
often have
To
largelyethical rather
doctrinal. the
nineteenth.
eighteenthcentury,
of
men
the French
Moderates, where of
more
congregations Evangelicaltype. With
Revolution, the rise of Romanti
the generalrevolt from
the rationalism of the
eight-
eenth
century,
also with contest
to
CHALMERS
THOMAS
554 a
the liberal
the field with
1815, when
From
Evangelicalism,in sympathy of the people,began political aspirations
warm-hearted
Glasgow, the
he
Moderatism. entered
eminent
on
'
a
memorable
pastorate in
of the
Evangelicalparty was Thomas Chalmers as a preacher,a social re (1780-1847), distinguished former,a mathematician, a theological teacher,and an ecclesias tical statesman. Under his leadership, and in the changed spirit in strength. of the times, the Evangelicalparty rapidlygrew Under Chalmers's guidance a great campaign to meet the needs of the growing populationof Scotland was which inaugurated, resulted by 1841 in the erection of two and twenty hundred churches new by popular gifts. The old question of pat stillcontinued burning. In 1834 the growingEvangeli ronage cal party secured the passage by the General Assembly of a "veto" forbidden to proceed rule,by which presbyteries were to installation where a majority of the congregationwere op involved legalcontro posed to the candidate. This rule soon held that the General Assembly had ex The courts versy. most
its powers. asked for relief, which was Parliament was refused. Under four Chalmers's leadership,therefore,some
ceeded
hundred
the
state
and
seventy-fourministers formally withdrew
church
in 1843
and
founded
the
Free
from
Church
of
They gave up parishesand salaries. All had to be provided anew and sacrificeof the new ; but the enthusiasm body was equal to the task. In general,it was a withdrawal of the Evangelical element from the alreadyconsiderably modified A third,and that but less zealous and spiritual "Moderates."
Scotland.
the
most
active part, of the state church
had
gone
out.
Yet
of the seceders worked
ultimatelyfor a quickening of zeal in the state church itself. In 1874 the rightsof patron abolished by law. ground of division,were age, the original older separatistbodies, combined since 1847 as the The United Presbyterian Church, had long rejectedconnection the
with
example
the
state.
The
new
Free
Church
of
Scotland
had
and its to take the same position, though Chalmers practically earlyleaders clung to the conceptionof a national state church, free from hampering state dictation. This contention was rendered academic by the logic of facts. All circumstances counselled
union, and therefore,on
majority of
the
Free
Church
of
October
Scotland
31, 1900, the and
the
vast
United
556
JESUITS
of the Roman
Church
face of the
AND
was
where
sible,save
of
one
feebleness increasing
of the Catholic
growing claims
reallyeffective attack
A
JANSENISTS
upon
civil governments.
Protestantism
it existed,as
in the
was
no
longerpos
in France, in predominantly
lands.
Roman
(1643-1715) the French monarchy pur As against sued a policy dictated by the King's absolutism. of all income papal claim he asserted possessionby the crown and favored the proclamationby the of vacant bishoprics, that civil French clergy in 1682 of the "Gallican liberties," that generalcoun rulers have full authorityin temporal affairs, cils are superiorto the Pope, that the usages of the French and that the Pope is not in church limit papal interference, fallible. The compromised in 1693 in resultingquarrelwas withdrew their assertions, such wise that the clergypractically but the King kept the disputed income. As againsthis own subjects,Louis XIV's policywas deter mined by his conceptionof national unity and Jesuit influence, de Maintenon in after his marriage to Madame especially Louis
Under
In 1685
1684.
XIV
he revoked
Protestantism
and
made
The
ultimate
result
was
the Edict under illegal
of Nantes the
(ante,p. 441),
severest
disastrous for France.
penalties.
Thousands
of
industrious citizens emigrated to England, Holland, The former alliances with Protestant Germany, and America. its most Powers
were
ruptured,contributingmuch
to
the
militaryfail
of the latter years of Louis XIV's reign. Jesuit influence led to equally disastrous opposition by the
ures
Cornelius Jansen (1585-1638), King and Pope to Jansenism. a thoroughgoing bishop of Ypres, an earnest Catholic, was Augustinian, convinced that the semi-PelagianJesuit inter His chief work, pretationsof sin and grace must be combated. Jansen's published in 1640, after his death. Augustinus,was condemned book was by Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) in 1642, the more but Jansen's views found much deeply support among of Port Catholics of France, notably in the nunnery religious of the influential opponent The Paris. most Royal, near in his Lettres Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), especially Jesuits was XIV Louis Provinciates of 1656. supported the Jesuit hos In 1710 the its followers. to Jansenism, and persecuted tility had found Jansenism torn down. buildingsof Port Royal were in PasquierQuesnel (1634-1719),who leader of power a new
THE
CATASTROPHE
OF
557
JESUITS
THE
His devotional com safetyin the Netherlands. the New Testament,of 1687-1692, on mentary, Moral Reflections and through their efforts Pope bitter Jesuit hostility, aroused Clement XI (1700-1721), by the bull Unigenitus of 1713, of Quesnel'sstatements, some hundred and one condemned one from taken literally Augustine. Louis Antoine de Noailles (1651-1729), cardinal archbishop of Paris, protestedand ap pealed to a generalcouncil. Oppositionwas, however, vain. The Jesuits,supportedby the French monarchy, ultimately
had
seek
to
triumphed. Partly through this Jansenist controversy, and partly by of quarrelsbetween the Jesuits and the older Roman reason clergy,a division occurred in Utrecht, in the Netherlands, from which in 1723 a small, independent,so-called Jansenist Cath with an archbishopin which stillexists, olic Church originated, and Deventer. Utrecht, and bishops in Haarlem of the Huguenots and the triumph For France the expulsion While much of the Jesuits were varietyof great misfortunes. in England, Germany, and was interpretation possible religious in eighteenth-cen Holland, within the bounds of Christianity, Romanism of the the choice was only between tury France of its own Jesuit type, which many tide of the demned, and the rapidlyrising
noblest
narrow
new
sons
con
rationalism
of
a
his associates (ante, p. 492). Thousands pre to be obvious ferred the latter,and the destructive results were of the church. in the French Revolutionarytreatment Voltaire
and
eighteenthcentury brought to the Jesuits their greatest catastrophe. They had largelyengaged in their own consti in colonial trade, in spiteof its prohibition influence was notorious, and they had tutions; their political In this the hostility of the radical rationalism of the age. latter force they found their most determined foes. The power ful minister of King Joseph of Portugal (1750-1777), the mar of rationalistic sym a man (1699-1782), was quis of Pombal pathies. He was angered by Jesuit resistance to his policyin Paraguay. He opposed the free-trade attitude of the Jesuits. In 1759 he enforced the deportationof all Jesuits from Por France with ruthless high hand. contempo tuguese territory aroused by the scandalous bankruptcy of the raneouslywas force in the Jesuit Lavelette in Martinique. The controlling The
French
latter half of the
Government
was
that of the duke
of Choiseul
(1719-
THE
558
FRENCH
REVOLUTION
also sympathizer with the Enlightenment. He was de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV aided by Madame also hos (1715-1774). A largepart of the French clergywere In 1764 the Jesuits were tile to the Jesuits. suppressed in France. Spain and Naples expelledthem in 1767. The rulers forced from Pope Clement XIV of these lands now (1769-1774) the abolition of the order in July,1773. These events attested
1785), a
of the papacy. The Jesuits continued Russia and in Protestant Prussia.
the weakness in non-Roman
existence
growth of tolerance in France is shown by the tion from persecutionaccorded to Protestants by the The
of Louis
ment
and
to break
the
churches
Revolution
about
was
the the church, with the nobility, ancient institutions. The Revolutionary away
the rationalistic spirit.They viewed clubs. In 1789 church lands were religious
as
national
property.
The
year
abolished. overthrew
sweep
of the French
filled with
were
declared
storm
kindred
throne, and leaders
to
govern
in 1787.
XVI
tremendous
The
exemp
same
In
the
1790
the
monasteries
were
civil constitution of the
made the old ecclesiasticaldivisions,
each
clergy
"depart all priests
and provided for the election of bishopric, The constitution of by the legalvoters of their communities. In 1793 the Jacobin freedom. 1791 pledged complete religious of leaders procured the abolition of Christianity.Hundreds ment"
a
After the "terror"
beheaded.
ecclesiastics were
was
over,
in
freedom was more once proclaimed,though the 1795, religious to be without religion.It was, in real state, as such, was
ity, strongly antichristian. zerland.
Pope
where The
situation
was
extended
Italy,and republicby French
conquests to the Netherlands, northern
French
and
This
In 1798 Pius
Rome
VI
was
made
a
(1775-1799) carried
a
prisonerto
by Swit
arms,
France,
he died. led to the election of Pius VII the restoration of the States of the Church.
militaryevents
(1800-1823) and
of 1800
Napoleon, on attainingpower, though himself without religious recognizedthat a majority of the French people were feeling, Roman Catholics,and that the church might be used by him. The
result
was
the
Concordat
with
the
papacy
in 1801
and
the Organic Articles of 1802. By the former, the church sur rendered all confiscated lands not stillheld by the government. restored to it. AppointThose in government possession were
AND
NAPOLEON
THE
CHURCH
559
to be by the Pope on of bishops and archbishopswere nomination appointedby by the state. Lower clergy were to be Clergy were bishops,but the state had a veto power. ment
paid from decrees
the state
were
to be
By the Organic Articles no papal published or French synods held without
treasury.
To
governmental allowance. accorded, at the
were
ters and
same
full
Protestants
time, and
control of their affairs assumed
religious rights
the pay of their minis by the state. Napoleon
Pius VII, annexed the States of the Church in 1809, and held the Pope a prisonerfrom that time till1814. Napoleon'sConcordat was to rule the relations of France and with quarrelled
soon
than a century. Intended to place the for more the papacy French Catholic Church under the control of the government, that result under Napoleon, its real effect and accomplishing
clergylook to the Pope as their sole it aid againstthe state. By ignoringall ancient local rights, freedom, and opened reallyruined all Gallican claims to partial the door to that Ultramontane spiritcharacteristic of French to make
was
Catholicism
the French
throughoutthe
nineteenth
century.
wars republicanand Napoleonic periodsresulted in far-reaching changes in Germany. The old ecclesiastical
The
of the
ceased to exist in 1803, and were divided territoriespractically In 1806 Francis II (1792-1835) the secular states. between Emperor. He had alreadyas resignedthe title Holy Roman It that of Emperor of Austria. the Holy Roman venerable institution, sumed
indeed, been long but medieval
memories
a
the
was
shadow, but which
Empire, which was
of the relations of church
Napoleon's downfall
was
followed
passingof
bound and
a
had,
up with
state.
by universal reaction.
by its antiquity.It was to be years before the real progress effected by the Revolutionaryage was This reaction was aided by the rise of Roman to be manifest. of the mediaeval and rejection ticism with its new appreciation of that spirit of the eighteenthcentury which had been dominant The papacy in the Revolution. profitedby all these impulses and soon developed a strengthgreater than it had shown for a A characteristic evidence of this new hundred years. position the restoration, of the papacy was by Pius VII, in August, 1814, of the Jesuits,who speedilyregained their old ascendancy in papal counsels,and their wide extended activities, though not in their former political They have, turn, been forepower.
The
old seemed
of value
UTRAMONTANISM.
560 in the
most
the
time
same
Church
development
and
and
of piety that has continued
IX
support of papal authority. At
restoration of the
the
accompanied
was
PIUS
made to
of the
power
possibleby
Roman
real revival
a
characterize it to the present
day.
development during
Roman
the
nineteenth
in the direction of the assertion of
been
called Utramontanism
point of
i. e.,
"
of northern
view
this Ultramontane
and
papal supremacy,
the
beyond
mountains
Europe
western
"
has
century
that
from
the
that is Italian.
above all exalt the papacy national or local ecclesiasticism the Jesuits have powerfully Pius VIFs successor, Leo XII contributed. (1823-1829),was To
tendency
to
reactionary,condemning, like his predecessor,the work of Bible societies. Gregory XVI a (1831-1846) was patron of but reactionarytoward modern social and political learning, ideals. This essentially mediaeval outlook and refusal to make with the modern
terms
world led to the formation, in the first nineteenth anticlerical century, of clerical and
of the
half
partiesin termined The
Catholic
the
countries,whose
of politics
Ultramontane
tration in the papacy at a time pontificate
those
lands
contests to
have
largelyde
the present.
tendencies found
their conspicuous illus (1846-1878). Beginninghis
of Pius IX when
the States
of the Church
were
on
offices were held edge of revolt because the leadingpolitical reformer ; but the task by the clergy,he was at first a political proved too much for him and he adopted a reactionarypolitical the
policywhich made it necessary to seek the support of foreign soldieryand rendered the people dissatisfied with his political convinced that in the papacy rule. In religion he was sincerely world is a divinelyappointedinstitution to which the modern problems. can appeal for the decision of its vexed religious He
desired to
make
this evident.
In
December,
1854, after
the bishops of the Roman Church, he pro claimed the immaculate conceptionof the Virgin that is,that sin. The questionhad been Mary shared in no taint of original consultation with
"
in
discussion since the Middle
Ages, though
Catholic opinionin the nineteenth century in favor
by
his
condemned
a
balance
of
overwhelmingly
approved by the Pope. He elevated it, dogma of faith. act, into a necessary Syllabusof Errors,prepared under papal auspices, but things which most Christians oppose; many
of the view
own
In 1864
was
the
THE also
COUNCIL
VATICAN
repudiatedmuch
561
is the foundation
which
of modern
states,
state, non-sectarian schools, and concluded by condemn toleration of varieties in religion,
like the
ing the
separationof
claim
that "the
oncile himself civilization as
church
and
Pontiff
Roman
and
can
ought to rec and liberalism,
with, progress, to, and agree latelyintroduced."
The
the Vatican was crowning event of Pius IX's pontificate Council. 8, 1869, with a remarkably Opened on December world, its most im largeattendance from all over the Roman the affirmation, on July 18, 1870, of the doc portant result was trine of papal infallibility by a vote of five hundred and thirtythree to two. It was far from asserting that all papal utterances infallible. To be so the Pope must are expound, in his official capacity,"the revelation or depositof faith delivered through the Apostles." "The Roman he speaks ex pontiff,when cathedra,that is,when in dischargeof the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians,by virtue of his supreme apostolic he defines doctrine faith morals authority, to a or regarding be held by the universal church, by the divine assistance prom ised to him in blessed Peter, is possessedof that infallibility with which
the divine Redeemer
be endowed."
Thus
of Ultramontanism.
willed that His
the Vatican It
the
was
papal monarchy, of a generalcouncil supremacy and
Council
sealed the
completion
the overthrow
church
of the
should
triumph absolute
of that doctrine
which
of the
had
loomed so largein the fifteenth century (ante,pp. 306-312), and had not been without its representatives since.
Though undoubtedly papal development,this
the
logicaloutcome
of centuries
doctrinal definition encountered siderable opposition, in Germany. The most especially nent
refuser of
torian,Johann
conformity was Joseph Ignaz
though excommunicated,
of
con
emi
the von
he
Munich his distinguished Dollinger(1799-1890), but
declined
to
initiate
a
schism.
What
he refused,others achieved,and the result was the organ ization of the Old Catholics,who received episcopal ordina tion from the Jansenist Church of Utrecht (ante,p. 557). Their
chief
spread has been in Germany, Switzerland,and still more than a hundred Austria,where they number thou sand adherents. have They though very feebly,reached even, the United seem
to have
States.
Yet
littlefuture.
the Old Its
Catholic
movement
would
departuresfrom Rome, though
LOSS
562
OF
vital enough to serve of the Christian Church.
important,were basis of
not
branch
a
SOVEREIGNTY
TEMPORAL
as
longcontinuing
a
the tide of Italian national
Meanwhile
unity had been rising. carried on jointlyby the kingdom of Sardinia,under The war Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878), and France, under Napoleon III (1852-1870), againstAustria,supplemented by Italian en thusiasm led by Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), resulted in the establishment of the kingdom of Italy under Victor Em manuel the
in 1861, and
old
States
preservedto III. many
ber
the inclusion in it of the greater part of and its vicinitywere of the Church. Rome
On
the
the
Pope by
the Ultramontane
of the
outbreak
policyof Napoleon France
between
war
in 1870, the French troops were withdrawn. 20, 1870, Victor Emmanuel captured Rome, of the
habitants thousand
to
district voted
thousand
one
hundred
one
and
and On
and
Ger
Septem the
in
thirty-three to Italy.
for annexation
five hundred
the Pope the Italian Government guaranteed the privileges of a sovereign,and absolute possessionof the Vatican, the
To
Thus Lateran, and Castel Gandolfo. of the Church, the oldest continuous
existingin Europe. Pius and excommunicated prisoner, has
continued
sions; but an
to
non-Roman
a
advantage.
which
desire the
to
It removed
came
to
end the States
an
secular sovereigntythen protested,declared himself a
IX
Victor
The
Emmanuel.
papacy
restoration of its temporal posses this sacrifice seems to have been from
the
a
papacy
secular task
ill adapted to meet, and the attempted accom plishmentof which laid it open to well-groundedcharges of unhindered It gave maladministration. to the papacy scope it
was
functions. It is no acci development of its spiritual dent that in the forty-sevenyears that have elapsed since the has been more in the papacy loss of its territorialpossessions in fluential and has enjoyed the general respect of mankind than at any periodsince before the Reformation. highermeasure Pius IX was succeeded by a statesman Pope, Leo XIII (1878for the
1903). He concluded
imperialgovernment to
He Germany. support the republic. With Italy he
owing to He
and the the papacy urged French Catholics
the conflicts between
insistence on
of
less successful,
was
the restoration of the States of the Church.
declared Aquinas (ante,p. 270) the standard
struction,thus
returningto
ligious thought.
He
the
best
urged the study
of Roman
period of mediaeval of the
in re
Scriptures.He
MODERNISM
564 to perplexities
have
served
to
interest of religious
the
arouse
the nation. The
problem was occasioned by the rise of the Mod histor spiteof growing Ultramontanism, modern
second
ernists.
In
and scientificconceptions Biblical investigation, ical criticism, of growth through development,have found a foothold,though
scanty, in the
Roman
thoughtfulmen
some
communion.
To
earnest
some
of Catholicism reinterpretation
intellectual world
and
in terms
seemed
imperative. Such Hermann Schell (1850-1906) in Germany, Alfred Loisy were (1857-) in France, George Tyrrell (1861-1909) in England, confined to no in Italy. Modernism and quite a group was Pius X set his face. By a country. Against this movement in 1907, Modernism was con "syllabus,"and an "encyclica," taken for its repression. demned, and stringent measures of the
These
modern
have
dencies
apparentlybeen successful,but be
can
Pius
termine.
whether
such ten permanently crushed only the future can de administrative X interested himself in many
with effect.
reforms
(1914-),is of scholarlyspirit and and peace-loving nature, but the brevityof his pontificate the overshadowing interests of the great world war have, as present Pope, Benedict
The
yet, rendered
an
estimate of his
SECTION
American Old World.
XV
XVI.
difficult. pontificate
CHRISTIANITY
AMERICAN
importationfrom
is primarilyan Christianity
the
As the colonization of America
representedmany European Christianity
Europe, so the various types of continent. Where, as in South were reproduced on the new and Central America, the immigrationwas of a singlerace, imposing its civilization on the natives,a singletype of Chris Catholic is dominant to-day, however tianity the Roman extensivelyits control may have been contested by secularist
races
of
"
influences.
"
Where,
as
in North
America,
stocks
many
have
Christianity the result in colonial beginnings, here and there dominant was has been great varietyand religious freedom, as a consequence has produced cer of necessary toleration. America mutual tain indigenousreligious types, but they have been relatively
contributed
to the
but insignificant;
population,though
in North
one
form
America, where
of
contact
between
MISSIONS
ROMAN
AMERICA
IN
565
of inde acute, and where the principle than pendence from state control has been dominant for more modification from European a century, there had been much
various types has been
in church forms, especially
government
what
"
be called
may
Americanization.
an
Central
America
largely the work of the monastic orders, stronglysupported by the laboring By 1508 the Franciscans were Spanish Government. in Venezuela. numerous enough to hold a By 1529 they were constituted In 1535 they had synod in Mexico. provincial later they had begun work in Peru a province. Four years the first to enter Brazil. By 1597 they Argentina. They were The
had
conversion
founded
United The
and
Christian communities
States
Their mission
of South
"
periodin
California
By 1526 they laboringin Colombia. cans.
is
they
1700
from
was
part of the
now
in Texas.
were
1769
to 1843.
worthy competitorsin
found
Franciscans
In
Mexico.
New
in what
was
in Mexico.
were
In
1541
were
Domini
after
they were Christian pioneers
Soon
they
the
in Chile. Even
extensive
more
the activityof the Jesuits. From in Brazil. Colombia extensive work
was
they developed an in soon proved one of their most successful fields. They were In the country last Peru by 1567, and in Paraguay by 1586. named, in 1610, they established their much discussed pater nally controlled Indian villages(ante,p. 430). The seven 1549
teenth century witnessed their extensive activitiesin Ecuador, Bolivia,and Chile. By 1572 they began a great work in Mexico.
brighterpage of missionarysacrifice is to be found than that written by the Jesuits in Canada, beginningin 1611. provinceof Though aided by other orders,the stronglyRoman to this day. In 1673 a Jesuit mis Quebec is their monument sionary,JacquesMarquette (1637-1675),discovered the Missis No
sippi. A
stations
series of mission
through
the
Mississippi
Louisiana,followed. Florida was missionary land for Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits from 1568, but proved difficult. The flourishing missions there was from 1625 to 1700. period of Roman in Mexico founded Universities were City in 1551, and in
valley,as
far south
as
in 1557, which are higherlearningin the New
Lima
The
Church
of
the
most
venerable
institutions of
World.
England was
introduced
into the oldest Eng-
566
VIRGINIA,
lish colony in what at
its
1776.
