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A

CHRISTIAN

HISTORY

OF

CHURCH

THE

Ill

A

OF

HISTORY

THE

CHURCH

CHRISTIAN

BY

WALKER

WILLISTON TITUS

STREET

PROFESSOR IN

OF TALE

NEW

CHARLES

ECCLEHIASTICAL

HISTORY

UNIVERSITY

YORK

SCRIBNER'S 1918

SONS

BR i^fe

Ws

COPYRIGHT, CHARLES

1918,

BY

SCRIBNER'S

Published

March,

SONS

1918

MY To

WIFE

this

!N:

of

field

he

as

is

the

of

which

life

of

directed

which

in

is

He

der

of

its

make

to

origin,

the

far

as

its

and

well

would

Christian

is

a

mine

special

express

Halle,

of

has

thought

and

Giessen,

have

who

many

Loofs,

Kirchengeschichte

tendencies

his

been

;

associates, of

recent

whose

the

has

modifica

and

to

in

labored

March,

1918.

this

indebtedness

to

Leitfaden

in

Gustav

Professor

whose

zum

helpful

specially

Handbuch

der

informa

bibliographical

WILLISTON HAVEN,

of

he

permit

tion.

NEW

as

influences

those

and

doctrine

develop

as

and

far

as

early

would

space

of

growth

evident,

Reformation,

situation

present

Dogmengeschichte of

treatment

of

to

to

he

but

Friedrich

Studium

Kriiger,

the

obligation him,

Professor

as

vast

thought.

under

before

field

the

As

to

so

the

treat

to

upheaval,

church.

the

Christian

of

led

tremendous

that

attention

tion

the

circumstances

resulted

have

endeavored

church

the

changes

course

the

the

able,

has

writer

of

story

the

ment,

the

history the

NOTE

PREFATORY

(

WALKER.

CONTENTS

I.

PERIOD

THE

FROM

BEGINNINGS

TO

THE

GNOSTIC

CRISIS PAGE

I.

THE

GENERAL

II.

THE

JEWISH

III.

JESUS

IV.

PAUL THE

CLOSE

VII.

THE

INTERPRETATION

OF

COMMUNITIES

22

CHRISTIANITY

GENTILE

25

APOSTOLIC

THE

AGE

33

JESUS

OF

CHRISTIANITY

GENTILE

18

CHRISTIAN

VI.

VIII.

11

DlSCIPLES

THE

AND

1

BACKGROUND

PALESTINIAN

THE

V.

AND

SITUATION

OF

35 SECOND

THE

CENTURY

41 ...

IX.

CHRISTIAN

X.

RELATIONS

XL

OF

II. III.

CHRISTIANITY

TO

ROMAN

THE

GOVERNMENT

48 50

FROM

II.

I.

44

APOLOGISTS

THE

PERIOD

ORGANIZATION

THE

GNOSTIC

CRISIS

CONSTANTINE

TO

GNOSTICISM

53

MARCION

56

MONTANISM

57

*

IV.

THE

CATHOLIC

CHURCH

V.

THE

GROWING

IMPORTANCE

VI. VII.

OF

ROME

63

IREN^US

65

TERTULLIAN THE

TRIUMPH

IX.

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

CHURCH

CYPRIAN

AND

VIII.

X.

59

AND

OF

THE

67

LOGOS

CHRISTOLOGY

SCHOOL STATE

FROM

IN

THE

WEST

71 76

180 ix

TO

260

83

CONTENTS

x

PAGE

XL

DEVELOPMENT

CONSTITUTIONAL

THE

OF

CHURCH

THE

87 .

XII.

PUBLIC

WORSHIP

XIII.

BAPTISM

XIV.

THE

XV.

XVI.

LORD'S

XIX.

OF

100 THE

CHURCH

HIGHER

THE

AND

AND

102

260-303

GROWTH,

RELIGIOUS

104

FORCES

106

STRUGGLE

FINAL

THE

97

MORALITY

AND

RIVAL

XVIII.

92

SINS

OF

COMPOSITION

REST

SEASONS

SUPPER

FORGIVENESS THE

SACRED

93

LOWER XVII.