MARYLAND, is now
the United
States
planting in 1607, and remained Though it retained the affections
of the colonists, even
CAROLINAS
THE
that of
Virginia established by law till
the establishment
"
"
of many of the noblest of William and Mary
College,in 1693, failed to provide an adequate supply of native clergy. Throughout the colonial periodVirginiawas dependent clerical appointments by the distant bishop of London. on The result was too often the selection of the incompetent and sometimes of the unworthy, while the parishes which were bound by law to furnish the minister's support revenged them selves by a grudging acquiescence. The attempts of the clergy to collect their dues by law, supportedby the home government, of the causes of disaffection leadingto the Revolution. was one On the whole, Virginiaepiscopacy,in colonial days, led a troubled and scantilyfruitful existence. Virginia'snorthern neighbor,Maryland, the first English the United proprietarycolony in what is now States, was chartered
Catholic,to for
Lord
to
toleration.
Under
freedom
in
1632.
Himself
a
Roman
the sovereigntyof England believers,Baltimore established full religious
secure
his fellow
Baltimore
under
these conditions the Protestant
Dissenters
in Maryland, by the close of the seventeenth century, outnum Catholics and Anglicans. In 1691 Maryland bered the Roman created
royal colony,and the next year the Church of England was by law established. During the remainder of the colonial periodits livings the most valuable of any in were the colonies ; but it suffered from the inefficiency of the clergy, like Virginia. Quakers, Presbyterians,and Methodists grew in The establishment ended the tur numerous. practically moil of the Revolution. A brightspot in the religious history of these two the efficientlabor of Thomas colonies was Bray of of who secured the (1656-1730),commissary bishop London, the foundation of the Societyfor the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in 1701 (ante,p. 508). North and South Carolina both saw the Church of England The legallyestablished till the contests of the Revolution. mixed religious character of their population,includingHugue nots, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, Baptists,and Quakers, ren dered this establishment ineffective, though these colonies were well served, in the eighteenthcentury, by missionaries of the societyfounded by Bray, and Charleston had a distinguished was
a
CONGREGATIONALISM
ENGLAND
NEW
567
founded on succession of rectors. Georgia was Catholics ; but not Roman toleration for all save
the basis of a
littlework
by the missionaries of the Societyfor the Propaga tion of the Gospel,and something has been said of the experi of the Wesleys and of Whitefield (ante,pp. 511, 512). ences was
done
said that in the southern colonies in the was Revolution the condition of religion low, and the existence of an establishment did littleto improve it. and Puritans in New The settlement of English Separatists
be it may general, periodprecedingthe In
the steps which led to the colonies erection,between then and 1638, of the Congregational Haven of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New
England, beginning in 1620,
and
alreadybeen noted (ante,pp. 466, 469). Founded in re ligiousenthusiasm, possessingan educated ministry, these have
provisionfor
colonies made
from
its maintenance
their
own
by the founding of Harvard Collegein 1636 and of Yale Collegein 1701. Nor was effort neglectedfor the conversion The work of John Eliot (1604-1690),begun of the Indians. in 1646, led to the formation, in 1649, of the first missionary societyin England (ante,p. 522). The earlyCongregationalfrom their ists of New England did not differ theologically sons
Puritan
brethren Presbyterian
and
in Great
Britain.
For their
first century their controversies were regardingthe develop of polityrather than concerning questionsof doctrine. ments By 1631, in Massachusetts, and speedilyin the other adjacent A religious established by law. colonies Congregationalismwas establishment there continued longer than elsewhere in the United States,in Connecticut till1818, and in Massachusetts Dissent
till 1834.
from
the
established
occasional Baptists in almost from the beginning,and in they organizeda church in pression
There
there ers
were
was
a
BaptistChurch
arrived in Massachusetts
years
four
were
hanged
in
order
appeared. the Massachusetts colony spiteof governmental re in 1665. Boston By 1705
Groton, in Connecticut.
in 1656, and
in Boston.
within
Quak
the next
five
They continued, however,
established in England worship was Boston, in 1687, and gained a footingat Stratford,in Connecti of Protestant Freedom worship was granted by cut, in 1707. law in charter of 1691, and by Connecticut the Massachusetts 1708, and exemption from taxation for the support of Con Church
of
Churches gregational
was
to
increase.
granted to Baptists, Episcopalians,
BAPTISTS
568
AND
DUTCH
and
Quakers, under somewhat colonies,between 1727 and 1729.
REFORMED
conditions,in both
onerous
At the Yale
Commencement
of 1722
the rector, or president, of the college, Timothy Cutler Johnson (1683-1765), and Samuel (1696-1772), later (1754) to
be the firstpresidentof what
is now
Columbia
Universityin New York City, with one of the tutors at Yale, declared for epis The event was which important, not in the college, copacy. native episcopalministry a deposed them, but as establishing in New England, especiallyin Connecticut, where its labors were supported by the English Societyfor the Propagationof the Gospel in Foreign Parts. In generalit may be said,however, that,though New England remained a religious land, the zeal of its founders had burned low by the opening of the eighteenthcentury, and isolation, with the Indians, and frontier conditions brought their wars inevitable provincialism. A highly individual development in New the England was settlement of Rhode Island. Providence was begun, in 1636, from by Roger Williams (1604?-!684?),then under banishment Massachusetts
and
an
opponent
of coercion
in matters
of
re
Island became a ligion. Rhode refuge for those seekingfree dom of religious expression. In 1639 the first Baptist Church in America
time
a
established,of which
was
Williams
member, spending his later life as
a
was
for
"seeker."
a
In
short
spite
of many internal troubles from an intense individualism,the broad principles of religious Island toleration on which Rhode founded
was
were
well
and
found Quakers, in particular, New
York
honorably maintained.
in it
a
The
home.
Dutch as a trading permanently founded Reformed Church, colony in 1624. By 1628 its first Dutch the earliest representative of the Presbyterian polityin America, formed. New York soon was asserted,however, its cosmopoli tan character. By 1644 the future cityincluded in its inhabi Dutch tants Reformed, Lutherans, Mennonites, EnglishCatholics. From 1652 onward speaking Puritans, and Roman made an by the colonial authorities to prevent attempt was Church of Hol any other worship than that of the Reformed land. The Quakers were specially objectsof repression.Dutch control ceased in 1664, when York New passed to the English, whose possessionwas finallyconfirmed ten years later. The Englishgovernors attempted to construe the Church of Engwas
land
569
majorityof inhabitants,especially
The
established.
as
PRESBYTERIANS
AND
QUAKERS
assembly, offered successful representedin the legislative opposition.In the foundation of TrinityChurch, in 1697, the Church of England was effectively planted in New York City, and French then Huguenots were though the Dutch Reformed Re more stronglyrepresented. In 1709 a largeGerman even into the colony. formed immigration from the Palatinate came as
Reformed
the Dutch
In 1720
sion in the arrival from
Church
Holland
received
ing influence Of what
to
to
was
York
New
notable
Jacobus
of Theodorus
huysen (1691-1747),whose remarkable in New Jersey,but was to extend its
a
acces
Frelingexercised
ministrywas
quickeningand organiz
also.
become
New
the
Jersey,East Jersey saw
Congregationalsettlersfrom
es
Haven
colony, in the region of Reformed at Newark, in 1666, of the Dutch New Brunswick, and of Scotch Presbyterians. West Jersey received a largeQuaker immigration in 1677-1678. of the grant of Pennsylvania Mention has alreadybeen made to William Penn, in 1681, and its settlement by Quakers in the Quaker policyof toleration following year (ante,p. 480). The of other forms of faith. Hence attracted representatives no bodies as other colony presented such a variety of religious soon Pennsylvania. Baptists from Wales and Ireland were more strongly represented than elsewhere in the colonies. from Germany and Holland settled German town, Mennonites tablishment
in 1683.
saw
of
England
long feeble.
was a
and
Dunkards
Church
The but
of
other German
first half of the
great influx of German
(Calvinists).The been noted
bodies
followed.
soon
plantedin Philadelphiain 1695,
was
The
New
Lutherans
and
eighteenthcentury German
beginningsof the Moravians
Reformed
have
already
(ante,p. 504).
After the Stewart restoration of 1660 a new element, des tined to be of great economic and political importance, the
Scotch-Irish,came
from
the
Scottish
settlements
in
Ulster.
devotedly Presbyterian. They found a missionary and an organizerin Francis Makemie (?-1708), who labored, from 1691 onward, from New York to South Carolina. certainly To his initiative the organizationof the first American pres due. From 1713 bytery, that of Philadelphia,in 1705, was nearlyto the American Revolution the Scotch-Irish were pour They
were
ing in
like
a
flood.
They
settled much
of Maine
and
New
AWAKENING
GREAT
THE
570
mostly Hampshire in New England, where, however, they were In New York they absorbed by the CongregationalChurches. constituted a largefraction of the population. Nowhere were than in Pennsylvania,and by stronglyrepresented they more the political control of the able practically to wrest 1764 were the fron colony from the Quakers. They sought prevailingly tier,and to this energeticrace the settlement of what is now North West Carolina, and ultimatelyKen Virginia,western tucky, Tennessee, as well as large sections of South Carolina, Georgia,and Alabama, was due. By 1717 a synod was formed, York and New of New Jersey,Penn includingthe presbyteries sylvania,Delaware, and Maryland. In general the ScotchIrish were destitution, through lack long in a periodof religious of ministers and organizedchurches. Religionin America during the period tillthe second quarter the propagationof of the eighteenthcentury was essentially England, it was relatively European bodies. Save in New feeble,and there had suffered a serious decline of its original in the col dominant No enthusiasm. religious body was one onies
as
trenched
in
colonies,no particular
of all the colonies.
religiousfreedom States
the United
denominations particular
While
whole.
a
The
which as
a
way was
thus
was
to
could
church
become
made
were
become
ready
in that
for that
the characteristic of
nation.
of the eight event far-reachingand transforming the revival known life of America was eenth-centuryreligious It was the Great Awakening. not only a tremendous quick as ening of the Christian life,it changed the conceptionsof en that profoundlyaffects the majority trance on that lifein a way the of American churches to this day. In this respect it was in Great Britain. analogue of Pietism in Germany or Methodism It emphasized the conception of a transformingregenerative change, a conversion," as the normal method of entrance into It gave generaldiffusion to the Baptist the kingdom of God. of experi view of the church as a company or Congregational Christian nurture. It laid little weight on ential Christians. It promoted an ascetic theory of the Christian life. under the Some premonitionsof the revival were to be seen preaching,in the vicinityof Raritan, New Jersey,of Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysenafter 1720 (ante,p. 569). He had come The
most
"
under
Pietisticinfluences in Holland.
Near
him, and impressed
JONATHAN
572
aroused mother in 1775 tive
war
friction with the by the Stamp Act, and by increasing of the Revolution country, resultingin the outbreak ; the Declaration of Independence in 1776 ; the destruc till 1783 ; and the protracteddiscussions of the frame
of the nation
work
of
ment
which
did not
under
government
than
more
EDWARDS
the
men's generation
a
terminate
Constitution
thoughtswere
and religion in America questions, the trusted political leaders were
till the establish
absorbed
at low
was
in 1789. ebb.
For
in these of
Many
influenced by the Deism
of
The
France
most England or (ante,p. 492). significant re the plantingof ligiousforce arisingduring this period was American Methodism, beginningin 1766 (ante,pp. 517-518) a sowing destined to a mighty harvest. Out of the discussions of the Great Awakening there emerged in New considerable contribution that England the most had make to to eighteenth-centuryAmerica theology in "
"
the
work
Edwards
Jonathan
of
in what
pastor'shome
is
now
and South
his school.
Windsor,
Born
in
a
Connecticut, in
in 1720.
From 1727 to his graduated at Yale dismissal,after a painfulcontroversy, in 1750, he was pastor in Northampton, Massachusetts ; then missionaryto the Indians tillhis removal at Stockbridge,in the same Commonwealth,
1703, Edwards
to
undertake
fore his death also the
presidencyof Princeton, a
the
few
weeks
be
A leader in the great revival,his was intellect that colonial America philosophical
in 1758.
keenest
produced. A Calvinist,emphasizing the absolute divine sov in ereigntyin conversion againstall Arminian modifications, Freedom his Enquiry into of Will of 1754 he held that while all men have natural abilityto turn to God, they lack This deter moral ability that is,the inclination so to do. mining inclination is the transforminggiftof God ; though its for sin. To Edwards's absence is no excuse thinkingvirtue is of being love to intelligent being in proportionto the amount each possesses. Hence God, the greatest of all beings,justly seeks His own test must place glory,while man by the same the service of God and his fellows before his own advantage. Sin is,therefore, and virtue disinterested benevo selfishness, .
.
.
"
"
lence. Edwards's
views
were
developed by
his
Joseph disciples,
Bellamy (1719-1790), Samuel Hopkins (1721-1803), Timothy D wight (1752-1817),Edwards's and namesake, Jonathan son
DEVELOPMENT
THEOLOGICAL
573
(1745-1840). All of these insisted on a conscious conversion, involving a trans formation from selfishness to "disinterested benevolence," as Nathanael
(1745-1801),and
method
the
To Hop into the kingdom of God. not complete in self-sacrifice was un
of entrance
kins this "benevolence" less it involved best
divine
to
a
Emmons
to willingness
wisdom.
The
be
should that
damned,
younger
that Christ died for all and believing
Jonathan
seem
Edwards,
for the
elect only, not driven by the rise of Universalism to substitute the Growas tian conception of Christ's death as a sacrifice to "general
justice"(ante,p. 456), rather
penal satisfaction for in dividual sins. This "governmental" theory of the atonement largelydominated New England thinkingtillafter the middle of
the
nineteenth
century.
stronglymissionary in
than
This
and spirit,
a
Edwardean from
school
it most
of the
was
early
New
England foreignmissionaries came. Meanwhile there developed in eastern
Massachusetts, under of such men the leadership Charles Chauncy (1705-1787) as and Jonathan (1720-1766), both of Boston, partly Mayhew in oppositionto revival methods, and also through the in fluence of contemporaneous EnglishDissent,a liberal move "
of
"
decidedlyArian tendency,though its separationand full development as Unitarianism was tillthe be not to come ment
a
the nineteenth century. The attainment of American independencethrust upon those that had heretofore been branches of Euro religious fellowships
ginningof
pean
communions
tion.
the
In the condition
of separate American organiza of the new national life this must be
problem
As alreadyindependent organizationindependentof the state. of their European progenitors, such a task was the not laid upon the Presbyterians. or Congregationalists The Roman Catholics were stillscantilyrepresentedwithin the bounds of the United States. They were under the su of the vicar apostolicof London. In 1784 the perintendence much-respectedJohn Carroll (1735-1817)of Maryland was ap pointed prefect apostolicfor the United States by Pius VI consecrated (1775-1799). Six years later Carroll was bishop of Baltimore. In 1791 the first Roman Catholic synod of the
United
States
made
held in Baltimore.
In 1808
Baltimore,under
the seat of an archbishopric, while bishoprics established in New and BardsYork, Boston, Philadelphia,
Carroll,was were
was
PROTESTANT
THE
574
EPISCOPAL
(Kentucky). By Carroll's death
town
in the United
Catholicism
man
the
lished,and the
though
lution
than
more
enormously
so
hundred,
a
to
augment
yet in the future.
was
in America
communion
was
of Ro
been stronglyestab
had
priesthood numbered
this communion No
the foundations
States
immigrationwhich
CHURCH
the Church
suffered
severelyfrom the Revo ministry and congrega
so
England. Its tions were largelysympathetic with the mother country, and it seemed emerged from the strugglein ruins. Its very name un and that of "Protestant patriotic, Episcopal'7was adopted by conference of clergy and laity of Maryland in November, a as
Two
1780.
years
Christ's Church
of
later William
White
(1748-1836), rector
of
in
Philadelphia,and a hearty supporter of American independence, sketched out the plan under which the American Protestant to Episcopal Church was essentially be organized,in independence of the state and of English ecclesiastical control,with representative bodies composed not only of clergy but of laymen. He believed the prospect of In accordance with securingan American episcopateremote. White's suggestions,a voluntary convention, representative of eightstates, met in New. York City in October, 1784, and called the First General Convention to gather in Philadelphia in September, 1785. Meanwhile, the Episcopalclergyof Connecticut had held aloof and had chosen Samuel Seabury (1729-1796) as bishop,and he had gone to England for ordination in June, 1783. Finding it impossibleto receive consecration from the English episcopate in the absence of action by Parliament, Seabury procured it at the hands of the Nonjuror Scottish bishops in Aberdeen in November, The
1784.
General
the Protestant the work
Convention
Episcopal Church
of William
bishops for
of 1785
White.
ths ordination
adopted
in the United
It also of
a
constitution for
States,largely
appealed to
bishops for
the
English Seabury 's
America.
Scottish ordination from
might be valid,but the derivation of orders desired. The the parent English body was local Epis
copal conventions
bishops. The to act
of the
General
several
Convention
states
reconvened
report that the English bishops had from
bishop
Parliament, and of
that William
Pennsylvania and
were
Samuel
asked in 1786
procured White
Provoost
to
had
an
been
was
name
able
enabling chosen
(1742-1815) of
LUTHERANS
EPISCOPACY.
PROTESTANT
575
consecrated by February 4, 1787, they were the archbishopof Canterbury. Bishop Seabury and Bishops White and Provoost, represent ing different lines of consecration,looked upon each other at had not yet been rep first with antagonism. Connecticut On
York.
New
resented in the General
adjusted,and
Convention
these difficultieswere
Convention
General
in the
; but
all
of 1789
parties
revised and adapted to American united,the Prayer Book was Protestant Epis needs, and the foundation of the American
copalChurch fullylaid. Separationfrom the mother country made a Methodism pendent organizationfor American The
result
similar inde
imperative. the ordination by John Wesley in September, Vasey, Coke, Richard Whatcoat, and Thomas
was
1784, of Thomas
Baltimore, the forma tion of a Methodist EpiscopalChurch in the United States,and the ordination of Francis Asbury the same year (ante,pp. 517, 518). for work
in America
;
the Conference
in
by the (Dutch) Re formed Church, Church, and 1793 by the (German) Reformed of a dependence on Holland which had long been weakening, ended in complete self-government. but which now The
One
1792
year
now
very
saw
the abandonment
extensive American
communion, the Lutheran,
though not directlyaffected by the Revolutionarystruggleto de the degree characteristic of the bodies justmentioned, now on velopedits organization
American
lines. The
earlier Ger
prevailingly immigration of the eighteenthcentury was other than Lutheran. By the middle of that century Lutherinto Pennsylvania, anism was pouring in a flood, especially in numbers far smaller than the great immigra though of course the transition was tion of the nineteenth century. Religiously, man
difficult. The
institutions of
a
state church
could not
be trans
Germany, save from the Piet and scarcityof ministers Great disorganization ists of Halle. the results. Some improvement was effected by Zinzenwere Lutherdorf (ante,p. 505) ; but the great organizerof American Melchior Heinrich anism was Miihlenberg (1711-1787), who Under his leadershipthe first reached Philadelphiain 1742. formed in Philadelphia Lutheran synod, or ministerium, was in 1748. Quite as important for the future development of the constitution prepared by Lutheran American politywas
and planted,
littlehelpcame
from
LUTHERANS.
576
Miihlenberg for all officers were
UNIVERSALISTS
his
Philadelphiacongregationin 1762, by which chosen by the congregationitself. The two es
sential features of American
Lutheranism
were
thus sketched
"
Congregational in respect to the local congregation,Presby terian in respect to the standing of ministers in the synod. The synodicalsystem spreadslowly. The ministerium of New York after was soon organized in 1786. A third synod was formed in North Carolina. In 1821 a generalsynod, intended of all local synods, was to be representative formed, but only of a portionof the Lutherans supported it,and this willingness the rapidly multiplyinglocal synods to group themselves as they choose has continued till recentlycharacteristic of Am erican Lutheranism. Steps taken in connection with the four hundredth anniversary of the Reformation, in 1917, promise the union One
of all American
Lutheran
bodies.
further
religious body that developed during the period of struggle for national independence was that of the Universalists. Belief in the salvation of all occasionallyappeared in America elsewhere as a sporadicspecu as eighteenth-century lation. The father of organized Universalism was John Mur ray (1741-1815),who had been touched by Whitefield's preach ing in his native England, and by the writingsof James Relly (1722?-!778), who had passed from the status of one of Whitefield's preachersto that of an advocate of universal salvation. It was of Relly that Murray came in to America as a disciple 1770, and began an itinerating ministry,chieflyin New Eng land. A strict Calvinist,Murray believed that Christ had full payment of the not for the sins of a restricted group and immediate be blessedness would elect,but for all men, theirs at the judgment, when all unbelief in God's mercy would made
vanish.
For
those who
fullybelieve,the divine promised bless
edness A
beginsnow. further impulse was
Elhanan
given to
Universalism
when
in 1780
(1751-1797),a Baptist minister of Phila delphia,independentlyof Murray, adopted Universalist views, which he advocated with eloquence. Unlike Murray, his gen eral opinionswere Salvation is based on the ultimate Arminian. Winchester
free submission
of all to God
; but
will not
be achieved
of the unrepentant tilltheir spirits have protracted,but not eternal, suffering.Even case
was
Hosea
been more
in the
purifiedby influential
Ballou (1771-1852),long a pastor in Boston.
Mur-
UNITARIANS Winchester
and
ray
has followed him.
The
hereafter,tillmen
or
By
turn
from were
moral"
was
to hold
numerous sufficiently
in
convention
an
Sin bringspunishment, here it to God.
Philadelphia. Three land convention was organizedwhich Hampshire, and adopted a ter, New a
was
Universalism
of the atonement
men.
the Universalists
1790
Ballou
direction American
purpose
love to
forth God's
Trinitarians.
been
in this Unitarian
Arian, and to set
had
577
later
years
in 1803
met
brief creed
a
New
Eng
in Winches
which, though
Universalism. modified in 1900, is the historic basis of American The early converts to Universalism were though prevailingly, not
the humbler
always,from
walks
of life.
of some the other hand, won the allegiance of the oldest Congregational of east Churches and eminent men
Unitarianism, on
ern
growth of a "liberal" party before already been noted (ante,p. 573). Theo
Massachusetts.
the Revolution
The
has
overshadowed logicaldiscussion in that region was by the of the strugglefor independence. In 1785, momentous events of King's Chapel, the ancient Church however, the proprietors of England place of worship in Boston, excluded from the Prayer Book all references to the Trinity,thus becoming the firstUnitarian congregationin America. Similar views spread, and criticism of the doctrine of original sin,of the Calvinistic and insistence on salvation by an theory of predestination, character
were
more
even
characteristic of the "liberal"
move
denial of the Trinity. With the incoming of the re vival impulse at the close of the eighteenth century, of which ment
than
mention
will
of the conservative tween
tween
made, and the consequent strengthening evident be soon element, a cleavage was
be
soon
the "liberal" and the
divinityin
two
over
the
"orthodox"
theologyof
parties.A strugglebe the
Hollis
professorof
University resulted in 1805 in the vic tory of the "liberals" by the choice of Henry Ware (1764-1845). Meanwhile, in 1803, William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) had begun a greatlyrespectedand widely influential pastorate in Boston, and was preaching a high Arian Christology. Increasingdivision,and attacks by the "orthodox," led in 1815 to the adoptionby the "liberals" of the Unitarian name. A sermon by Channing in 1819 at the installation of Jared Sparks "(1789-1866)in Baltimore was widely regarded as the authoritative statement of the party, and gave to Channing Harvard
THE
578 henceforth In
1825
Though Unitarian
an
the
GREAT
in American unofficial leadership
American
Unitarian
largelyconfined men
is of eminent
REVIVALS
of
Association
Unitarianism. formed.
was
England, the roll of and public servants letters,philanthropists, to
eastern
New
distinction.
The
periodsof the Revolutionary contest and of the discus sions resultingin the adoption of the Constitution of the United States were epochs of great religious depression. The last decade of the eighteenthcentury saw marvellous trans a formation initiated. Without the aid of any singleoutstanding like that of Whitefield in the "Great personality, Awakening," interest began. Felt in New a mighty reawakening of religious England by 1792, within the next four years it -was strongly manifested in the Middle States,whence it swept through the in 'tri South, and by the dawn of the nineteenth century was West umphant progress in the new beyond the Alleghanies. In Kentucky it was felt with peculiar There the camppower. meeting" began in 1800 ; and there the revival was often accom panied, as had been the "Great Awakening," by outcries and revival periodwas bodilymanifestations. As a whole, this new far less marked of over than the earlier by these symptoms Its effects were the less profound, wrought excitement. none and the new interest was religious long continued and trans "
forming. Indeed, the
revivals may
with less frequency and
predominant Led men
as
who
feature
be said to have
continued,
diminishingintensitytill 1858,
of American
as
the
life. religious
its human this revival movement, on fullyshared the Pietistic and Methodist
was
side,by traditions
of the
eighteenthcentury, it emphasized the relation of the individual soul to God, and regarded a conscious conversion
as
the normal
entrance
into the
Christian
life. It
was
dis
for which some account posed to view that as scarcelyreligion of a transformingchange in feelingcould not be given. All American bodies except the Roman Catholics,Luth religious Protestant Episcopalians,Quakers, and Unitarians erans, shared these convictions. Presbyteriansand Congregationalin these respects essentially ists,Methodists and Baptists,were this type But the Methodists at one. and Baptists,to whom of piety was "most native,found the largestpopular following, aided by their willingness such ministerial instrumentali to use available. They speedily whether educated or not, as were ties,
THE
580
CUMBERLAND
PRESBYTERIANS
elaboratelyequippedtheological seminary,and in that opened by inauguratorof a new many ways era, was the Congregationalists in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1808. Four years later the Presbyteriansinaugurateda similar semi New Jersey. In 1815 a Lutheran theological nary at Princeton, school was established in Hartwick, New York. The Divinity School of Harvard Universitywas opened under Unitarian aus picesthe same Bangor TheologicalSeminary, in Maine, year. founded in 1816. The Baptistsin was by Congregationalists (New York) TheologicalSeminary in 1819. augurated Hamilton Two years later the PresbyterianSchool in Auburn, New York, was established,and in 1822 the Congregationalists opened the Divinity School of Yale University. These institutions for ministerial trainingmultipliedrapidly,and by 1860 had in creased to fifty,a number since greatly augmented. The whole character of pastoral preparationwas broadened, deep and ened, systematized. Out of these religious awakeningsthere grew many divisions. One such of importance was the rise of the Cumberland Pres The Cumberland and byterian Church. region in Tennessee Kentucky was powerfully stirred by the revival in 1800. Churches and in 1802 the Cumberland were rapidlymultiplied, The need of preacherswas Presbyterywas formed. great, and the presbytery desired ministerial standing for some earnest the educational who lacked demanded men qualifications young by Presbyterianismgenerally. The revival preachinghad pro The
most
the
duced elect
a
conviction
that
the doctrines that Christ
died
for the
only, and that any portion of the race is reprobate save hindrances rather than helps. by its own personal acts, were The Kentucky synod viewed these departures with disfavor, in 1806 and ordered the Cumberland Presbytery dissolved. In 1810 the Cumberland Presbytery reconstituted itself as an independent body. Its growth was rapid. In 1813 a synod Pres Cumberland was organized,and in 1816 it took the name soon byterian Church, though it was representedvastly more widely than the regionfrom which the title was derived. in worked The older Presbyteriansand Congregationalists harmony in home missions in what have long been the northern in 1801 by the central states under the plan of union formed the Association of Connecticut and General Presbyterian Old School the General Assembly, till it was repudiatedby
DISCIPLES
THE
581
Presbyteriansin 1837, and by the Congregationalrivalries ists in 1852. In general,however, denominational in the extension keen and controversy bitter,especially were work of the developingWest. of the
wing
Out
of
conviction of the evils of these divisions
earnest
an
much
of
movement
importance
Thomas
grew.
a
Campbell Presbyterian
minister of the Secession a (1763-1854) was Church (ante,p. 553) of the north of Ireland, who
to
came
Pennsylvania. began work in western in welcoming Presbyteriansof all partiesto Here his freedom communion aroused criticism,and he was disciplined by the Secession Presbytery of Chartiers. Campbell felt it his duty and to assert as the stand to protest againstsuch sectarianism, America
in 1807, and
the discipleship
of all Christian
ard
it.
alone,as he understood
Thomas
literal terms
Campbell
now
of the Bible broke
with
but continued to labor in western Presbyterians, the Scrip "Where Pennsylvania,announcing as his principle: tures silent, we are speak,we speak ; and where the Scriptures the Secession
silent."
are
but
a
union
not
was
a
denomination
new
of all Christians
tests of creed
added
bell
It
or
so-called from
the
this Biblical basis,without ritual. In August, 1809, Thomas Camp
Christian
organizedThe
planned,
that he
on
Association
Pennsylvania county
of
of
Washington its origin and for "
"
which has since prepared the "Declaration and Address" document of what was been regarded as a fundamental to be The same known Thomas the Disciplesmovement. as year Campbell's son, Alexander (1786-1866),emigratedto America,
it he
and
was
to
soon
father in fame
his outstrip
as
an
advocate
of
the former's views. of sectarianism, the Campbells spiteof their deprecation organizeda church in Bush Run, Pennsylvania,in May, 1811. The Lord's Supper was observed each Sunday from the begin of to the Scripturalwarrant as arose ning. But doubts now infant baptism. In 1812 the Campbells and a number of their In
associates became Churches. The
a
were
immersed.
member Points of
of the
A
year
Redstone
later the Bush Association
disagreementwith the
Run
church
of
Baptist Baptists developed.
Calvinism. Campbells disliked the Baptists'strenuous To the Campbells the Old Testament far less authoritative was than the New. To the Baptistsbaptism was of the a privilege alreadypardoned sinner;to the Campbells it was a condition
ADVENTISTS.
582
MORMONS
Campbells, without being in Unitarians,refused to employ other than Scriptural any sense expressionsregardingthe Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The from the Baptists,which may be said result was a withdrawal this time onward From the to have been completed by 1827. followers of the Campbells were practicallya denomination, known popularly as Disciplesof Christ. They are Congrega tional in polity. Their growth has been remarkable, and has constituted the Disciplesan important factor in American life. religious A peculiardevelopment of prophetical was interpretation that of William Miller (1782-1849), a Baptist farmer of Low he preached widely, From 1831 onward Hampton, New York. assertingon the basis of calculations from the book of Daniel that the second coming and the inaugurationof the millennial He won in 1843-1844. thousands reignof Christ would occur his dis of followers. In spiteof the failure of his prediction, ciplesheld a generalconference of Adventists, as they styled themselves, in 1845, and have persistedto the present, some holding to the observance of the seventh day. Their belief that the coming of Christ is near, though at a date not deterdo not bear the who minable, is widely diffused among many of
forgiveness.Moreover,
Adventist
the
name.
is Mormonism, perversion of Christianity founded by Joseph Smith (1805-1844),who claimed to have dug Manchester, New York, in 1827, a volume of goldplates, up, near the Book of Mormon, supplementary to the Bible, written in mysteriouscharacters which he was able to translate by means of a pair of magic spectacles, but the originalof which was Smith is book In this removed proclaimed by angelicagency. Mormon The first Church was a organizedin 1830, prophet. in Fayette, New It was York. soon largelyrecruited in the neighborhood of Kirtland,Ohio. Here Brigham Young (1801A
remarkable
1877) became to
a
member.
Missouri,and
in 1840
In 1838 the Mormon
founded
Nauvoo,
leaders removed
Illinois. In spite
Smith of Mormon, claimed to have received a revelation,in 1843, establishing led to his murder by a mob the polygamy. Popular hostility under church the leadershipof The next came now year. Brigham Young, an organizerand leader of the highestability. Under him the Mormons marched to Salt Lake, in Utah, and
of the
monogamy
enjoined by
the
Book
EFFORTS
community
a
SOCIAL
FOR
RIGHTEOUSNESS
great material prosperitywas
of
583
inaugurated.
After protracted conflict with the United States Government, Wilford Woodruff (1807-1898),then head of the Mormon
Church, declared againstpolygamy in 1890. Mormons
The
have
numbers
been
system of economic and has
produced a
^
and their indefatigable missionaries, largely recruited from Europe. Their
been
have
has been remarkable and social supervision largedegree of material prosperity.They
that Christ, Mo also manifes hammed, JosephSmith, and Brigham Young were tations of deity. By these divine beings souls are created,for hold that
God
revealed
was
the faithful should
whom
as
Adam,
and
providebodies.
At their deaths the
divinity. Salvation is through the of Christ,by faith,repentance, and baptism by im atonement mersion; though baptism by proxy is of avail for the dead. bid fair long to be such that the Mormons Their numbers are life. element in American religious an The religious activityof the first half of the nineteenth cen accompanied by efforts for social righteousness.The tury was death of Alexander Hamilton by the hand of Aaron Burr, in 1804, led to a wide-spreadand largelysuccessful attack by the circulated in which an extensively forces on duelling, religious by Lyman Beecher (1775-1863)was of much influence. sermon General Temperance aroused the efforts of the Presbyterian Associations of Connecti Assembly and of the Congregational in 1811. Massachusetts cut and Lyman Beecher's sermons againstdrunkenness, of 1813, attracted great attention. The of Temperance was formed American Societyfor the Promotion in 1826. The result was a great and permanent change in Effort the drinking habits of professedChristians by 1830. in
righteous will share
then
turned
toward
a
promotion of temperance
those
among
of activelyof the church. The Washingtonian movement Prohibition by 1840 sought the reformation of drunkards. Its historyhas been enacted in Maine in 1846. was legislation not
has made checkered, but legislative prohibition since the
opening of
twentieth
the
century
great strides
throughout
the
the constantlyincreasing support of the activelyChristian elements of American population. of Christian people,North Slavery also aroused the hostility United
and
States, and
has
had
South, from the dawn
change came
over
of the nineteenth
the Southern
attitude
soon
century.
A
great
after 1830, partly
AN
584
by
OF
CONTROVERSIES
of the supposedly industrial
reason
and
AGE
partlythrough resentment
tacks of Northern holders.
by
Abolitionists
reason
the
on
of the system necessity of the injudicious at
character
of all slave
The
be to question thenceforth was profoundly sensitiveness of the Northern divisive,but with ever-increasing consciousness to the evils of human religious bondage. The a
fourth and
fifth decades
periodof controversy
had
been
division.
and
recruited from
two
main
of Scotch-Irish parentage and
The
latter were
freedom. Church and
At was
of the nineteenth The
century
were
PresbyterianChurch
elements
those of New
the descendants
"
England ancestry.
inclined to greater doctrinal and administrative the General Assembly of 1837 the Presbyterian
rent into two
the "New
nearlyequalbodies,the
"
Old School"
School."
Controversies
of nearly equal intensity, though with less divisive results, of New turmoiled the Congregationalists Eng land. Hartford TheologicalSeminary was founded in 1834 to offset the supposed under
Horace
the
of the
errors
leadershipof
Yale
Nathaniel
W.
Divinity School, then Taylor (1786-1858).
Bushnell
(1802-1876), of Hartford, Connecticut, in fluenced by Samuel Taylor Coleridge(ante, p. 545),attacked the
conceptionof
Christian doctrine
then stration to the intellect, and would substitute for such
based primarilyon demon almost universal in America, as
logicalproof
an
appeal
to
the
of the religious feeling. BushnelPs most influentialpub lication was his Christian Nurture, of 1847, in which he urged witness
the der
quiet unfolding of the Christian nature of the child,un of entrance the normal method as appropriateinfluences,
in the which
kingdom Pietist and
of
God, instead of the strugglingconversion
Methodist
tradition had
considered the only
legitimateexperience. The Protestant EpiscopalChurch was turmoiled by disputes between the high-churchand Evangelicalparties. The most extensive separationswere caused, however, by the contests of or accompanying the Civil War. anticipatory in 1843, Growing antipathy to slaveryled to the organization, of the Wesleyan Methodist of America the basis of Church on thus in the no slaveowning membership. The question was the General Conference of the Methodist foreground when Episcopal Church met in 1844, and an immediate strugglearose and the retention of a slaveholdingbishop. Northern over
Southern the
divided. The Conference hopelessly report permittingthe division of the church, with that the Methodist EpiscopalChurch, South, was
sentiment
adopted
a
result
585
SLAVERY
OVER
DIVISIONS was
constituted,in 1845. similar division separated the Bap The Alabama State Convention of South.
Contemporaneously and
tists of North
a
Foreign Mission Board make discrimination againstslaveholders in missionaryap no pointments. The board declared that it would take no action, the formation implying approval of slavery. The result was in 1844, that
Baptistsdemanded,
the
BaptistConvention
of the Southern
in 1845
and the
cleavage
of the churches.
formation
Presbyterianbody
PresbyterianChurch, South, did
of the
1861, after the outbreak
of the
between
war
not
and
the till
occur
the states.
divisions,unhappily, stillcontinue, though signs are
These abundant The
School
rupture of the Old
The
of reunion
Protestant
in the not
distant
Episcopal Church
future.
divided
was
reunited at its close. the Civil War, and was A pleasing illustration of an oppositetendency
only during the
was
re
School effort,of the Old School and New PresbyterianChurches of the North, voted in 1869 and com
union, after much
pletedin The
1870.
nation-wide last great revival,
similar,though
1858, though many have
in its scope,
in
occurred
local, movements
more
been
felt to the present. Though the Pietist conception has stillcontinued predominant in American Protes of religion
tantism, Christian
especiallyamong
has
increasingallegiance, since and Presbyterians Congregationalists nurture
won
Civil War, and has greatly favored Protestant EpiscopalChurch, which has
growth of the always championed
the
the
it. The States
Catholic Church
Roman
throughout the nineteenth
immigrationfrom 1890
from
encountered
have
Ireland
Italy and
in their prolific named
enormously in the United
grew
new
between
eastern
home. 1840
relations between been
and
southern
Europe. Bitter and
enormous
Protestants task of
Germany, and These
races
Protestant
1860;
tolerant. increasingly
complishedan
century, chieflythrough
The
but
have
since been
oppositionwas
since the date
and Roman
Roman
Church
last
Catholics has
ac
buildingchurches,parochial
WORK
WOMAN'S
586
and institutions of higherlearn hospitals, giftsand sacrificesof a relatively scanty finan
schools,convents,
ing through the cial ability.National councils have been held in 1852, 1866, of the Congregatio and 1884. Long under the superintendence de Propaganda Fide in Rome, Pius X (1903-1914) granted to the
in the
Church
Roman
States in 1908
United
the
de
same
enjoyed in European lands. An outstanding feature of American life since the religious the states is the steady increase in the demand between war for an educated ministry in those bodies which formerly laid has been met littlestress on training. This demand by con and the older theological seminaries provision, stantlyincreasing have steadily enlargedtheir facilitiesby augmented faculties and of autonomy
gree
extension of the curriculum. The the
period has
work
of
witnessed
of recognition ever-enlarging
an
in the Protestant
women
A
Churches.
Woman's
the Congregafounded of Foreign Missions was among The Methodist tionalists in 1868. Episcopal Church, North,
Board
followed in 1869 ; the Northern Protestant Episcopal Church
Presbyteriansin in 1871.
foreignmissions
for home
and
American
Protestantism.
are
Women
1870 ; and the
Similar organizations universal in well-riigh
now
to eligible
have
long been Baptist and
conventions of the Congrega representative the of Meth election tional Churches. the right to They won in 1900. odist Episcopal General Conference They have been the ordained to ministry by Baptists, Congregationalists, Unitarians,and Universalists. Disciples, The the last twenty-fiveyears, last half-century, especially Protes has witnessed a great theological change in American the
tantism, the so
silentlyand
evidences
it is difficult to estimate, Certain outstanding unequallyhas it come.
exact
have
extent
attracted
troversies aroused
among
of which
wide the
attention.
Such
the
were
by Congregationalists
the
con
"pro
TheologicalSeminary between the depositionof Professor Charles 1885 and 1892. Such was General As Augustus Briggs (1841-1913) by the Presbyterian sembly in 1893. These tangible evidences have been few. Yet even bound in bodies officially by confessional statements gressiveorthodoxy"
of Andover
of the
age,
claimed
Reformation with
the
characteristic doctrines
little of their ancient
satisfaction.
of Germany, and Biblical criticism, especially
the
are
The
pro newer
evolutionary
CO-OPERATION
588
to plant Christian civilization,
hoary supersti and to foster a native Christianity tions and oppressions, which be a transforming force to whole peoples. Never have may giftsto missions been largeror missionary candidates more than they now are. numerous An outstanding feature of the existingreligioussituation to
in the United
and
States
Canada
sweep
away
is the decline of denomina
and the increase of co-operationin religious tional rivalries, work. Voluntary associations for co-operate Christian en
developed remarkably. Conspicuous have been the Young Men's Christian Association,founded by George in in and London since spread Williams 1844, (1821-1905) the Young Women's throughout the world, and its sister society, Christian Association,organizedin England in 1855, and both peculiarlysuccessful in the United States. They have never Less directly been more useful than during the world war. co-operant but uniting in similar aims have been the Young People'sSociety of Christian Endeavor, formed by Francis E. Clark in 1881 ; and the similar BaptistYoung People'sUnion, the Epworth League, the Luther League, and the Brotherhood have
deavor
of St. Andrew. It is from have
come.
missions that the strongestimpulsesto co-operation A powerful force in this direction has been the
in 1886. launched Missionary Movement, divi denominational The manifest improprietyof transferring sions to the mission field has led to largeassociation of similar of Christians into singlebodies in China, India, and groups Japan. The essential unity of missionaryendeavor was mani fest at the World Missionary Conference, held in Edinburgh Student
Volunteer
in 1910, the influence of which has been potent. The evils of rivalries led,in the United States,to the establishment religious of the Home tatives followed
Council
in 1908,
by
of Women's
the
of represen This has been
composed
engaged in similar work. Foreign Missions Conference of North
of societies
the Council These
Missions
for Home
of Women
America,
Missions, and the Federation
Foreign Missions. associations are voluntary. A federation of Boards
of
a
more
created, after considerable preliminary organic character was negotiation, by the formation in 1908 of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, composed of officialdele gates from
its
churches. co-operating
Its functions
are
ad-
TENDENCIES
589
UNION
TOWARD
not legislative or judicial.Its objectsare: "To express visory, the fellowship and catholic unity of the Christian Church.
bring the Christian bodies of
To
the world.
for Christ and
To
into united
America
service
devotional fellowship
encourage
life and religious counsel concerning the spiritual in To activities of the churches. largercombined secure a the fluence for the churches of Christ in all matters affecting and
mutual
social condition of the people,so as to promote the life." of the law of Christ in every relation of human application moral
and
has the support of thirtydenomina tions,includingsuch importantbodies as the Northern Baptists,
The
Council
Federal
now
(under the General
Disciples,Lutherans Congregationalists,
South, Presbyterians,North and the (Dutch and Ger Episcopalians, and
Synod), Methodists, North and South, Protestant man) Reformed. A
movement
rated by the General in the United Church
Convention
conference
union
of Christendom.
on
plans was
of the Protestant
inaugu Episcopal
1910, aiming at an ultimate effect the re order, which may
in
States
faith and
world
in its
ambitious
more
even
object has received
The
the
support
majorityof American Protestant bodies to the extent of which conferences in several preliminary officialrepresentation of
a
have
held, and
been
operationin Great
delegationhas urged
American
an
Britain with
success.
in other countries that was progress for the organic union movement a
delayed the In Canada
has tionalists, Presbyterians Methodists^jtftd^ of
world
The
war
co
has
hoped. of Congrega prospect
every
success.
The
long story of the Christian Church
lightsand and
and
shadows, of achievement exhibited
It has
divisions.
transforming the
lives of
is
a
of
panorama
failure,of conquests
divine life marvellously It has also exhibited those
the
men.
of which
passionsand
weaknesses
universal
bids fair to transform
human
is
capable. Its tasks have seemed, in every age, almost insuperable.They were never greater than at present when confronted by a ma of life, and when the furnace of almost terialisticinterpretation pean
what
and the
war
American church
Its changes may
civilization. Yet has
done
be many,
without
nature
the whole no
fabric of Euro
Christian
confidence
its strugglesgreat.
can
survey
in its future.
But
the
good
THE
590
of
hand
in
usefulness toward He
would
which
God
the
the
has
led
of
all
men
it
hitherto of
advancement
fulfilment draw
FUTURE
His unto
the
prediction Him.
will
guide of
kingdom that
if
He
it its be
to
larger
Lord, lifted
and up
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
No
attempt is made
to do
than indicate what
more
volumes
the
lan if unacquainted with any History,especially besides English,will find most useful. guage The following should be at hand. An encyclopaedia are especially The New serviceable: Schaff-HerzogEncyclopedia of Religious York, 1908-12; Encyclopaediaof Religionand Knowledge, New to (nine volumes York, 1908-17 Ethics, Edinburgh and New New "Phrygians" thus far issued);The Catholic Encyclopaedia, York, 1907-12; The EncyclopaediaBritannicateleventh edition, Cambridge and New York, 1910. The followingsource books are indispensable: BOOKS. SOURCE PhilipSchaff,The Creeds of Christendom,New York, fourth edition, 1905; Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr.,A Source Book for Ancient Church from the ApostolicAge to the Close of the Condliar Period, History, reader
of this
"
York, 1913; Ernest F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1912; James Harvey Robinson, Read New
York [1904,1906]; ings in European History,Boston and New Illustrative of Henry Gee and William John Hardy, Documents English Church History,London, 1896. The selections in the in English translation. For those volumes are just enumerated the following work is of high worth: who can read Latin and French Illustrativeof the Continental Reformation, B. J. Kidd, Documents cited in this history. All these source books are Oxford, 1911. read Latin, Carl Mirbt, Quellenzur Geschichte des To any who can Papsttums,Tubingen and Leipzig,1901,is invaluable for papal de velopment. The SOURCES. are followingsources readilyavailable in Eng lish translation: J. B. Lightfootand J. R. Harmer, The Apostolic Fathers,London, 1898; Kirsopp Lake, The ApostolicFathers,two "
The Ante-Nicene Fathers Down York, 1913. A. D. 325, ten volumes, New The translations are York, 1896.
volumes, New to
of
.
This series is continued
varying excellence.
Post-Nicene
Fathers.
The
York, 1886-94, embraces The
Second
.
.
in the Nicene
and
First Series,fourteen volumes, New the works of Augustine and Chrysostom.
twelve volumes, New Series, 591
York, 1890-95, contains
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
592 the
whole
Gregory
to
selections from
or
the
Great.
The
SUGGESTIONS the
principalwriters from
first volume
Eusebius
of this Second
Series,
Eusebius 's Ecclesiastical
History,translated and annotated by A. read Greek C. McGiffert, is indispensable.For those who and Latin much are ampler sources provided by J. P. Migne in his two and twenty-one vol great series,PatrologiaLatina, two hundred Paris, 1844-64, extending to Innocent III; and Patrologia umes, and sixty-six The volumes, Paris, 1857-66. Grceca,one hundred often uncritically texts are given. Of highest critical excellence for the early portionof the field covered by Migne are the Cor of publication scriptorumecclesiasticorum latinorum,in course pus christsince 1866 by the Vienna Academy; and Die griechischen issued since 1897 by the Prussian Academy. lichen Schriftsteller, edition (Paris,1901-) of J. D. For the acts of councils the new conciliorum nova et amplissimacolledio, Mansi, Sacrorum extending consulted. the be letters and decrees may to Papal present, may in P. Jaffe,RegestapontificumRomanorum, be found to 1304 and The relations of his continuers,Leipzig,1881-88; Berlin, 1874. be studied in the great col the papacy and mediaeval empire may lection by G. H. Pertz and successive editors,Monumenta Germanioe John
historica, Hanover, 1826The
Huss's
S. Schaff,New
Church
to the
present.
is accessible in translation
by David
York, 1915.
fundamental
writingsare translated by H. Wace and C. A. Buchheim, First Principlesof the Reformation,Philadelphia, with His Shorter 1885; enlargedas Luther's Primary Works together Works Luther's in and are Larger Catechisms,London, 1896. of publicationin English, vols. I and II., Philadelphia, process Luther's
of
Much
1915.
Luther's
table-talk
is accessible
in Preserved
Conversations with Luther,Boston, 1915. Gallinger, Lutheran be studied in H. E. Jacob, The Book of symbolics may The Concord: Symbolical Books of the EvangelicalLutheran or, For those who read 1882-83. Church, two volumes, Philadelphia, German and Latin the definitive edition of Luther's writingsis the since 1884, of which Werke, in process of publicationin Weimar than fiftyvolumes have been issued. more The writingsof Zwingli are accessible in S. M. Jackson, The Latin Works and Correspondence of Huldreich Zwingli,two volumes, and
Smith
New
York, 1912, 1917.
Most
Works
H. P.
writingsare translated into English, as The Calvin, fifty-twovolumes, Edinburgh, 1843-55.
of Calvin's
of
John
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL student
The
will find the Institutes
593
indispensable.They are best the series justcited,3 volumes,
by Henry Beveridge,in the read Latin and French For those who Edinburgh, 1845-46. -nine edition of the Strassburgeditors,Joannis Calvini Opera, fifty volumes, Braunschweig, 1863-1900, is a storehouse. The Works of James Arminius are available in English transla Nichols and W. R. Bagnall,three volumes, London, tion by James and 1825 1828, Buffalo, 1853. Hugo Grotius's Defence of the Catholic Faith Concerningthe Satisfaction of Jesus Christ was trans lated by F. H. Foster, Andover, 1889. for Socinianism. is a prime source Racovian The Catechism English translation,London, 1818. The generalstudent will find much regardingthe English Ref Illustrative in Henry Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents ormation of English Church History, London, 1896, already cited under Source Books; and in Charles Hardwick, A Historyof the Articles of Religion,Cambridge, 1859; and in Francis Procter and W. H. and Prayer, London Frere, A New Historyof the Book of Common translated
York, 1901.
New
Puritan
Puritan
wishes
Manifestoes,a Study of
can
the
be studied
Origin of
in W.
H.
the Puritan
Frere, Revolt,
of the London, 1907; and S. R. Gardiner, Constitutional Documents The aims of Congregationalists Puritan Revolution,Oxford, 1899. manifest in Williston Walker, The Creeds and Platformsof Con are New York, 1893; and W. J. McGlothlin, Baptist gregationalism, Confessionsof Faith, Philadelphia,1911, does a similar service for the Baptists. Any who would make a specialstudy of the English Reformation will need to consult the Letters and Papers,foreign and Domestic, volumes, London, 1862of the Reign of Henry VIII, twenty -one Series,of the Reigns 1910; and Calendar of State Papers, Domestic VI, Mary, Elizabeth,James I, twelve volumes, London, of Edward The writingsof the leadingEnglish reformers 1856-72. were pub the lished by the Parker Society,Works EnglishReformers,fiftyof of prime documents four volumes, Cambridge, 1841-54. Many importance may be found in E. Cardwell, Documentary Annals of the Church of England, two volumes, Oxford, 1844; Gilbert Burnet, Historyof the Reformationof the Church of England, Pocock's edi tion, seven volumes, Oxford, 1865; and John Strype, Complete Works, twenty-seven A
volumes, Oxford, 1822-40.
importance for Scotland is [William DunCollection of Confessionsof Faith, Catechisms of Public
collection of much
lop]A
.
.
.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
594
Authorityin
the Church
SUGGESTIONS
of Scotland,two
volumes, Edinburgh, 1719Further 22. study should be made of the Calendar of State Papers Relatingto Scotland (1547-1603),six volumes, Edinburgh, 18981910.
The
works
of Knox
and
other
Scottish
Presbyterianlead ers were publishedby the Wodrow Society,twenty-four volumes, A similar service for the leaders of Scottish epis London, 1842-. was performed by the Spottiswoode Society,sixteen vol copacy Edinburgh, 1844-. umes, HISTORIES
OF
DOCTRINE
AND
CHRISTIAN
THOUGHT.
"
The
fol
lowing brief volumes will constitute a good introduction: Charles A. Briggs,Historyof the Study of Theology, two volumes, New York, Christian Thought to the Reformation,New 1916; H. B. Workman, York, 1911; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought beforeKant, New York, 1911; and E. C. Moore, Historyof Christian Thought Since A more York, 1912. Kant, New comprehensive work is George P. Fisher,Historyof Christian Doctrine,New A work York, 1896. of great value reaching to the Reformation, and with the quota tions in English translation as well as the text, is Reinhold Seeberg, Text-Book of the History of Doctrines,two volumes, Phila the best work delphia,1905. For any who can read German (to the close of the Reformation) is Friedrich Loofs, Leitfadenzum Studium der Dogmengeschichte, fourth edition,Halle, 1906. For the student an work advanced (to the close of the Ref indispensable ormation) is Adolf von Harnack, Historyof Dogma, English trans An illuminating treat lation,seven volumes, Boston, 1896-1900. is that of Henry Osborn ment Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, two vol London and New Julius Kostlin, The Theology York, 1914. umes, two is volumes, Philadelphia[1897], of Luther,English translation, For later development,J. A. Dorner, Historyof to be commended. in Germany, English translation, Protestant Theology,Particularly A useful work is A. C. two volumes, Edinburgh, 1871. very McGiffert, The Rise of Modern ReligiousIdeas, New York, 1915. the The development of modern situation may be further studied in Ernst Troeltsch, Protestantism and Progress,New York, 1912; W. E. H. Lecky, The Historyof the Rise and Influenceof Rational ism in Europe, London, 1867; Andrew D. White, A Historyof the Warfare of Science with Theology,New York, 1896; Leslie Stephen, HistoryofEnglish Thought in the EighteenthCentury,two volumes, New York, 1876; John Tulloch, Movements of ReligiousThought in Britain During the Nineteenth Century,New The best York, 1901. work in its field is Frank H. Foster, A Genetic Historyof the New
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
596
SUGGESTIONS
of Pauline
is discussed in Albert Schweitzer,Paul and investigation His Interpreters, English translation,London, 1912; see also H. A. A. Kennedy, St. Paul and the Mystery Religions, London and New York [1913]. Excellent general discussions of the apostolicperiod are A. C. in the ApostolicAge, second edi McGiffert, Historyof Christianity tion,New York, 1910; J. H. Ropes, The ApostolicAge, New York, A
1906.
elaborate
is Carl
Weizsacker, The ApostolicAge of the Christian Church, English translation,two and New volumes, London York, 1897. The
more
will aid in initiation into the present status discussion : *H. S. Nash, The Historyof the Higher
Testament
Criticism
of The
Moore,
THE
the
New
New
1904 ; James tament, New
Testament, New
the Christian
Church, New
York,
of the New
Tes
York, 1911.
CHURCH
IN
THE
ROMAN
EMPIRE.
"
The
best
introductory
Duchesne, The Early Historyof the Christian
Its Foundation
Church
of the FifthCentury,English trans A good sketch is York, 1909, 1912.
to the End
volumes, New
lation,two
in
Testament
C.
1900; Edward
York,
Moffatt, Introduction to the Literature
is Louis
from
von
followingworks
of New
work
treatment
that of Robert
York, Rainy, The Ancient Catholic Church, New A largerwork the H. is M. 1902. on Gwatkin, Early earlyperiod Church D. A. Indis Historyto 313, two volumes, London, 1909. and Expansion of Harnack, The Mission pensable is Adolf von in the First Three Centuries,second edition,two vol Christianity New
umes,
York, 1908.
is Wilhelm
student
An
Moeller
elaborate and
Christian Church, First Volume London
and
for the
more
advanced
Schubert, Historyof the A. D. 600, English translation,
Hans to
work von
New
A readable collection of biographies York, 1892. is Frederic W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers,two volumes, New York,
suggestivevolume is J. Estlin Carpenter,Phases ofEarly New York, 1916. Christianity, DobEarly Christian life is admirably treated by Ernst von schiitz,Christian Life in the Primitive Church, English translation, New For the persecutionssee H. B. Workman, York, 1904. Persecution in the Early Church, London, 1906; L. H. Canfield, The Early Persecutions of the Christians,New York, 1913; W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire beforeA. D. 170, Lon A
1889.
don
and
For
New
New
the
York, 1893.
Apostles'Creed
York, 1902.
see
A. C. McGiffert, The
Creed, Apostles'
597
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
Hatch, The organizationof the early church, Edwin Organizationofthe Early Christian Churches, London, 1895; Walter and New London York, Lowrie, The Church and Its Organization, 1904; T. M. Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early For
the
and
Centuries,London Constitution and
of
Law
York, 1902; Adolf
New
the Church
von
in the First
Harnack, The Two Centuries,
For the High English translation,London and New York, 1910. Anglican view see Charles Gore, The Ministry of the Christian York, 1909. Church, London, 1889; and his Orders and Unity,New A good guide to the non-canonical literature of earlyChristianity is Gustav Kriiger,Historyof Early Christian Literature in the First London and New York, 1897. Three Centuries,English translation, who
student
The
read German
can
will have
to the monu
recourse
Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, three volumes, Leipzig,1893-1904. mental
work
by
Adolf
von
good brief introduction to Christian archaeologyis Walter Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church, New York, 1901. For the church in the empire after the conversion of Constanof value in The Cambridge Mediaeval tine the student will find much York, 1911. Empire, New History,vol. I, The Christian Roman Good manuals on this period are A. H. Hore, Students' Historyof and New the Greek Church, London York, 1902; and W. F. Adeney, A
Monasticism is Churches, New York, 1908. The Evolution of the Monastic Ideal, discussed by H. B. Workman, London, 1913; and Adolf von Harnack, Monasticism; Its Ideals and A mine of in New Its History,English translation, York, 1895. reader is Max formation for the German Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongregationender Katholichen Kirchet two volumes, PaderThe Greek and
Eastern
born, 1896-97. A
sketch of the councils is that of W.
compact
P.
DuBose,
The
J. fuller is K. Much York, 1896. Hefele, A History of the Christian Councils, English translation, five volumes, Edinburgh, 1871-96.
Ecumenical
Councils, New
specialstudies
Two
St. Patrick
and
His
of unusual
value
are
J. B.
Bury, The Lifeof
Place in
History,London and New York, 1905 ; Gregory the Great: His Place in History and
Dudden, Thought,two volumes, London, 1905.
and
F.
THE
H.
CHURCH
IN
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
AND
TO
THE
REFORMATION.
portionof this periodis well treated in The Cambridge Mcdicsval History,vol. II, The Rise of the Saracem and the Founda A classic exposition tion of the Western Empire, New York, 1913. "The
earlier
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
598
SUGGESTIONS
of the relations of the mediaeval
church
to
the state is James
Bryce,
work of edition,London, 1904. Empire, new the ecclesiastical life and institu wealth regarding tions is Andre Lagarde,The Latin Church in the Middle Ages,English A classic treatment New of the translation, York, 1915. especially is Ferdinand mediaeval papacy Gregorovius,Historyof the City of Rome, English translation,eight volumes, London, 1894-1902. For the latter part of the period(1049-1517)a fresh and suggestive is that of D. S. Schaff in continuation of his father, treatment PhilipSchaff 's Historyof the Christian Church, viz.,vol. V, Parts I and II (each an ample volume), New A general York, 1907, 1910. historyof the period for the advanced student is Wilhelm Moeller, Historyof the Christian Church, vol. II, The Middle Ages, English The
Holy
Roman
A
of information
translation,London, 1893.
Specialtreatises of value are Gustav Kriiger,The Papacy: the New Idea and Its Exponents,English translation, York, 1909; and Francis St. New Paul Sabatier,Lifeof York, 1894. of Assisi, Compact volumes of service are M. R. Vincent, The Age of HilYork, 1896; J. M. Ludlow, The Age of the Crusades, debrand, New New York, 1896j R. L. Poole, Illustrations of the History of Mediceval Thought,London, 1884. For English church historythe student will find the following of use: William Hunt, The English Church from Its Foundation to and the Norman New W. R. W. York, 1899; Conquest,London Conquest to the Stephens, The English Church from the Norman and New Accession of Edward York, 1901 ; W. W. Capes, I, London The English Church in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,Lon don and New York, 1900; G. M. Trevelyan,England in the Age of and New For an York, 1899. unsympathetic Wyclife, London and the James treatment Gairdner, Lollardy see Reformation in England, vol. I, London, 1908. For Huss, David S. Schaff,John Huss, His Life,Teachingsand Death, After Five Hundred Years, New York, 1915; and Schaff 's Church, New York, 1915. For Savonarola, P. Villari, Lifeand Times of Girolamo English translation,two volumes, New York, 1888.
translation of Huss's
Most
valuable
and
The
extensive
of the
Savonarola,
periodpreceding are Creighton,History of the given Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, six volumes, From London and New a Roman York, 1892. point of view, Ludwig Pastor, Historyof the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, the
Reformation
treatments
in Mandell
SUGGESTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
599
GreEnglish translation,twelve volumes, London, 1891-1912. gorovius,History of the City of Rome, already cited, continues of be said of The Cam may great worth for this period. The same bridgeModern History,vol. I, The Renaissance, London and New
York, 1902. REFORMATION.
THE tion T.
The
"
History of the Reformation,two
Lindsay, A
M.
A
York, 1906, 1907.
New
Reformation,New great value by Wilhelm The
will find the best introduc
student
is Williston
succinct treatment A
York, 1900. Moeller
and
elaborate
more
work
of
is Historyof
Kawerau
Gustav
volumes, Walker,
Church, vol. Ill, Reformationand Counter-Reformation, of great wealth of Volumes English translation,London, 1900. and New York, detail are : The Cambridge Modern History,London
the Christian
of Religion; point of view PeopleAfterthe Close
1904-06, vol. II, The Reformation; vol. Ill, The
Thirty Years' War.
vol. IV, The
Wars
the Roman
For
Janssen, Historyof the German of the Middle Ages, English translation,sixteen volumes, London, see
Johannes
A
1896-1910.
brief sketch
good
Reformation,London, lifeof Luther
The
is A.
W.
Ward,
The
Counter-
1889.
is well told in the
following:A. C. McGiffert,
Work, New York, 1911; Preserved Smith, The Life and Letters of Martin Luther, Boston, 1911; H. E. A study of great value York, 1898. Jacobs, Martin Luther, New Luther in the Light of Recent Research, English is H. Boehmer, Martin
Luther, the Man
translation,New that
of Hartmann
and
His
is A Roman estimate of Luther York, 1916. London, Grisar, Luther, English translation,
1913.
Other
leaders
biographiesof Reformation
are:
J. W.
Richard,
York, 1898; Ephraim Emerton, Desiderius Erasmus, New York, 1899 ; S. M. Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli, New York, 1906; York, 1901; Williston Walker, John Calmn, New H. Y. Reyburn, John Calmn, His Life,Letters and Work, London and New York, 1914; H. M. Baird, Theodore Beza, New York, 1899. For German conditions,Henry C. Vedder, The Reformation in For France, H. M. Baird, Historyof Germany, New York, 1914. the Rise of the Huguenots,second edition,five volumes, New York, For the Netherlands, P. J. Blok, Historyof the People 1895-1907. York, of the Netherlands, English translation,five volumes, New 1898-1912; Ruth Putnam, William the Silent,two volumes, New
Philip Melanchthon, New
York, 1895. For
the
Anabaptistmovement,
A.
H.
Newman,
A
History of
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
600
SUGGESTIONS
Anti-P"dobaptism, Philadelphia,1897; Henry History of Balthasar
the
C. Vedder, A
Baptists,Philadelphia[1907];Henry
Hubmaicr,
New
York,
1903; J.
C.
Short
Vedder, Simons,
Horsch, Teaching,Scottdale,Pa., 1916. For contemporary and later developments in the Greek, Russian, and other Oriental Churches: A. H. Hore, Student's Historyof the and New Greek Church, London York, 1902; W. F. Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches, New York, 1908. His
Life,Labours
GREAT
BRITAIN
Menno
and
REFORMATION
SINCE.
The
English carefullytreated by James Gairdner, The English Church from the Accession of Henry VIII to the Death of and New York, 1902; and by W. H. Frere, The Mary, London EnglishChurch in the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I, London and Learned New but unsympathetic is James York, 1904. Gairdner, and the in Lollardy Reformation England, four volumes, London, The Roman 1908-14. point of view is given by F. A. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation,London, 1905. Two biographiesof high value are those of A. F. Pollard,Henry VIII, London, 1905; and
.
Thomas
THE
AND
"
is
Reformation .
IN
.
Cranmer, New
Historyof the
Church
York, 1904.
of England from
See
also R.
the Abolition
W.
of the
Dixon, Roman
five volumes, London, 1878-92. Jurisdiction, An
excellent introduction
merely to the Scottish Reformation but to the whole religious historyof Scotland is that of P. Hume Brown, History of Scotland,three volumes, Cambridge, 1902-09. A good sketch is D. Hay Fleming, The Scottish Reformation,Lon For Knox don, 1910. see Henry Cowan, John Knox, New York, not
1905.
For
the rise and
historyof Non-Conformity valuable introduc tions are: Henry W. Clark, Historyof EnglishNon-Conformity,two volumes, London, 1911, 1913; Champlin Burrage, The Early English Dissenters in the Light of Recent Research, two volumes, Cambridge, 1912; William Pierce, An Historical Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts,London, 1908; R. W. and A. W. W. Dale, London, 1907. Historyof English Congregationalism, A work presentingthe Anglican point of view effectively for the latter part of Elizabeth's reign and the early years of James I is The G. Usher, Roland Reconstruction of the English Church, two and New A general sketch from volumes, London York, 1910. the same standpoint is W. [H. Hutton, The English Church from the Accession of Charles I to the Death of Annet London and New York, 1903.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
SUGGESTIONS
601
in six regarding religiousmovements teenth-centuryEngland, and especiallythe Quakers, is Robert Barclay, The Inner Life of the ReligiousSocieties of the Common For Fox see Thomas wealth,London, 1879. Hodgkin, The Life of from and New York, 1896; and the extracts George Fox, London Fox's Journal, edited by Rufus M. Jones, George Fox, an Autobi 1903. ography,two volumes, Philadelphia,
A
For
of information
mine
Methodist
the
movement
and
its leaders
see
W.
J. Town-
send, H. B. Workman, and George Eayrs, A New Historyof Method Much ism, two volumes, London, 1909. relatingto the religious
England is to be found in W. E. H. Lecky, Historyof England During the EighteenthCentury, eight volumes, London, See also Henry W. 1878-90. Clark, History of English NonConformity,already cited. R. W. Church, The Oxford For the high-church movement see Movement, London, 1891; J. H. Overton, The Anglican Revival, London, 1897; J. H. Newman, Apologiapro vita sua, London, 1864; J. T. Coleridge,A Memoir of John Keble, Oxford, 1869; H. P. Bouverie Puscy, five volumes, London, Liddon, Life of Edward condition
of
1893-99.
GERMANY.
"
History of
For
Pietism
Protestant
and
Rationalism
see
in Theology,Particularly H.
J.
A.
Dorner,
Germany, English E. Guericke, Life
translation,two volumes, Edinburgh, 1871; Moravians, of A. H. Francke, English translation,London, 1837. John Holmes, History of the Protestant Church of the United see Brethren, two volumes, London, 1825, 1830; A. G. Spangenberg, The Life of Nicholas, Count Zinzcndorf,English translation,Lon don, 1838; Augustus C. Thompson, Moravian Missions, New York, 1895. For Rationalism, the followingwork, though unsympathetic, is literature in English: J. F. Hurst, of value in the absence of much
Historyof Rationalism Embracing a Surveyof the Present State of Protestant See also York, 1901. Theology,revised edition,New K. R. Hagenbach, German Edin Rationalism, English translation, burgh, 1864. later developments see For F. A. Lichtenberger,History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century,English translation, Edinburgh, 1889; Otto Pfleiderer,The Developmentof Theology and Its Progressin Great Britain since 1825, London Since Kant and
New
Life
and
York, 1893; Friedrich Paulsen, Immanuel Kant, His Doctrine,English translation,New York, 1902; F. D.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
602
SUGGESTIONS
Schleiermacher,On Religion, English translation,London, 1902; Critical and Historical Study, B. Selbie, Schleiermacher: A W. New York, 1913; A. T. Swing, The Theologyof Albrecht Ritschl, New York, 1901; R. Mackintosh, Albrecht Ritschl and His School, London, 1915. the whole, the most accessible and, on AMERICA. The most E.
"
valuable outlines of the tions in the United Church of this
is
See
States
are
the
series, by L. W.
New
Vol. XIII York, 1893-97. Bacon, A Historyof American Christianity,
life of religious in the Dorchester, Christianity
also Daniel
sketch
denomina principalreligious
those in the series entitled American
History,thirteen volumes,
compendious
a
historyof
of the
the United United
States.
States,New
York, 1895. Denominational
histories of value, besides those
"
in the
Ameri
History" series,are: Abel Stevens, Historyof the Meth odist EpiscopalChurch, four volumes, New York, 1864-67; Charles Its Origin and Early History, A. Briggs,American Presbyterianismr New York, 1885; S. D. McConnell, Historyof the American Epis York, 1890; W. T. Moore, A Comprehensive copal Church, New Historyof the Disciplesof Christ,New York [1909]. life of New A sketch of the religious England is that of G. L. Walker, Some Aspectsof the ReligiousLifeof New England, Boston, Church
can
1897. A
wealth
biographicalinformation
of
isters of many century, may
denominations, be found
in W.
to
the
regarding American middle
of the
nineteenth
Sprague, Annals of the York, 1857-69. Typical B.
Pulpit, nine volumes, New leaders are commemorated religious England Leaders,Boston, 1901;
min
American American
by Williston Walker, Ten New A. V. G. Allen,Jonathan Edwards, Boston, 1889; J. W. Chadwick, William ElleryChanning, Boston, 1903; T. T. Munger, Horace Bushnell,Boston, 1899; J. O. Mur Fisk, ray, Francis Wayland, Boston, 1891; George Prentice,Wilbur Boston, 1890; J. W. Chadwick, Theodore Parker, Boston, 1901; W. W. Newton, Dr. [William A.] Muhlenberg, Boston, 1890; Beecher, Boston, 1903; A. V. G. Lyman Abbott, Henry Ward Allen, Phillips Brooks, New York, 1907. The
followingamong
trative of
many
volumes
in American
may
be cited
as
illus
religious thought: W. N. Clarke, An Outline of Christian Theology,New York, 1898; W. A. York, 1906; Henry C. Brown, Christian Theologyin Outline,New and New King, Theology and the Social Consciousness, London recent
tendencies
other
INDEX of
George, archbishop Abbot, bury, 465, 466. schoolman,
Abelard, 273, Acacius, 135,
church
Severus, school Alexandria, Alexius, Emperors,
158.
of, 157,
the the the
475.
547.
476,
480,
Alogoi, the, 72.
495.
Alva,
missionary, 236. 240. Crusader. Ademar, bishop and 176, 178. Adeodatus, Augustine's son, Adrian VI, Pope, 351, 354, 422.
of
count
338, 345. Ainsworth,
d', theologian,
307,
of
Anastasius, Anaxagoras, Andersson, Andover
340,
286;
V,
303,
Anne,
Great,
the
Alexander
Farnese,
Baptists),
366-
247. 135.
philosopher,
3.
Lars,
385.
reformer, the, controversy,
539,
586.
443. 465.
the,
movement,
547-
of
bishop
of Cleves,
Rome,
Queen
of
64.
Henry
VIII,
of Great Britain, 552. Anne, Queen of Cologne, 227, 228. Anno, archbishop Anselm, 225, 226. bishop of Lucca, of archbishop Anselm, theologian and
347.
114,
276 228, III, 251-253, 308; VI, 318,
Canterbury,
on 264; 233, 263, see 263, 264, 456; 267, 271, 272, 338. missionary, 213, 214, Ansgar,
atonement,
320.
Alexander,
340,
407.
II, 227, 304,
reformer,
549.
146,
Lucca);
von,
also
(see
II, Pope, Emperor,
Anicetus,
of
173,
443.
Jakob, theologian, Lancelot, bishop, Angelico, Fra, painter. 316. Angels, worship of, 171
381.
(see Anselm
165,
Andrew, Andrews,
Brandenburg,
Alciati, Andrea, jurist, 390. Alcuin, scholar, 207, 210, 261. nuncio, 346, Aleander, Girolamo, Alexander, bishop of Alexandria,
128,
141; 167; 176, 190,
461.
453, Anacletus
297.
Mainz,
442,
Anglo-Catholic of
margrave
Popes,
V.
282,
374, 373; beliefs, 368, 369; Minister, Anti-Trini toleration, 375; 457; also tarian, 369, 451; 433, 437, see
Cathari.
archbishop
380,
Anabaptists
308,
Congregationalist,
296,
Nikolaus
Amsdorf,
341.
285,
mentioned,
178;
Aistulf, King, 203, 204. Alaric, Visigoth, 131, 184. 215. Alberic, ruler of Rome, 325, of Mansfeld, Albert, count of Bavaria, 444. Albert V, duke of Prussia, Albert, duke 355, 357. Albertus schoolman, 256, 269. Magnus,
115, 117, Alexander,
radical,
330.
349,
Henry.
Albrecht,
Felix
see
mystic
conspiracy of, 432. 140, bishop of Milan. monasticism. 138; hymns, Augustine, preacher, 168; and
192.
see
Savoy,
Ambrose,
Italy, 132.
cardinal,
of
of Bena,
Amboise,
198.
Kent,
463.
Albigenses,
436.
178.
duke
Amadeus, Amalrich,
Agape, the, 23, 43, 92. Agatho, Pope, 161. 221, 225-227. Agnes, Empress, 327. humanist, Agricola, Rudolf, Aidan. missionary, 197, 199. Aigulf, King, Ailli, Pierre
of, general, 434,
duke
176,
283.
of
King
the
Alypius,
the. 582.
Adventists,
^thelberht,
Albornoz, Albrecht,
III,
IX, King of Leon, 287. the of England, Alfred, Great, King 211. Louis Allemand, d', cardinal, 312. cardinal, 438, 440. Allen, William,
Adaldag,
Aetius,
85.
of, 76, 77. I, 239, 240;
Alfonso
90, 91. Conventicle, 474, 474. Five-Mile, Test, 475, Toleration,
the
269,
243.
Constantinople,
of
Emperor,
Alexander
267,
154.
Acolytes, Act, Act, Act, Act,
also
264-266;
patriarch
schoolman,
276.
275.
Abyssinia,
Hales,
of
Alexander,
Canter
5, 11, 76. of duke Parma,
237.
Anthony,
436-440.
605
monastic
founder,
137.
the also
236,
INDEX
606 the
Antioch,
school
of, 106,
114,
115,
145, 156. 12. King, IV, Epiphanes, of Navarre, 433, 432, King
141,
144,
Antiochus
Antoine, 435.
49-51. Pius, Emperor, theo Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea, logian, 143, 144, 146, 149. Apologists, the, 50. Creed. see Apostles' Creed, Fathers. see Apostolic Fathers, see Poverty. Apostolic poverty, Apostolical succession, see Bishops and Antoninus
of Origen, the, views 82; Anselm, Augustine, 264; 181; 263, Abelard, 272; Calvin, 265; Aquinas, Socinians, 393; 453; Grotius, 456;
Atonement,
573. Edwards, Attila, conqueror,
Succession.
177;
life, 270; theology, Thomas, 271-277; mysticism, 279; see also 256,
conversion,
Aquinas,
291, 324, 332, 340, 562. Arcadius, 131, 142. Emperor, Jewish ruler, 14. Archelaus, Gothic, 245. Architecture,
Aristides, Apologist, 50. 4. Aristotle, 5; system, philosopher, school of Antioch, 145; Leontius, 155; 267, 269; see also 51, 163, 279, 282, 294, 338, 340, 341, 481, 542. Arius, theologian, pupil of Lucian, 106; death, 114-119, 144; controversy, schoolmen,
Aries, Council the Armada,
of,
Council.
see
Great, 439. the Gregorian
Armenia,
Church,
158,
464,
453-457,
466,
468,
Arminius, Jacobus, theologian, Arndt, Johann, mystic, 496. Arnold, Arnold,
controversy, influence on 192; 193; purgatory, Scholasticism, 269; study of, revived, 279, 298, 327; Luther, 337-339; see
also
138,
330,
332,
168, 210, 211, 255, 262, 271, 453, 481, 484, 556, 557.
Augustinus
advo
papal
Triumphus,
cate, 295.
Augustus, Aurelian,
8, 15, 206, 217. Emperor, 129; 84, 87, 104, Emperor, against Paul of Samosata, 73,
Aurelius,
bishop
Authari,
King,
of
Carthage,
186,
192.
140. bishop of Milan. philosopher, 282. the Awakening, Great, 511, 570,
Auxentius,
571,
454.
501. Gottfried, historian, of Brescia, radical, 247, 248. broad-church Thomas, leader,
545.
Arnulf,
215. Emperor, Christology, 72. the 464. Lambeth, the Marburg, 370. 371. Articles, the Schwabach, Articles, the Thirty-nine, 410, 414,
Artemon, Articles, Articles,
Bacon, Sir Francis, philosopher, 483. 243. Baldwin, Emperor, Baldwin I, King, Crusader, 240, 241. Baldwin 241, 243. II, King, Crusader, Ballou, Hosea, Universalist, 576, 577. of Can Bancroft, Richard, archbishop terbury, 462-465. primi Baptism, general view, 93-97; of the church, tive, 24; foundation 42,
415,
the
43,
Francis,
Methodist,
517,
518,
575.
Ascension, the, 169. Asclepiodorus, Christology, 72. Westminster, 471, 472. Assembly, Biblical Astruc, Jean, critic, 528. Ataulf, Visigoth, 131. of Athanasius, theologian, bishop motives, life, 117-125; Alexandria, monasticism, 74,
180;
see
subordina 138; 143, 144, 146,
also
158.
Athenagoras,
Apologist,
50.
in
94;
Trinity,
fore, 61
495.
118; tion,
183, 184; the 207, 212, 229; 178, 182, 185-
578.
516.
Arnold,
church
Averroes,
312.
Arminianism,
Asbury,
Pelagian
fallen
182; the
106.
507.
inventor,
Richard,
177-179, 5, 107; 177, 178; later life, 178; 179; Confessions, 179;
mysticism, the Trinity, 179, 180; man's on
decides
119.
159,
Neo-Platonism,
state, 181, 182; grace, 182, 183; sacraments, 184, City of God,
Aresen, Jon, bishop in Iceland, 384. Arianism, 114-128; missions, 129, 130; renounced, 134, 191, 192.
Arkwright,
132.
Attis, worship of, 10. of Milan, 228. Atto, archbishop Confession of, see Confession. Augsburg, Peace of, see Peace. Augsburg, of Saxony, 443. August, Elector to England, 198. Augustine, missionary Augustine, theologian, early life, 175-
of
name
58,
95;
Christ
instruction
or
of be
previous sins, 68, 95; of, salvation, 94 ; mode with confirmation, 96; from confirmation, 166, 167;
; cleanses
for necessary 96; combined
separated 96; baptism, 95, 96; sponsors, administered, 96, 97 ; valid, by whom Aquinas, 182, 183; 97; Augustine,
infant
273.
Baptists,
see
also
Anabaptists,
English,
368, 465, 466, 472, 477, 478, 519, in America, immersion, 466; 550; 589; 586, 579-581, 585, 566-570, 523. missions, Barlow, William, bishop, 414. 367,
INDEX epistle of, 42, 62. Barnabas, missionary, 27-29. Baro, Peter, Arminian views, 463. Barrowe, Henry, Congregationalist,
Barnabas,
463. of St., 435, 438. Bartholomew, massacre 123. Basil, bishop of Ancyra, Basil, Emperors, I, 236; II, 236.
Basil, the
bishop
Great,
theologian,
and
137, 138, 197, 330. Basilides, Gnostic, 56, 77, 169. and New F. C., historian Testa Baur, ment critic, 536, 539, 541, 543. 125-127,
Baxter, Bayazid
Richard, Puritan,
Beaton, Beaton,
474.
318. II, Sultan, Scottish David, cardinal, 416. of St. An James, archbishop
drews, Beatrice,
416.
Tuscany,
of
countess
225, 226,
230. of
Thomas, archbishop Becket, terbury, 286. Bede, historian, 200, 261. Beecher, preacher Lyman, former,
Can
and
re
583.
the, 260. Beghards, Beguines, the, 260, 283. Belisarius, general, 133. England Bellamy, Joseph, New logian, 572. of monastic Benedict, Aniane, former,
his
138;
219, 246. Benedict, Popes,
monastic "Rule," 139,
re
218,
VIII,
272;
218; 291;
XV,
564. 139, 218,
138,
219.
Albrecht,
Johann
scholar,
Biblical
528.
Italy, 217. Lord's Supper,
II, King on
of
the
263, 265. Berhta, Queen
of
Kent,
262,
198.
philosopher
Berkeley, George, bishop, 489, 507.
Reformation Bern, in, 363, 386. of Clairvaux, life and Bernard,
ings, 246-248, 242; Luther,
265; Second 337, 338; see
and
Crusade, also
Saxe-Weimar,
249,
general,
449.
tyr, 331, Bessarion,
Boniface, Popes, II, 189; VIII, 290-292; IX, 297. Booth, William, Salvation 551. Army, Katherine
mar
bishop
Boston, Thomas, James Bothwell,
of
cardinal
Nicaea, 312,
315.
Anabaptist, reformer,
422,
432.
Giorgio, Unitarian, 451,
452.
356.
214.
Scottish
466.
Bray, Guy de, reformer, Bray, Thomas, Anglican
433.
organizer, 508,
566. of the
Common
Life, the, 281,
282.
William,
Briconnet,
Guillaume,
386,
bishop
of
Maux,
390.
Charles
Briggs,
461,
Congregationalist,
466.
scholar, Browne,
375.
401,
355,
divine, 552. earl of, 421. Hepburn, Botticelli, painter, 316. Bousset, cited, 31, 544. Wilhelm, the Nicholas, Bownde, 466. Sabbath, Bradford, William, Congregationalist,
331, 311,
von,
Borgia, Cesare, 318. Borgia, Lucrezia, 318. Boris, King of Bulgaria,
465,
390.
humanist, Beukelssen, Jan, Beza, Theodore,
Biandrata,
of Africa, 132. missionary bishop, 201-203,
count
Brewster,
of Cluny, 219. Berno, abbot Louis Protestant Berquin, de,
and
Boniface, Boniface,
Brethren of
theologian, mystic, 261,
279.
465, teach
266.
Bernhard,
398.
Bonaventura,
Bora,
Benedictines,
Berengar Berengar,
Blaurock, Georg, Anabaptist, 367, 369. Bobadilla, Nicolas, Jesuit, 425. 314. Boccaccio, humanist, the, 235, 249. Bogomiles, Bogue, David, missions, 523. of Taranto, Bohemund, Crusader, 240. Bohler, Peter, Moravian, 512, 514. Jakob, Bohme, mystic, 451. Boleslaus I, King, 237. Boleyn, Anne, Queen, 402, 403, 405. Bolsec, Jerome Hermes, with contest
209.
V,
IX, 218, 221. 222; X, 226; XI, XIII, 298, 308, 309; XIV, 555;
Bengel,
relative rank, 89; choice ordina and tion, 89, 90; metro 91; support, politans, 164, 165, 208, 209; incomes, 165; under Charlemagne, 208; arch bishops, 209, 212; English, 414; Danish, Mora Swedish, 384; 385; vian, 502-505; 517, 518. Methodist,
270,
Nursia,
of
former,
Bible, reading of, prohibited, 253. Biddle, John, Unitarian, 494. Biel, Gabriel, theologian, 338. Bilson, Thomas, bishop, Anglican con troversialist, 462. Bishops, in Jerusalem, ? 24; collegiate, 45, 46; monarchical, 47; apostolical succession, 48; the Gnostic struggle. 59-61; Rome, 64; Cyprian, 70, 89; guardians of the faith, 88; discipline, 88; city and country bishops, 88;
Calvin, re
219.
218,
Benedict,
theo
607
Augustus,
Biblical
586.
Robert,
Congregationalist,
462.
Bucer, see Butzer. Bude, Guillaume,
scholar, 331, 390.
608
INDEX
Bugenhagen, 364,
Johann,
371,
reformer,
349,
384.
Bullinger, Heinrich, 365. reformer, William Burghley, 413. Cecil, Lord, the, 130-134. Burgundians, theo Bushnell, Horace, Congregational logian, 584. Butler, Joseph, bishop, theologian, 487, 489,
Butzer,
490,
507.
Martin,
372, 376,
377,
with
reformer, 386,
392,
Bolsec,
398;
victory, 399, 400; death, influence, 400; 399;
246, 366, 376, 424,
255,
341, 394, 396,
363, 410.
411,
415,
with
Serve
academy, 401; see 417-419,
tus, 400; also
423,
431.
in Germany, Calvinism, 443, 444, 450. the, 477, 478. Cameronians, Campbell, 'Alexander, Disciple, 581, 582. Thomas, Campbell, Disciple, 581. Lorenzo, Campeggio, papal legate, 355, 372.
Catherine
438,
424. Giovanni
Caraffa, Paul
IV, 375,
Cardinals, formed
elections,
Pietro,
later
Pope
424, 428. the, origin of, 222, 223; re IX, 223; in papal by Leo 423,
227.
Carey, William, missionary, 522, 523. Caroli, Pierre, controversialist, 395. and colonial Carolina, North South, religious conditions, 566. J. B., theologian, 498, 499. Carpzov, Carroll, John, 573, archbishop, 574, 579.
Carthusians, the, 404. Cartwright, Edmund, inventor, 507. Cartwright, Thomas, Puritan, 459, 460. Castellio, Sebastien, toleration, 399. the Heidelberg, Catechism, 443, 455. the Racovian, Catechism, 452.
235.
Queen Queen
of
of
Eng
France,
440.
I, Pope, heathen
Celsus,
147,
148.
controversialist,
80,
105.
Celtes, Conrad, humanist, 328, 56. Cerdo, Gnostic, Council and creed Chalcedon, Council, Creed. Scottish Chalmers, Thomas,
360.
of,
see
leader,
554.
Chandieu, Antoine, Calvinist, 431. W. 577. E.f Unitarian, Channing, life and Charlemagne, work, Emperor, 205-208; 209; see
relation
to the
church,
207-
also
216132, 139, 210-212, 218, 234, 285, 326, 346. the Bald, Charles, 210. Emperor, the duke of Burgundy, Charles, Bold, 326. Charles
of Savoy, 388. III, duke 302. IV, Emperor, Charles V, Emperor, election, 346; at Worms, 371347, 348; at Augsburg, Charles
373;
King, 236. Wolfgang, reformer, 363. Caracalla, 79, 84, 85. Emperor, Caraccioli, of Vico, Galeazzo, marquis
107,
439.
great 380;
521.
also
de, Medici, 435,
Celestine
Cano, Canon,
Canute, Capito,
see
Catherine, St., of Siena, 297, 319. Catholic, the description, 59. under Catholics, English, Elizabeth,
Campion,
Jesuit Edmund, 438. martyr, Melchior, theologian, 324, 428. Marcion's, 62. 57; Muratorian, Canon law, see Law. Canstein, K. H. of, Bible society, 500,
288;
of Aragon, Catherine, land, 402, 403, 405.
432,
Csecilian, bishop of Carthage, 113. Caesarius, bishop of Aries, 189, 193. Thomas Cajetanus, Vio, cardinal, 342. Calixtus, Popes, I, see Kallistos; II, 234; III, 316-318. Calvin, John, early life,389, 390; con version, 391; the Institutes, 392, 394, in Italy, 394, 396; theology, 392-394; in 395; stay early Geneva, 395; in banished, 396; Strassburg, 396; return to Geneva, 396; ecclesiastical constitution, 396-398; contests, 398, 399;
the Westminster, 472. Catechism, Catechumens, 166, 167. the, and Cathari, spread teachings, 249-251, 255; crusade against, 253-
reunion
plan,
efforts,
his 396; Interims, death, 382;
376, the
375-379;
failure,
381, 382; 322, 324, 326, 329, 343, 351, 356, 392, 402, 403, 407, 411, 423, 427, 430, 433. of England, I, policy, Charles, Kings see
also
468-470;
the
executed,
473;
civil
470-472;
war,
II, restoration
and
480. policy, 473-475, V, 307; Charles, Kings of France, 313; VIII, 318, 320; IX, 432,
VII, 435,
436.
Charles
Martel,
ruler
of
208. 160, 200-203, of Anjou, Charles Naples,
the
288,
Franks, 289.
Charles, Chauncy, Liberal, 573. Martin, Chemnitz, theologian, 443. T. K., Biblical Cheyne, scholar, 546. of, 557. Choiseul, duke life and Christ, see teaching, 14-20; Christology. II, 383Christian, Kings of Denmark, 385; III, 383, 384; IV, 447; VI, 504. Christmas,
celebration
Christology, Pauline, John,
38, 39; 51,
Martyr,
of, 169.
24, 23, 35; primitive, 36, 37; the synoptics, 37, 38; Hermas, 52;
39, 72; Justin 53-55;
Gnostic,
INDEX Marcion,
56, 57; Irenseus, 66; Ter75, 114; 71, Logos Christology, see Logos; Monarchians, Paul of 72-75; Samosata, 72, 73; Sabellius, 73, 74; Hippolytus. 74, 75; 75; Kallistos, Novatian, 75-76; of Alexandria, Clement 78; Origen, tullian,
69,
"he
Arian 114controversy, great Christological con troversies, 143-161; Apollinaris, 144; school of NesAntioch, 144, 145; torius, 145, 146; Cyril, 146; "Mother
81,
82;
128;
the
of
God," 146-148; Eutyches, 150; Chalcedon, 151, 152; Monophysites, 153; Leontius, 179155; Augustine, and 181; Felix, Elipandus 207; Paulician, 235; Cathari, 249, 250; Eckhart, 280; Servetus, 399; Socinian, 452, 453; Moravian, 505, 506; Hegelian, 535; Ritschlian, 543. Chrodegang, bishop of Metz, 209. Stoic Chrysippus, philosopher, 6. Greek scholar Chrysoloras, Manuel, ship. 315. ,
Chry_sijsJtoin7" career 142;
see
also
146,
'and
services, 141,
169,
188,
330.
Church, the, early use of name, 22, 23 ; by Paul, 32; early conceptions, 42, 43; primitive organization, 23; char ismatic of leaders, 44; development the officers, 45-48; the Catholic 59;
Cyprian the
on,
name
"Catholic,"
Church, 59-63; in 70, 71; organization
third
of whom 87-91; century, composed, 102; experiential Chris for salvation, tians, 102; an agency Constantino 103; freedom, brings States of 108, 112; property, 165; the Prankish church, 204; church, 208, Augustine 209; 182, 183; on, of Padua Marsilius 294; Wyclif on, 299, 300; Huss 303; Prierio on, on, Luther Cal 342; 351, 352; on, on, vin on, 394; Lutheran, 357, 358, 371; 368; Anabaptist, Congregational, 461.
Church, Church,
the
Catholic
Apostolic,
550.
the
Jansenist, 557. in American col England, the onies, 565-569; organized as Protestant and Episcopal bishops secured, 574, 575; divisions, 584, 585; confer world growth, 585; proposed
Church
ence,
of
589.
Cid, the, 239. Cimabue, painter, 316. Cistercians, the, 245, 246. Clark, Francis E., Christian
Clemens, Clement,
Flavius, consul,
33.
of
Alexandria, theologian, life and teaching, 77-79, 83. of Rome, Clement, Father, Apostolic 35, 36, 42, 46, 48, 61, 63, 89. Clement, Popes, II, 222; III, CounterPope, 231, 232, sec Wibert; IV, 289;
V, 284, 291, 292, 295; VI, 294 (VII, VII, 297, Avignon, 298); 354-357, 372,
375,
402,
403,
XIV,
422;
558.
Clement, Second, sermon, 42, 102. Cleomenes, Christology, 73. le, Biblical scholar, 528. Clerc, Jean from Clergy, distinguished laity, 89; major and minor orders, 90, 91 ; legal 112. exemptions, Clerical celibacy and marriage, 104, 162,
165,
166,
213,
Clovis, Frankish Cluny, monastery,
547.
232,
King,' 133, 134, 200. founded, 219; aims,
219-221.
Coccejus, Johann, theologian, 472. Coelestius, Pelagian, 186, 187. Coke, Thomas, Methodist, 517, 518, 575.
C.olenso, J. W., bishop, 546. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, philosopher, 545,
584.
Colet, John,
humanist,
315,
329,
331,
401.
Coligny, 433,
Gaspard
de, Huguenot,
432,
435.
Collins, Anthony, Deist, 487. 370. Colloquy, the Marburg, British Colman, bishop, 199. Sciarra, adventurer, Colonna, 291. Columba, to Scotland, 196. missionary Conti to the Columbanus, missionary 197.
nent,
Comgall, Commodus, Compton,
Irish
founder, 197. 49, 84, 85. Emperor, of London, Henry, bishop
508.
Concordats, 285; 322;
papal,
with with
of
Ferdinand Francis
Worms, 234, Isabella,
and
I, 319,
321;
with
Napoleon, 558, 559. Conde, Louis, prince of, 432, 433. Confession, public, 100, 101; private, 197, 208, 352; required, 275, 288. the Confession, 371, Augsburg, 373, 383, 386, Confession, Confession,
444, the the
505.
Belgic, 433, Westminster,
456.
471,
472,
478. of 166, Confirmation, development Congregationalists, the, origin principles, 460-463; emigration Holland and America, 465, 466, also for England, see 472, 473, 495, 519, 523, 550; in America, ,
Endeavor,
588.
Clarke, Samuel, Arian, 494. 26. Claudius, Emperor, Claudius Gothicus, Emperor, Stoic Cleanthes, philosopher, Clemanges, Nicholas of, 307.
609
129. 6, 7.
568, 570, 579, 580, 589. Conrad, Kings and Emperors,
II, 218,
221;
III, 242;
167. and to
469; 477, 567,
I, 216;
IV, 288,
289.
INDEX
610 of Conrad, theory, 307.
preacher,
212,
I, 119-121;
II,
161.
donation
of,
204,
I, Emperor, 110; struggle, of Milan, 111;
108, Edict
Christian,
a
10, 120, 128, 129, 136, Constantino, Emperors, 162,
235;
VI,
II, 119;
Chlorus,
108,
243,
James, discoverer, Coornhert, Dirck, Dutch
Chalcedon
(451)
135, 149, 151-153,
343.
Council, of Constantinople (381) (Sec ond General), 127, 144. Council, of Constantinople (553) (Fifth General), 83, 157, 161. of Constantinople Council, (680-681) (Sixth General), 161, 162. Council, of Elvira, 105. Council, of Ephesus (431) (Third Gen eral), 148, 149, 171, 188. (449), the "Synod Council, of Ephesus of Robbers," 150, 151. and of Ferrara Council, Florence, 312, 315.
Council, sion
Fourth
275, 263, 274,
Council, of Nicaea
,
Creed, Creed,
of
Toledo,
134,
403,
London,
poet,
trans
520. of
archbishop
Can
409-412.
406,
405,
478.
and
bishop
Apostles', Chalcedon,
61, 76.
151-153;
see
also
271.
128,
Oliver, protector, 472, 473. 473. Richard, protector, VIII 's Thomas, Henry
Cromwell, Cromwell, Cromwell,
404,
agent,
407.
406,
Crusades, the, 238-245; First, 239-241; of Jerusalem, 242; Kingdom 241, Second, 242; military orders, 241, Fourth, Third, 247, 249; 243; later ef Childrens', 244; 243, 288; forts, 244; results, 244, 245. Nicholas of, scholar, 205, 327. Cues, 242,
Presbyterian
Church,
the,
580. 568. Episcopalian, Timothy, of, 10. Cybele, worship life and Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, teachings, 70, 71; on baptism, 95, 97;
Cutler,
on
the
Lord's
87, 90-92,
99 Supper, 173, 175,
101,
; see
also
73,
193.
of Jerusalem, 128. Cyril, missionary, 214. Alexan of bishop Cyril, theologian, 154dria, 146-150, 153; theology,
Cyril, bishop
157,
171;
see
also
163,
167,
168,
172,
330.
Damasus,
Popes, I, 127, 174; II, 222. Alighieri, poet, 277, 293. Breth John Nelson, Plymouth
288.
Darnley,
180.
of
208.
Darby,
Gen
see
555.
the Nicene, 116, 128. Nicene-Constantinopolitan,
Dante
(325) (First General),
antece
422-430;
470,~471, 477,
Thomas,
255; confes transub288;
also 76, 135, 164. 115-117; see of Nicsea Council, (787) (Seventh eral), 163, 172, 207. of Pisa, 303, 307, 308. Council, of Sardica, Council, 121, 135. of
311,
Lateran,
required,
stantiation,
Council,
the,
Cumberland
171. of and 308-311; Council, Constance, Huss, 304, 305; see also 313, 317, 327,
Superero
bishop
Miles,
153-157,
151,
(Fourth 157, 159,
284.
William,
terbury, .Creed, the
Screed,
522.
251.
561.
321, 322; course, 355, 434, 444-446,
Cranmer,
315. 109.
327. of
theory, 294, 307-
Lateran,
lator, 406, 414. William, Cowper,
112; 267,
scholar, 454. humanist, 390. Cop, Guillaume, Cop, Nicolas, friend of Calvin, 391. 483. Copernicus, Nicolaus, astronomer, Cordier, Mathurin, scholar, 389. 102. Cornelius, bishop of Rome, Cotton, John, 469. Congregationalist, Council, of Basel, 305, 310-312, 316,
General),
Vienne,
Covenanters,
IV,
423-425.
Cook,
Council,
Coverdale,
119-125. Constantius, Emperor, Contarini, cardinal, 375, 376, Gasparo,
Council,
427.
381,
299.
163.
of,
Third
Vatican,
Courtenay,
237.
222,
foundation Constantinople, captured by Crusaders, 268; by Turks, 285, 312, Constantius
conciliar
Council, Council,
also
toward
policy
church, 112, 113, 165, 170, 171; Donatists, 113, 114; Arians, 114-119; baptism, 95, 119; death, 119; see also
V,
380,
dents,
the
109-111;
the
161;
378,
of Perfection, see Counsels, gation. Counter-Reformation, the,
205,
315.
Constantino
the
Council,
289.
Emperors,
Constantino,
Trent,
311.
executed,
Constans, 160,
Bohemian
302.
Conradin,
of
Council, 428.
Waldhausen,
of
Conrad,
conciliar
Gelnhausen,
ren,
551.
Henry
Stewart,
Lord,
420,
421. Charles scientist, 552. Robert, Darwin, John, Congregationalist, Davenport, 469.
David,
Christian,
Moravian,
91. Deaconesses, Deacons, early, 23, 45-47,
503, 90.
504.
INDEX
612 controversialist,
Eutyches,
153,
150,
154.
English,
the
Evangelicals,
519-523,
bishop
Electors
Palatine,
(King
V
200-
195,
130,
III, 443; Bohemia), 446,
of
450.
of
86,
martyr,
Rome,
386-
331,
reformer,
of
326,
286;
285,
III, 325. Frederick, Kings
Denmark,
of
,
I, 383;
IV, 500. Frederick,
Frederick
(CounterPope), 312. 479. Fell, Margaret, Quaker, of I (brother Ferdinand, Emperors, 446Charles 358, 381; II, 355, V), 448, 450; III, 450. Ferdinand, Spanish Kings, I of Castile, "Catholic"
I (Barbarossa) II, 244, 269, 287,
Emperors,
248,
333, 338, 342, 343, 347, 348, 350, 355. Elec "Great the William,
ican, 588, 589. Felix, bishop of Urgel, 207. V III, 135; Felix, Popes,
322-324,
243, 288;
Kings of Prussia, I, 499; II (the Great), 492, 526. Frederick, of Austria, 280, 293. Stephen, Frederick, of Lorraine, Pope IX, 224. of Saxony, Frederick, the Wise, Elector
389, 391, 395, 396. 546. F. W., broad-church, Farrar, the Apostolic, 42, 53. Fathers, Faustus, bishop of Riez, 189. 176. Manichaean, Faustus, Amer of Churches, Federal Council
the
191, papacy, 131.
also
Frederick,
90, 101. Farel, Guillaume,
239; 318,
the
and
IV, 445;
544, 546. 552. Evolution, Exorcists, 90, 91. Fabian,
136;
208; see Frederick,
Aragon,
402;
see
tor," 450. William
I, King
Frederick
of
Prussia,
525.
vivals, 569, 570. Frith, John, Protestant
Fritigern, Visigoth,
283,
Froment,
Isa
Froude,
Antoine, R. H.,
American
J.,
T.
Frelinghuysen,
martyr,
re
406.
130. 388.
reformer,
547,
Anglo-Catholic,
548.
bella.
87. martyr, missionary,
Fructuosus, Frumentius,
influence of, 210. Feudalism, Fichte, J. G., philosopher, 534, 545. Ficino, Marsilio, philosopher, 315. 460. Puritan, John, Filioque, clause, the, 208, 213, 312 Irish monk, 196. Finian, of Clonard, Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea, 97. 494. Unitarian, Firmin, Thomas, Fisher, John, bishop of Rochester, 401,
158. 388.
champion,
Roman
Guy,
Furbity,
Field,
404,
Congregationalist, 461. Fitz, Richard, (Illyricus), Lutheran Flacius, Matthias 442. historian, 380, Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, 149-151.
John
Fletcher,
of
William,
Madeley,
Estienne
de
la, Protestant
mar
tyr, 392.
Forgiveness, Formosus, Formula
see
Pope,
Sins. 215.
of Concord,
the
Lutheran,
443,
562. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, Gaunilo, reply to Anselm, Gelasius, Pope, 135. work
320, 407, 416; 343, 354, 356, 376, 390-392, ,11,409, 413, 418, 419, 431, 432. 559. Francis II, Emperor, 424. of Assisi, 255, 257-260, Francis, Terthe 258-261; the, Franciscans, in 261; 260, divisions, tiaries, 260;
America,
565.
August
Hermann,
Pietist,
498-502.
Franklin,
Gentile, George, George, George, 359,
492. Benjamin, the, conversion
of, 133,
Calvin,
before
Geneva,
263. 387-389;
Cal
in, 395-400. radical, 451. 123. Laodicea, of Saxony, 374, 377.
Giovanni,
bishop duke
of
Brandenburg-Ansbach,
of
355,
371.
colonial
religious conditions,
Johann,
theologian,
567.
478-480. George, Quaker, I, 319, Francis, Kings of France,
Francke,
385.
champion, Galle, Peter, Roman 87, 104. Emperor, Gallienus, 86. Gallus, Emperor, 197. Gallus, missionary, 26. Gamaliel,
Georgia,
444.
Fox,
Franks,
Galilei, scientist, 483.
Galileo
vin's
516.
Forge,
chief, 132. Gaiseric, Vandal 108-110. Galerius, Emperor,
134,
Gerhard, Gerhard,
of
Brogne,
monastic
444.
reformer,
220.
Gerhardt, German
Paul, hymn"Reformed"
writer, 451. 444. Churches,
the, 281. Theology, 195. of Auxerre, bishop Germanus, 502. Katherine Gersdorff, von, Jean de, theologian, 307, 308. Gerson, historian, 493. Edward, Gibbon, Scottish leader, 553. Thomas, Gillespie,
German
Giotto,
painter,
316.
INDEX Gnosticism,
39; teaching, 53"Chris a reply, 60-64; 77, 78; also 235. Gnosticism,"
tian
God,
causes,
Catholic
56;
"Friends
Godfrey, Godfrey,
of,"
281.
of Milan, 228. archbishop of Bouillon, Crusader, 240,
241. of
Godfrey,
Lorraine, count
of
Tuscany,
226.
225,
J. W.
Goethe, Gomarus,
527,
poet,
von,
530, 532. 454, 456.
theologian,
Franz,
Gordian,
85. Emperor, Gospels, written, 34, 35, 60; ture," 61, 62, 67; Baur on
Gottschalk,
monk,
Tertullian
"Scrip the, 536,
211.
68, 69; Augustine, 272-274; Calvin, 393. on,
182; Aquinas, Granvella, cardinal,
statesman,
433,
434.
Gratian,
Canonist,
292.
Gratian, 127, 128. Emperor, Gravitation, 483, 552. Grebel, Conrad, Anabaptist,
Greenwood,
John,
366.
Congregationalist,
466.
Gregorian Gregory,
Armenia. Church, see of bishop Alexandria,
120,
121.
Gregory, of Nazianzus, preacher, theo 146. logian, 125-127, 167, 169, 174. of Gregory, 125Nyssa, theologian, 127,
168.
the
Franks, also 191, 200; 157, see 212, 222, 262; II, 201, 212; III. 162, V, 217; VI, 221, 223; 201-203; VII, Hildebrand; see IX, 244, 254, 258, 259, 288. 292; X, 290; XI, 297-299; 430. XII, 298, 303, 308, 309; XV, the Gregory, "Illuminator," Jane, 411. Grey, Lady
Gribaldi,
Matteo,
158.
170, 543.
Thomas,
Hegel,
G.
W.
Missions,
523.
F., philosopher,
534-536,
451.
Francis, Mary
Scotland,
of
Lorraine,
duke
of,
432,
433
of
Lorraine,
regent
of
416-418.
Adolphus,
IV,
223;
Kings
II, 286; VII,
of
III,
403,
321;
404;
teries
VI,
234;
England,
403
I, 233,
; breach
confiscated, 408;
412-416,
404,
Kings 431; 440,
also
see
457, of
V,
desires
with
407;
Rome, monas
religious
408;
321,
234; 301;
marries
head, 404;
supreme
the
230; see 286, 287.
IV,
288;
attitude, 406, 407; death, under,
with
contest
Canossa,
301; VIII, 401-408; annulled, 402;
marriage Anne Boleyn,
parties
331,
378,
463.
France,
III, 436, 437, 441, 445.
II, 381, 418, IV, 435,
440;
Henry,
of Lausanne, radical, 248. Heraclitus, philosopher, 3, 6, 52. Heraclius, Emperor, 159, 160. Herbert, Edward, of Cherbury, Deist,
Herder, J. G. von, inquirer, 532, 545. Hermann, 543. Wilhelm, of Rome, Hermas, The Shepherd, 39 4246, 62, 72, 100, 102, Herod Agrippa, 24. Herod,
High King
of
Sweden,
447-449.
Hadrian,
218,
487.
435.
Gustavus
also
228-233; papacy, also 239; V, 233,
436,
432.
Guise,
Hegius, Alexander, 327: humanist, of Saxony, Heinrich, duke 379. of Heinrich, Langenstein, conciliar theory, 307. Heinrich of Reuss, 502. XXIX, Heloise (Abelard), 264. Helvidius, 175. Helwys, Thomas, Baptist, 465. Hengstenberg, E. W., theologian, 537. Henoticon, the, 135, 154. duke of Guise, 435, 436, 440. Henry, German Henry, and Kings Emperors, I (the Fowler), 216, 218; II, 218, 221; the papacy, III, rescues 221-225; see
430,
radical,
455-457, 486, 573. of Spoleto, 215. Guido, Guise, Charles, cardinal
rian,
Haweis,
Henry,
of Can Grindal, Edmund, archbishop terbury, 460, 462. Groot, Gerhard, mystic, 281. Grotius, Hugo, publicist, theologian,
Haetzer,
19, 46,
Harold, King of Denmark, 236. Harris, Howell, Revivalist, 513. Harrison, Robert, Congregationalist,
Henry,
Gregory, Popes, I (the Great), 190-193; of Eng papal claims, 191 ; conversion land, 192, 198; theology, 192, 193;
Hadrian
236. I, King of Norway, Hallet, Joseph, Arian, 494. Hamilton, 583. Alexander, Hamilton, 416. Patrick, burned, Harding, Stephen, Cistercian, 246. Hargreaves, James, inventor, 507. Adolf Harnack, historian, cited, von,
539.
Grace,
431, Guise,
Hakon
461. as
537.
463,
613
103,
193.
the Great, 14, 24. Commission, Court, 463, 470, 475
477.
Hilary, bishop Emperor, IV,
pope,
Ludwig,
369, 451,
25, 49,
50,
73.
248.
Anabaptist 494.
Unita
of Poitiers, 122, 123. Hildebrand, Pope, early career, 223, 224 223 ; the real leader, ; sub-deacon, 225-227; Pope, 228-232; Canossa.
230;
posed,
aims, 239;
229, see
crusade 285; pro 212, 220, 233.
also
INDEX
614 of
archbishop
Hincmar,
Rheims,
210-
and theo Hippolytus, Counter-Pope logian, 74, 75, 79, 85. Thomas, Hobbes, philosopher, 486. Hochstraten, inquisitor, 335, Jakob,
Hoen,
John,
bishop, Lord's
Cornelius,
Hoffmann,
Melchior,
the, 162, 163. of the, 428. of theory
controversy,
Index,
Congregation Indulgences, growth practice,
for
276;
and
purgatory,
317;
H.
scholar,
Supper, 364. 374, Anabaptist, New
Testament
Spirit.
see
the,
party,
Homoiousion
VIII,
127,
123-125,
130.
the,
party,
Honorius,
Hooker,
76,
116-128.
131, 132, I, 160,
Emperor, Honorius, Popes, (Counter-Pope),
227;
187.
III, 255.
Ecclesiastical
Richard,
II
161;
Polity,
463.
462,
Hooker,
Congregationalist,
Thomas,
bishop, 406, 412. de 1',statesman,
John, Michel
Sophy,
432.
512.
Hosius,
of
bishop
Cordova,
115,
116,
Hospitallers, the, 242. John, philanthropist, 520, 521. Howard, Hrabanus of Maurus, archbishop scholar, 210, 211, 261. Mainz, Balthasar, Hubmaier, Anabaptist, 366, abbot of Cluny, 221, 224. Hugh, of Vermandois, 240. Crusader, Hugh, the White, cardinal, 223, 229. Hugh, de Payens, 241. Templar, Hugo, of St. and Victor, theologian Hugo, mystic, 266, 267, 273, 279. the, 431-441, 556, 558; in Huguenots,
America,
566,
490,
491,
553.
Hut, Hutten,
see
369, 374. Anabaptist, agitator, 336, von,
Ignatius,
theologian,
Reformation
Apostolic
tyr, 40-42,
Castile,
322-324,
422.
Ernst, Hussite
Jablonski, Daniel
194.
bishop,
504.
502, Jacob,
Henry,
Congregationalist, the, 158.
466.
Church,
James, James,
24.
Apostle, the
Lord's
brother, 24-28. epistle of, 34. and James, Kings of England Scotland, I (VI of Scotland), policy, 464, 466, 467; 467, 470; bishops in Scotland, also 416, 421 ; II (VII of Scotland), see
James,
149,
156.
and
mar
in, 384. Father
429.
416. V, King of Scotland, Janitors, 90, 91. Jansen, Cornelius, theologian, 556.
Jansenism, Jansenist
Jefferson,
556, 557. Church, 557, 561. 492. Thomas, of
Jerome, Jerome,
Prague,
Vulgate, 188,
305.
life and
scholar,
187, 344.
47, 48, 59, 63, 66, 96, 98. founder of the Loyola,
Ignatius, of Jesuits, 424-426,
402,
Isidore, bishop of Seville, 193, of, 10, 96. Isis, worship 233. Ivo, bishop of Chartres,
the
343.
Ulrich
Ibas, of Edessa, Iceland,
also
243. of
Queen
347,
Apostolic
James
227.
Laurence, Puritan, 458. Humphrey, 515. Humphreys, Joseph, Methodist, of, 516. Selina, countess Hunting-don, life Bohemian reformer, John, Huss, and death, 306; teaching, 302-304, 309; Hans,
Catholic
475^78.
569.
cardinal, 223-225, Humbert, David, Hume, philosopher, 530,
163.
550. Church, Isaac II, Emperor,
Jacobite
369.
367,
330.
326,
122.
121,
318,
Inquisition, Spanish, 324; world- wide, 424. Interims, the, 380, 410. the 216, 224-226; Investiture, causes, struggle, 228-234. Irenseus, theologian, life and teaching, 65-67; 60, 61, reply to Gnosticism, 63; see also 67, 71, 95, 98-100, 170,
Isabella,
Samuel, theologian, 572. 434. Netherlander, count,
Horn,
252-254, 258, 268, 283; 288; VI, 296; VII, 298; 555. 333; XI, 555; XII, established, the, 254;
Irene, Empress, Edward, Irving,
469.
Hooper, Hopital, Hopkey, Hopkins,
243,
IV, 254, 261,
122.
the,
party,
Homoousion
also
289;
540.
Spirit,
Homoion
J.,
304; Luther, 340-343. 95, 96. baptism, Infant 99, 274. communion, Ingersoll, Robert G., 492. Innocent, Popes, I, 134, 135; see also 142, 187, 190; II, 247, 265; III, 286Infant
414.
375.
Holtzmann,
305,
Image
Huss,
336.
Hodgkin,
Holy
patriarch of Constantinople,
Ignatius, 213.
213.
174;
190,
see
work, also
330.
Jesuits, origin, 425-427; 559; see 558; restored, 453, 430, 444, 445, 565. America, Joachim, Joan Johan
John,
of
173-175; 46, 138, 170,
abolished, also
Floris, 261.
Arc, 312. of Sweden, 386. III, King Apostle, 23, 24, 28, 33.
of
557,
220, 429, in 556, 560;
615
INDEX bishop of Antioch, 148. 187. bishop of Jerusalem, and monk writer, Cassianus,
John, John, John
Duns
John
Scotus,
Fidanza, Frederick,
John
see
Scotus.
see
542,
Bonaventura. of
Elector
371,
Saxony,
407.
379, John
of
III, Elector
George Gospel
John
John,
60, 62, 537,
of, 35, 38-40,
540.
539,
Hyrcanus, King of the Jews, 13. of 288, 287, England, King
295.
John, John,
of of
436. Austria, governor, Damascus, theologian,
163,
164.
John, John, John,
of
Gaunt, Janden,
of of
298,
299.
publicist, 293. Corvino, missionary,
Monte
284.
Paris, political theorist, Popes, IV, 160; VIII, 214; 217; XIX, 215, 217; XIII, 292, 278, XXII, 261, 280* 304. 308, 309. XXIII, 210. John, Scotus "Erigena," John, the Baptist, 16, 18, 20, 93, of the John, Faster, patriarch stantinople, 191. Elector the John, "Steadfast,"
John, John,
of
Saxony,
355,
218; 294;
94. Con
235, 236. Tzimiskes, Emperor, III, King of Portugal, 429. John 311. VIII, Emperor, Congregationalist, Johnson, Francis, 466.
568. Johnson, Episcopalian, Samuel, Jonas, Justus, reformer, 349, 371. Joseph, King of Portugal, 557. 492. Joseph II, Emperor, of Constanti Joseph II, patriarch nople, 311. 125. Jovian, Emperor, 175. Jovinianus, Juan de la Cruz, mystic, 429. of Spain, 326. Juana, Queen Jud, Leo, reformer, 362. 187. Julian, bishop of Eclanum, 156. Julian, of Halicarnassus, Emperor, Julian, the "Apostate," 123, 124.
Julius, Popes, I, 120, 121; II, 318, 319, 402; III, 381. Junius, Franz, theologian, 454. I, 154; II, 157, 190. Justin, Emperors, theo Justin and Martyr, Apologist logian, 50-52; see also 43, 66, 68, 71, 77, 78, 92, 94, 95, 98.
134,
162,
164,
166,
I, see
190;
theological also
83,
II, 161
Kramer, Kublai
of
John
140. Justina, Empress, Justinian, Emperors, politician, 154-157;
349,
350,
353,
383.
415.
410,
Heinrich, 284. Khan,
inquisitor, 333.
Lainez, Diego, Jesuit, 425, 427. Laity, the, 89. 215. Lambert, Emperor, 357. Lambert, Francis, reformer, of Lanfranc, archbishop Canterbury,
John
463,
343,
543. Ferdinand, Kattenbusch, 547, 548. Keble, John, Anglo-Catholic, John a, 282. Kempis, Thomas Imitation, 282. a, the Kempis, 196. Kentigern, missionary, 483. astronomer, Kepler, Johann, of Mosul, 241. Kerbogha, Sultan 197. Kilian, missionary, broadCharles, English Kingsley, church, 546. Robert, at Oxford, 510. Kirkham, of St. John, see Hospitallers. Knights see Knox, John, life and work, 416-422; also
371.
357-359,
Elector Palatine, 450. Ludwig, Bodenstein of, 340, Karlstadt, Andreas
293.
XII,
530-535,
545.
Karl
Saxony,
499.
John,
103.
Kanis, Peter, Jesuit, 427. philosopher, Kant, Immanuel,
188. John
Christology, Kallistos, bishop of Rome, 74, 75; forgiveness, 101; the church,
133,
262,
273.
263,
of Can Langton, Stephen, archbishop terbury, 287. Arian, 495. Lardner, Nathaniel, Latimer, Hugh, bishop, 406, 412. of Canter William, Laud, archbishop bury, 468-471. 87. Laurentius, martyr, 292. Law, the canon, Law, William, Nonjuror, 488, 489, 508, 510.
League,
of
373, 376, 378.
Schmalkalden,
379.
League,
the
Catholic,
in
France,
436,
440.
Lectionaries, Le
167.
Fevre, Jacques, 386,
humanist,
315,
331,
390.
Lefevre, Pierre, Jesuit, 425. Legate, Bartholomew, burned, 494. Gottfried Leibnitz, philos Wilhelm, opher, 485, 524, 525, 533. Leicester, the earl of, 437. Lent, 93, 169, 213, 361. 261. Franciscan, Leo, Brother, III, 162, 202; V, 206. Leo, Emperors, of Bulgaria, 224. Leo, metropolitan Leo, Popes, I, 132, 134, 135, 150-154, 159, 161, 165, 168. 190; III, 206; IV, 222-224, VIII, 217; IX, 226; 212; X, 261, 318, 319, 340, 342, 343, 346, 351, 384, 402, 422; XIII, 414, 562, 563.
INDEX
616 of
Leontius,
Byzantium,
theologian,
163.
156,
155,
Lessing, Gotthold
critic, 527,
Ephraim,
529.
of Obscure
Letters
the, 336.
Men,
Liberius, Pope, 122. Liberties, the Gallican, 556, 559. 115. Licinius, Emperor, 109-111, 495. Unitarian, Lindsey, Theophilus, Locke,
John,
philosopher,
485-487,
490,
530.
the, in Heraclitus, 3; Aristotle, 6, 7; paralleled in He
Logos, 4;
Stoicism,
brew
"Wisdom,"
Paul,
Johannine
the
36; 38; Justin TertuUian,
16;
Philo, 17; literature,
Martyr,
66; 52; Irenaeus, discussed, 71, 72; in Paul of Samosata, 73; triumphs of Alex West, 75, 76, 83; Clement Neo78; 81, andria, Origen, 82; Platonic, 106; Arius, 115, 144; Apol69;
145; linaris, 144; Cyril, Diodorus, 146; Leontius, 155. 564. Loisy, Alfred, modernist, the, 133, 134, 159, 190-192, Lombards,
Loofs, Friedrich, cited, 69, 82, 541, 543. Lord's Supper, the, general view, 97-99; 97; Pauline, 23; 40, primitive, Johannine, 40, 98; Ignatius, 41, 98; Justin 43, 92, 98; Irenaeus, Martyr, 66; the real presence, 98; a sacrifice, communion, 99; infant 99, 274; com memorative, 167, 99; developments, 168; Augustine, 193; 183; Gregory, Kadbertus and Ratramnus, 211;
Catharite, 250; Berengar, transubstantiation, 263, 273, 274; disuse Aquinas,
262, 274, of
263; 288;
by cup to laity,
laity, 274; Wyclif, 300; cup 305; Luther, 345, 352, 364, 370, 411; Zwingli, 364, 370; Calvin, 394; Eng Melish 409, 410; Books, Prayer lanchthon, 442, 443; Socinians, 453. 209. Lothair, Emperor, Lothair II, King, 213. R. H., philosopher, Lotze, 542. Louis, Kings of France, VII, 242; IX, 244, 288; XI, 320, 326; XII, 318, 320; XIII, 441, 448; XIV, 441, 556; XV, 558. 558; XVI, Louis, of Bavaria, imperial claimant, 278,
280,
"Child,"
Louis, Louis,
"German,"
216.
210. Emperor, the "Pious," 209, 219. Emperor, Loyola, Ignatius, see Ignatius. Antioch of Lucian, theologian, 106,
114, Lucius
Luder, Luke,
115, 144. III, Pope, 251. 327. Peter, humanist, of, 35, 57, 60, Gospel
bishop
of
professor,
to Wittenberg, 350; con 350-352; public worship, with Erasmus, 352; breach 352, 353; the Peasants' War, 353, 354; mar
356; churches the 351, 352, 357, 358; chism, 358; "Protestants,"
riage, 355,
organized, Short
Cate
359; dis pute with Zwingli, 363, 364, 370; the the 370; Marburg colloquy, Augs 371-373; burg Confession, Philip's 377, 378; death, 379; see also bigamy,
186, 246, 279-281, 306, 333, 334, 360, 361, 382, 391, 392, 394, 405, 415, 422, 442, 453, 481, 496, 513, 543. Lutherans, the, churches organized, 357,
Augsburg Confession, 371-373; 441rights, 382; controversies, 568, 569, 575-578, 445; in America, 358; full
Macaulay,
Mainz,
202.
Zachary, Jewish
Maccabees, Macedonians,
Evangelical, rulers,
520.
13, 14, 20.
the, on Holy Spirit, 125. Magnentius, imperial pretender, 121. Swedish suc Magni, Peter, bishop, cession,
385.
Major, Georg, theologian, 442. 113. Majorinus, bishop of Carthage, 569. Francis, Makemie, Presbyterian, 107. Mani, religious founder, 107, 176-178, Manichseism, 235, 249. H. 549. E., cardinal, Manning, Manwaring, Roger, Royalist, 469. Felix, Anabaptist, 366, 367, 369. Manz, Marburg colloquy, see Colloquy. 118, 120, Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, 126.
121,
Marcian,
Emperor,
Marcion,
Gnostic
151.
391, Marcus
56, 57.
reformer,
Marcionites, 235. Marcourt, Antoine,
radical
Protestant,
392.
Aurelius,
6, 49,
Emperor,
83,
85, 129.
Marguerite Mark, Mark,
391. d'Angoule"me, Persian, 156. of Ephesus, 312. archbishop Gospel of, 34, 37, 60, 62, 536, the
540.
Marprelate Marquette,
Tracts,
the,
462.
Jesuit
Jacques,
explorer,
565.
Marsilius, of Padua, 62,
536,
the
293-295, 306, 307. Martin, bishop of Tours,
Defensor
Pads,
138.
Popes, I, 160, 161; V, 310, 317. Martyrs, honored, 93, 170.
Martin,
540.
Lull,
337;
349; return servatism,
Maris,
293-295.
Louis, the the
337; a 338; religious experience, 338, 339, 346; theses, 340, the 341; Leipzig debate, 343, 344; the at great treatises, 344-346; Worms, 347, 348; the Wartburg, 348, monk,
580.
215.
203-205,
Lull, Raimon, missionary, 284. Luther, Martin, early life, 336,
INDEX 326. of Burgundy, Mary, of Scots," 409, 413, 417; Mary "Queen death, 439; see also reign, 417-422;
66; "Mother
of
God,"
for,
reverence
"Second
the
Virgin;
the
Mary,
'
464.
438,
431,
170,
278, conception, England,
maculate
of I, Queen 417, 457, 458. colonial Maryland,
Mary
Eve,"
146-148, 171, 175;
152; im
411-413,
Samuel H.
Milman, Milner,
Congregationalist,
Richard,
Anabaptist,
Mathys,
Jan,
Matilda,
countess
226/230.
of, 35, 38, 60, 62, 536,
Gospel
Matthew,
374.
of Tuscany,
540.
Matthias,
446.
Emperor,
Janov, preacher, 302. J. F. D., 545, 546. 455, 456. Stadholder, of
Matthias, Maurice, Maurice,
rival
Maxentius,
Constantino,
of
H.,
Maxfleld, Maximilian,
Maximus
Mayhew,
Missions,
under 216; Scandinavia,
586,
Philip,
Melanchthon, Loci
371-373; Confession, 377; Philip's bigamy,
the
Leipzig
Servetus, 399; Interim, 380, 442; on from Luther, faith, 399 ; differences on 442, 443; death, 443; 442; contests, also 329, 454. see 50. of Sardis, Melito, Scottish Andrew, Melville,
fects
the,
14, 15, 19-23, 510-517;
development,
508,
524,
570,
578,
586,
and
development, of Nursia, of Anlane, 218, 220; Camaldoli,
Benedict
219, Cluny, Cistercians,
221; minicans,
73;
Benedict
245,
246;
Do
Franciscans,
254-256;
258-261.
Monnica,
175,
Monophysites, Monothelite
178.
176, the,
312. 153-160, the, 160, 161. controversy, 57-60, 62-64, 67. 71. 72,
135,
171.
Michelangelo, artist, 316. Milicz, of Kremsier, preacher, 302. Mill, John, Biblical scholar, 528.
Morality, higher and lower, 103, 104. 511-514, the, 501-507, 532, Moravians, 579;
also
Hannah,
306.
Evangelical,
520.
Sir Thomas, More, 401, 404. Elector of duke and Moritz, 427, 442. 379-381, 39. ef
589.
83. bishop of Olympus, 214. missionary, Michael Cerularius, patriarch of Con stantinople, 224. III, 213, 214; Michael, Emperors,
Methodius, Methodius,
VII, 239. Michaelmas,
139;
72,
180.
sources
138, 219;
569,
of, 518-523, 544; in America, there, 572; 518, organization divisions, 584, 585; 584; 580,
also
72-75,
136-140;
514.
Dynamic,
the,
104,
More,
375. Simons, Anabaptist, Mennonites, the, 375, 465, 568, 569. Rulman, Merswin, mystic, 281.
Hope,
159, 160. H., Moravian,
88.
reformer,
Menno
Methodism,
579,
10, 106, 107, 169. the, 564.
Montanism,
432, 467. 148. Memnon, bishop of Ephesus, of Toledo, 323. Mendoza, archbishop
Messianic
American,
523;
522,
Modalistic, Monasticism,
342, 353, 349; Augsburg 373; Apology,
Communes,
Is
201,
587.
P. Molther, Monarchians,
357,
British
Germany, Charlemagne,
to
205, 213, 214, 236, 237; Hun Slavs and Russia, 214, 237; to China, 284; 237; mediaeval gary, to Mohammedans, 284; Francis, 258, 284; Lull, 284; Roman Catholic, 429, America, 479; 565; Quaker. 430; Halle-Danish, 500, 522; Moravian, modern Protestant 522; 504, 505, 202, 206;
Mohammed,
de', 315.
129-134;
195-200;
445-450.
328,
evidences, of, 488, 491,
540.
Arian,
326,
58, 59. Montanist, 109-111. Daia, Emperor, Jonathan, Liberal, 573.
Cosimo
376;
325,
Christian criticism
494;
Modernists,
515.
346.
343,
Maximilla,
Medici,
Bavaria,
of
duke
I, Emperor,
Maximilian
335,
Methodist,
Thomas,
494.
main
493, 527,
Mithraism,
110.
545.
343.
von,
awakening, 109,
dean,
Evangelical, 520. Joseph, Evangelical, 519.
Milner,
452,
Adventist, 582. 523. J., Jr., missions,
Isaac,
Miltitz, Karl Milton, John,
525,
religious conditions,
469.
see
Mills,
lands,
Mather,
575,
Miller, William,
Miracles,
560.
566.
517,
617
Saxony,
Mormons, the, 582, 583. J. L. von, historian, 526. Mosheim, Luth H. M., American Milhlenberg, eran,
575,
Miiller,
576.
George,
Mtinzer,
Murray, Murton,
Mystery
of
Bristol, 551.
Thomas, radical, 353. 576. Universalist, John, John, Baptist, 465. religions, the, 9-11,
40, 44, 54,
92, 94.
Mystics, the, 279-283, Napoleon,
Emperors,
429.
I, 558, 559;
562.
Narses, general, 133. J. A. W., historian, 538. Neander,
III,
INDEX
618 Neo-Platonisni, system 106, 107; Augustine, see
also
280,
282,
influence, 177-180, 185; 163, 266, 279,
and
5, 76, 80, 82, 327, 545.
33. Nero, Emperor, Nestorians, the, 149, Nestorius, patriarch life and teaching, Netherlands, the,
works, ture,
158, of
160, 284, 312.
Constantinople, 171,
145-149,
187.
Protestantism
in,
433-438.
New
colonial
England,
Omar, Caliph, 160. Ordination, 89, 90. Origen, life and theology, 78-83;
religious
threefold
80; 80,
sense
fundamentals, 81; a and Christ, 81, 82; salvation, final restoration, 83; 82; significance, 83 ; in Arian controversy, 114-117, demned,
; God
122, 123, 125, 127; 83, 142, 156, 157; see
New
Newton, Newton,
the, 130, 133-135. Ostrogoths, Oswald, King, 199. Oswy, King, 199. Othman, Caliph, 160. Otto, Emperors, I, 215-217; III, 217, 218; IV, 287, 290. 449. Oxenstjerna, statesman,
ditions
in, 567,
568.
religious condi Jersey, colonial tions in, 569. New York, colonial religious conditions in, 568, 569. John Newman, Henry, cardinal, 547549.
John, Sir
Evangelical, 519. Isaac, gravitation,
483,
chief
Scrip
81;
Platonist, 81
85, 92, 95, 103, 175, 180, 330. Osiander, Andreas,
con
of
105,
106,
reformer,
171,
con
also
174,
442.
II, 217;
552.
Niceea, Council of, see Council. of, 122. Nice, Agreement Nicholas, of Hereford, translator, 300. I, 212-215, Nicholas, Popes, 235; II, 226, 227; V, 312, 316. Nicolaitanism, 220, 232, 237, 245, B. G., historian, 539. Niebuhr, David, Nitschmann, Moravian,
246.
504,
511.
Noailles,
L. A. de, cardinal, 557. 430. de, missionary, Nobili, Roberto Noetus, Christology, 73. William, 291. Nogaret, Nominalism,
262-264, 269, the, 476, 488.
the
279.
Nonjurors, the duke Northumberland, of, 410, 411. the Reformation Norway, in, 384. Counterand Novatian, theologian the Trinity, 75, 76, 114; Pope, on schism, 102, 113, 117.
Occam,
William
of,
schoolman,
261,
278,
279, 295, 337, 338, 364. Ochino, Bernardino, radical, 424. XII. Octavian, see Pope John of Cluny, Odilo, abbot 219, 228. of Cluny. 219. Odo, abbot Odovaker, King of Italy, 132, 133. Johann, reformer, 363, CEcolampadius,
364,
370.
Oglethorpe,
James
Edward,
colonizer,
511.
Olaf,
of Kings Norway, "Saint," 236, 237. Olaf Skottkonung, King
I, of
236;
monastic Pachomius, founder, 137, 138. Pack, Otto 358. von, Paine, radical, 492. Thomas, Paley, William, Apologist, 493, 494. Pantsenus, of Alexandria, 77. Papacy, early steps toward, 63-65, 70, 71, 76; Constantinople, 112, 113; Sardica, 121; Theodosius and Grain fifth century, tian, 127; growth claims of 134-136; Gelasius, 135; theological triumphs, influence 161; of Augustine's theories, 184; Gregory
II,
Sweden,
237.
Great, 190, 191; the Franks, 191, the Decretals, 212, 213; 195, 202-208; Nicholas I, 212, 213; rescued by Otto I
and III, 217, Henry 221, 222; break with 222-225: reform, Cluny electoral 225-228; empire, reform, 226, 227; Hildebrand's struggle, 228leader 232; 233, 234; compromise, at ship in Crusades, 233, 239-241; Innocent height, 285-288; III, 286288; dependence on France, 288, 289; Philip IV, 290-292; unam sanctam, 291; Avignon, 291, 292; critics, 293295; 295; defenders, English op position, 295; taxation, 296; return to
Rome,
296,
councils,
297;
306-313;
schism, Italian
297,
298;
princes,
since the Reformation, 555317-320; 564; infallibility, 561; temporal
sovereignty, 562. Parish, origin of the, 166, 208. of Can Parker, Matthew, archbishop terbury, 414, 458. Parma, 433. of, Regent, Margaret
Old
Parsons,
Olga,
Pascal, Blaise, critic of Jesuits, 556. Paschal II, Pope, 233. Patrick, 195, 196. missionary, Patripassians, the, 73. work, Paul, Apostle, life and 26-30; freedom, 28-30; theology, 30-32, 66;
Catholics, the, 561. Sir John, Oldcastle, Wycliflte, 301. ArminJohan Oldenbarneveldt, van, ian, 454, 455. Olevianus, 443, theologian, Kaspar, 472.
Queen
of
Russia,
237.
Robert,
Jesuit,
438,
440.
INDEX
620 Episcopal,
Protestant
in
England
Church
see
of
of, 295.
Provisors,
statute
Provoost,
Samuel,
Pseudo-Dionysius to Dionysius
bishop, 574. (writings attributed the 171, Areopagite),
210, 266, 269, Pseudo-Isidorian
270, 279. Decretals,
De
see
cretals.
Empress,
Purgatory,
193, the,
Puritans,
458,
stages,
147,
the
460;
two
struggle,
460-
473.
Catholic,
Anglo-
Bouverie,
Edward
Pusey,
549.
548,
Ritschl,
Albrecht,
Robert,
of
Jansenist,
556,
557.
de, liturgist, 409.
Paschasius,
Lord's
Supper,
273.
262,
mystic, 281. 521, Sunday-schools,
Florentius,
Radewyn,
Robert,
Raikes, 522.
Toulouse,
of
Raimond,
240.
Crusader,
Ratramnus,
Lord's du
Raymond, Readers, Realism, Recared,
Supper,
262.
211,
242.
Hospitaller,
Puy,
263,
279.
264,
Anglo-Catholic,
James,
547.
Andreas,
Johann
Rothe,
Soissons,
of
bishop
Rothad,
213.
Pietist, 502,
King, 134, 191. 568, (Dutch), 569, 589; (German),
America
569, 575, 579, 575, 589. Hermann Reimarus, Critic, 526-529, reverence
radical
Samuel,
the, 455, 456. Remonstrants, 313-317, Renaissance, the, ideal of reform, 331. Renan, 541. Ernst,
Luis
436.
de, governor,
Roman
Rusticus,
John
magistrate, 50. of, mystic, 281.
of
Ferrara,
Sabellianism,
Sabellius, and 105, 117, Saccas,
114, 122,
265;
Nicene
73-75. result
83,
seems,
124.
Neo-Platonist,
Ammonius,
80,
106.
nas,
423.
326-332;
395,
402,
Saints, aid of, 170, 193, 277. Saisset, Bernard, legate, 290. Saladin, 242. der, 377. Sale, Margarete von Sales,
Francois
de,
Roman
missionary,
429.
423.
Reuchlin,
231. 173.
scholar,
Ruquesens,
336.
II, 446.
183; Aqui the, Augustine, 345. 273; Scotus, 278; Luther, the, 13. Sadducees, cardinal, 375, 396, Sadoleto, Jacopo,
383. reformer, for, 93, 172.
Mystery. see Religions, Mystery, 576. Universalist, Relly, James,
duchess
humanist, I, 290;
Sacraments,
540.
Martin,
Reinhard,
391.
Crotus, Rubeanus, Rudolf, Emperors, of Swabia, Rudolf,
269.
Visigothic in
375. Bernt, Anabaptist, 214. duke of Moravia, Rotislav, 366, 367. Roubli, Wilhelm, Anabaptist, Jean Rousseau, Jacques, 529. Calvin's Roussel, Gerard, friend, 390,
Rothmann,
Ruysbroeck,
90, 91. 262, 264,
Reformed,
Johann,
humanist,
315,
328,
335, 336, 342. Reunion the, 376, 424. conferences, the French, 558. Revolution, Edward, bishop, 474. Reynolds, Rhode Island, colonial religious condi tions, 568. Ricci, Matteo, missionary, 430. Riccio, David, 420, 421. 329,
schoolman,
Hugh
221.
132.
Augustulus,
Ruflnus,
painter, 316.
Raphael,
Renee,
565"
568, 573, 574, 579, 585, 586. monastic Romuald, reformer, 220,
503.
Radbertus,
Relics,
546.
Congregationalist,
466.
Roscelin,
570.
Quesnel, Pasquier, Fernandez Quinones,
211,
240.
Jesuit, 425. Simon, Rodriguez, 412. Rogers, John, burned, in Roman Catholics, America,
Rose,
Apologist, 50. Quadratus, see also 368, 519, Quakers, the, 477-480; colonies, 566, 568520; in American
541-544.
theologian,
John,
Romulus
Pyrrho, Sceptic, 6. the, 3, 51. Pythagoreans,
schoolman,
Crusader, Normandy, 268. Sorbon, founder, F. W., broad-church,
de
465, 458;
415,
I, 243;
Richelieu, 441, 448. statesman, 406, 412. Ridley, Nicholas, di, 296. Rienzi, Cola
Robertson, Robinson,
151.
150,
277.
aims,
England,
277.
Robert
17. Philadelphus, Samuel, Pufendorf, jurist, 486.
Ptolemy
Pulcheria,
of
Kings
Richard,
II, 301, 302. of Middletown, Richard,
America.
Salmeron,
Alfonso,
Jesuit,
425,
427.
23, 24; Pauline, 40; Ignatius, 41, 31, 66; Johannine, and Latin, 41, 167, 168, 66; Greek 51, 52; Gnostic, 173; Justin Martyr, Irenseus, 66; Marcion, 56; 54-56;
Salvation,
primitive,
Tertullian, 68, 69; Origen, 82; 118; Platonic, 107; Athanasius, Cyril, 146, torius, 146; 145,
NeoNes-
153;
INDEX 182; Cathari, 250; Aqui 277, 278; 277, 291; Scotus, Boniface 338Luther, VIII, 291; 340, 368; Anabaptist, 368; Calvin, Pietist, 497; Socinians, 393; 453;
Augustine, 272,
nas,
; An
543 513; Ritschlian, American, 548;
Methodist,
578,
glo-Catholic, 585.
584. Salvation
Army,
Sampson,
Thomas, William,
Sancroft,
the, 551. Puritan,
458. Can
of
archbishop
476.
terbury,
Saravia, Adrian, Anglican, Satornilus, 56. Gnostic,
462.
Sattler, Michael, 368, Anabaptist, Savonarola, Girolamo, reformer, 319, 320. Schell, Hermann, F.
Schelling,
modernist, W.
534, 545. Schiller, J. C.
F.
Schleiermacher,
Scholasticism,
538, see
542,
530. influ 545.
269-279.
Friedrich, mission
Franciscan,
bishop,
259.
414.
in, 415-422; un Presbyterianism
Reformation
Scotland,
Episcopacy the
and
Stewarts,
467,
470,
478;
477,
470, 471; Presby covenants, tolera terianism established, 478; tion, 478, 552; patronage, 552, 554; divisions, 553, 554; Moderatism, 553, reunions, Chalmers, 554, 554; 554; the
555.
Scott,
Sir
Scripture. 61,
62;
544.
Walter,
Scott, Thomas, John Scotus, 278, 453.
Evangelical, 519, schoolman, Duns,
New
Testament
threefold
as,
523.
277,
34,
35,
80, 81; sole 361, 362, 392;
sense,
authority, 279, 344, printed, 324, 332. Samuel, bishop, 574. Seabury, 126, 127, 543. Seeberg, Reinhold, Selnecker, Nikolaus, theologian, Semler,
Johann
Salomo,
529, 532, 536. Seneca, Stoic, 6, 8. 390, Septuagint, the, 17.
Biblical
schol
391.
Serapis, worship of, 10. of Sergius, patriarch Constantinople, 161.
Sergius, Pope, 201. Servetus, Miguel,
Anti-Trinitarian,
399, 451, 452. Severus, 156. bishop of Antioch, Jane, Queen, 405, 408. Seymour,
Shaftesbury, 487.
the
earl
V, 440. Smith, Joseph, Mormon, 582, 583. John, Smyth, Baptist, 465. Societies, Bible, 521, 560. Societies, the English, 508, 513, 515. Societies, tract, 521. Knowl Christian Society for Promoting edge, 508, 521. Society for the Propagation, 508, 522, 566.
568.
Socinianism,
of, moralist, 486,
330, 3, 52.
Socrates,
451-453,
494.
Somerset, the protector. 408-410. Sophronius, 160. bishop of Jerusalem, the, 268. Sorbonne, Soto, Domingo de, theologian, 324. Sozzini (Sozini), the, Fausto. 452; Lelio, 452. A. Spangenberg, 504G., Moravian, 506,
511.
Sparks, Spener,
532,
ar,
160,
Con 393; Jesuit, 426; Westminster fession, 472; Edwards, 572. Sixtus. Popes, II, 87; IV, 317, 322, 324;
Jared, Unitarian, 577. Philipp Jakob, Pietist, 496-
499;
443,
No-
102;
Am 68; 95; Cyprian, brose, 141; Augustine. 181; Pelagian, Lom 185, 186; Aquinas, 272; Peter Cathari bard, 275; Scotus, 278; te, 249, 250; Luther, 339, 345; Calvin,
see
Spinoza,
444.
An
of Mainz, 228. Siegfried, archbishop Sigismund, Emperor, 304, 305, 308, 309. Silvester, Popes, II, 218; III, 221. Charles, 520. Simeon, Evangelical, head of Jerusalem Simeon, church, 25. Simeon 137. Stylites, hermit, Simon 56. Magus, 220, 224, 238, 245. Simony, Simplicius, Pope, 165. Sin, and forgiveness, in general, 100102, 173; unto death. 100; absolvers,
Tertullian,
500.
Sciffl, Clara, Scory, John,
St.
of
archbishop
477.
256,
League.
261-267,
245,
Christian
Schwartz,
der
537,
League,
James,
drews,
Kallistos's 101; decree, 101; vatian, 102; all sins forgivable,
564.
poet, 527, E., life and
D.
Sharp,
369.
philosopher,
von,
von,
F.
532-535,
ence,
Schmalkaldic
ary,
J.
621
also
Baruch,
500-503.
508.
philosopher,
484, 485,
533.
Spirit, the Holy, Paul's doctrine, 57; distinguished, 58; Tertullian, 69; 74; Sabellius, Origen, 82, 124; Athanasius, 124; Macedonians, 125; the Nicene creed, 128; Augustine, 178-182; ism, 481.
Calvin,
393;
Protestant
Spirituals, the. 361. Sprenger, Jakob, inquisitor, 333. 546. Stanley, A. P., broad-church, Luther's Johann, monastic Staupitz, superior, 337, 338. Stephanas, 44, 48. 24. Stephen, martyr, Stephen, Popes, I, 97; II, 204; V, 215; VI, 215; IX, 225.
INDEX
622 I,
Stephen
"
Saint,"
King
Hungary,
of
of
earl
James,
Moray,
420-
Theophilus, Thomas
Stilicho, general, 131. Stoicism, teaching, 6, 7; at Tertullian,
26;
Origen,
Pelagius,
77-80;
Tarsus,
Clement
67-69;
185;
6, and also
see
Thomas, Thomasius,
rationalist,
Christian,
499,
524. Three
16, 51, 52. Storch, Nikolaus,
117.
F. A. G., theologian, 538. see Aquinas, Aquinas. of Stitney, preacher, 302.
Tholuck,
422.
Nicaea,
the, 156. controversy, 142. bishop of Alexandria,
Theopaschite
Stewart,
of
bishop
Theognis,
237.
the,
Chapters,
156.
.
radical,
350.
D.
F., critic, 539-541. Methodist, Robert, Markus Thoma, radical,
Strauss,
Strawbridge,
517.
Stiibner,
350.
abbot of Fulda, 201. Sturm, 90. Sub-Deacons, Succession, apostolical, 48, 60, 61, 68.
Sunday-schools, Supererogation,
521, works
522, 579. of, 43, 103, 104,
Henry,
mystic,
Reformation
Sweden,
Symeon, Symeon, Synods,
281.
Aries,
235.
115, 121, 195; Antioch, Dort, 455, 120, 130, 164; "the Oak," Milan, 456; 121; 142; Tou 122; 189; Sirmiurn, Orange,
113,
254.
louse, 253,
Tindal, Matthew, Tiridates, King Tithes,
208,
Toland,
in, 384-386.
235. "Metaphrastes," the "New Theologian," of
Tilly, general, 446-449. 29. Timothy, Timothy, bishop of Alexandria, Deist, of
153. 488.
487,
Armenia,
158.
354.
335,
Titus, 28. Titus, Emperor,
272.
Suso,
462. Throckmorton, Job, Puritan, Tiberius 157. II, Emperor, Tillet, Louis du, Calvin's friend, 391.
25.
John,
Deist,
487.
and Wesley, 516. Toplady, Augustus, Tomas, Torquemada, inquisitor, 324. 42, 49. Trajan, Emperor,
Travers,
Walter,
Puritan,
460,
of Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty, Passau, 381; of Verdun, Tregelles, S. P., Plymouth
462. of
431;
209, 210. Brethren,
551. and 399. Calvin, Trie, Guillaume, 58; Tertullian, Trinity, the, formulae, 74, 75; Augustine, 69, 70; Novatian,
the,
305, 306. 240. Crusader,
Taborites, Tancred,
Tatian,
Apologist, 50. John, mystic,
Tauler,
280,
256,
281,
265. 179, 180; Abelard, 544. Troeltsch, Ernst, Truce of God, the, 220.
584.
Truchsess,
339.
Hans,
Tausen,
Nathaniel
Taylor,
the
of
Teaching
383. reformer, W., theologian, Twelve
Apostles,
Tennent,
100, 103. 95-97, the, 241, 242, 292. Gilbert, Revivalist,
Tennent,
William,
42, 45,
Templars,
the,
Turks, 571.
Tennyson,
the,
teach theologian, life and Montanist, 67; 59, a ing, 67-72; 94-97, 61; baptism, Apostles' Creed, 69, 71, 73-75, 114, 166; Christology, also 89, 143, 180; "priest," 99; see
Tertullian,
103,
175,
180,
188,
481.
indulgences,
340,
341,
284,
285,
William, translator, 405, Tyndale, 564. Tyrrell, George, modernist, cardinal,
see
Pope
406.
Gregory
Ulflla, missionary, 129, 130. of WUrttemberg, Ulrich, duke 365, 374. 564. Ultramontanism, 559-562, in England, 477, 494, 495, Unitarians, 573, 577, 578, 524, 550; in America, 580, 586. Universalists,
in America,
573, 576, 577,
medteval,
267-269;
586.
343. Teutonic
Theodore,
Knights, the, 242, 355, 357. of Canterbury, archbishop
Universities, teenth
Unni,
199.
Theodore, 145,
238,
IX.
260.
Tetzel, Johann,
of
357.
Ugolino,
546.
Tertiaries,
archbishop
236,
conquests,
356,
571. teacher, Alfred, Lord, broad-church,
Gebhard, 445.
Cologne,
147,
Theodoret,
of
Mopsuestia,
156, of
theologian,
157.
Cyrus,
theologian,
148,
156.
Theodoric, Theodosius, 140, 141; Theodotus, rier," 72;
Ostrogothic
King,
133.
I, 126-128, Emperors, II, 147, 148, 150, 151. "the Christology, money-changer,"
"the
131, cur
72.
century,
fif
326-328.
236. missionary, II, 232, Popes,
233, 239-241. 276; IV, 288; V, 296, 297; VI, 297; VIII, 556. 121. Ursacius, bishop of Singidunum, Zacharias, Ursinus, theologian, 443. Utraquists, the, 305, 306, 310. Urban,
Valdes, Valdez,
Juan, see
reformer,
Waldenses.
423.
INDEX Mursa,
of
bishop
Valens,
Valens, 125, Emperor. Valentinian, Emperors, 140; III, Valentinus, Valerian, Valerius,
121, 122. 127, 131. I, 125; II, 128,
86, 87.
Emperor,
178.
Hippo,
of
385,
517,
Vasey,
Pietro
575.
390.
Wightman,
reformer,
Martire,
231-233. 409.
von,
burned,
Edward, William,
Puritan,
Wilcox, Wilfrid,
Thomas,
bishop
of
Wilhelm,
duke
of
494. 520.
Evangelical, 460.
199. York, 378. Cleves,
228. I, the Conqueror, and III, and Mary, of England 552. Scotland, 476-478, of schoolman, William, Champeaux,
264, 267. of Occam, William, of Orange, William,
Occam.
see
"the
Silent,"
434-
437.
198.
the
William,
founder
Pious,
of
Cluny,
219.
423.
Victor,
I, 65,
Popes,
III, 232; Victor
Counter-Pope, Hermann
William
386.
Vermigli,
Wied,
William
critic, 205, 315. Valla, Lorenzo, the, 130-134, 178, 188. Vandals, of Sweden, Gustaf, King Vasa, Methodist, Thomas, Francois, teacher, Vatable, missions, 523. John, Venn, Vergilius, bishop of Aries,
Wibert,
Wilberforce,
132, 148, 165. Gnostic, 55, 56.
bishop
623
72;
II, 224,
225;
285. (Counter-Pope), of II, King Italy,
IV
Emmanuel
Williams,
Roger, 568. missionary,
Willibrord, Winchester,
562. 177.
Neo-Platonist,
Victorinus,
577.
Winfrid,
Vigilantius, 175. Vigilius, Pope, 157. of L6rins, 188. Vincent, Vinci,
Leonard!
Viret,
Pierre,
Congregationalist,
Jewish conception of, 16, 17; 36. Pauline, Wishart, George, burned, 416. Witchcraft, 333, 445. Wolff, Christian, philosopher, 524-526,
Wisdom,
197.
religious conditions,
566.
492, 557. the, 174.
Vulgate,
John,
469.
159, 160. Visigoths, the, 127, 129-134, Vitalian, Pope, 199. Vittoria, Francisco de, theologian, 324. 237. of Russia, Vladimir, grand-duke Voltaire,
Boniface.
see
Winthrop,
da, 316. 395. reformer,
Virgil, missionary, Virginia, colonial
201.
341. Konrad, Elhanan, Unlversalist, 576,
Wimpina,
530-532. of
Wolfgang, Wolflin,
Anhalt,
359, 371. 360. humanist,
Heinrich,
Wolsey,
Thomas,
Worms,
Concordat
cardinal, of,
403.
402,
Concordat.
see
Worship,
of Emperors, 8, 9, 49. William, scholar, 544. Johan, Arminian, Wtenbogaert,
Wrede, Waldenses, 306, 387. the, 251-254, Alfred Russel, scientist, 552. Wallace, Albrecht 446-449. Wallenstein, von, War, 503, Thirty Years', the, 446-451,
Watts, Webb,
Unitarian,
Henry, James, Isaac,
507.
inventor,
Assembly,
Whatcoat,
scholar, 528. Methodist, 517,
575.
514; 509,
Francis,
Ximenes, 331,
in
519,
bishop, 574, 575. George, Evangelist,
America, 576,
567,
360.
571;
see
510also
578.
Whitgift, John, archbishop bury, 459, 460, 462, 464,
missionary,
425,
429,
Young, Young
Spanish
reformer,
323,
324,
422.
Mormon,
Brigham,
Christian
Men's
the, 588. Women's
Christian
Young
582, 583. Association,
Association,
the, 588. Zacharias, Pope, 203, 215. of Zbynek, archbishop Prague,
of 465.
Canter
303,
304.
Zeisberger, William,
Whitefleld,
humanist,
Assembly
see
J. J., Biblical
Richard,
Thomas,
430.
Confession.
Wettstein,
White,
405.
Xavier, 508.
hymn-writer,
Methodist, 517. Thomas, 507. Josiah, inventor, Wenzel, 303, 304. King of Bohemia, 509-517. Wesley, Charles, also John, see 509-518; 456, Wesley, 508, 519, 520, 528, 567, 575. 508-511. Wesley, Samuel, 509. Wesley, Susanna, Westminster
life
332,
577.
Wedgwood,
and
and
454.
John, reformer, English also 306, work, 298-304; see
Wyttenbach,
555.
Ware, Watt,
Wyclif,
David,
Zell, Matthew, Zeno, Emperor, Zeno, Stoic, 6.
Zephyrinus, Ziegenbalg, ary,
500.
missionary,
reformer, 135,
154,
Pope, 74. Bartholomaus,
505.
363. 165.
mission
INDEX
624
507
Zizka, Zosimus, Zwilling, Zwingli, 366;
founder,
Moravian
Zinzendorf,
Pope, Gabriel, Huldreich, education,
development,
religious marriage,
187.
life
360;
349. and at
work,
Zurich,
360-
361:
372 415.
366,
;
death,
365,
373
;
367;
365; the
confession,
370;
colloquy,
Marburg
362; Luther,
plans,
political
370; Anabaptists,
opposes
radical,
361, with
disputes
363; 364,
363,
305.
Hussite,
John,
502-
575.
America,
in
513;
see
also
394,
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