AND

108 .

PERIOD

I.

THE

II.

THE

III. IV. V.

III.

CHANGED

THE

GROWTH

MONASTICISM

'VIII.

AMBROSE

AND

THE

OF

OF

CONSTANTINE

114

SONS

119 ....

THE

123

GERMANIC

INVASIONS

129 .

.

.

PAPACY

134 .

.

136

AND

CHRYSOSTOM

IX.

THE

CHRISTOLOGICAL

X.

THE

EAST

XL

DEATH

THE

TO

STRUGGLE

NICENE

MISSIONS

112

CONSTANTINE'S

UNDER

LATER

""TIL

CHURCH

SITUATION

CONTROVERSY

ARIAN

STATE

IMPERIAL

CONTROVERSY

ARIAN

THE

THE

140

CONTROVERSIES

143^ 153

DIVIDED

CATASTROPHES

FURTHER

AND

CONTROVERSIES

IN

THE

159

EAST XII.

THE

DEVELOPMENT

CONSTITUTIONAL

XIII.

PUBLIC

WORSHIP

XIV.

LOWER

CHRISTIANITY

XV. XVI. XVII.

SOME

WESTERN

AND

SACRED

CHARACTERISTICS

SEASONS

OF

THE

CHURCH

164 .

167 170 172

JEROME

173

AUGUSTINE

175

~"a**a

CONTENTS

XI

PAGE

XVIII.

CONTROVERSY

PELAGIAN

THE

XIX.

SEMI-PELAGIANISM

"^XX.

GREGORY

188 190 ...

II.

FRANKS

III.

THE

liV.

CHARLEMAGNE

V. VI. VII. VIII.

MISSIONS

CONTINENTAL

REFORM

EMPIRE

X.

THE

PAPACY

BREAKS

HlLDEBRAND

XII.

THE

STRUGGLE

XIII.

THE

GREEK

XIV.

THE

III.

PAPACY

RISING BY

SECURES

THE

ENDS CHURCH

SPREAD

OF

V. VI. VII.

EARLY THE HIGH

EMPIRE

214 .

225

IV

228

COMPROMISE

IN

232

PICTURE

THE

AFTER

CONTROVERSY

234 .

236

CHURCH

THE

V.

222

MIDDLE

LATER

THE

AGES

CRUSADES

238

MOVEMENTS

RELIGIOUS

ANTICHURCHLY

THE

REVIVED

EMPIRE

245

CATHARI

SECTS.

AND

INQUISITION IV.

209

PAPACY

THE

THE

WITH

HENRY

AND

PERIOD

NEW

208

218

PARTY

II.

....

MOVEMENTS REFORM

THE

200

GROWTH

202

RENEWAL

AND

THE

'I.

PAPAL

PAPACY

AND

IX.

XI.

195

INSTITUTIONS

DECLINE

PAPAL

THE

205

ECCLESIASTICAL COLLAPSING

OF

ISLANDS AND

THE

AND

CLOSE

CONTROVERSY

BRITISH

THE

IN

THE

TO

AGES

MIDDLE

INVESTITURE

Vs-I.MISSIONS

185

.

GREAT

THE

'THE

iv.

PERIOD

.

DOMINICANS

WALDENSES.

THE 249

AND

FRANCISCANS

SCHOLASTICISM

261

UNIVERSITIES SCHOLASTICISM

254

267 AND

ITS

THEOLOGY

269

CONTENTS

xii

PAGE

VIII. IX. X. XL

MISSIONS THE

DEFEATS

AND

PAPACY

WYCLIF

REFORMING

XIV.

THE

ITALIAN

XV.

THE

NEW

III.

THE

.

.

.

SCHISM

292

POPES

313 20 320

INFLUENCES

OTHER

AND

ITS

AND

POWERS

NATIONAL

THE

VI.

NORTH

OF

ALPS

THE

AND

3-35

DIVISIONS

349

REVOLT

359

V. VI. VII.

366

ESTABLISHED

PROTESTANTISM

GERMAN THE

.

ANABAPTISTS

THE

REVOLT

IN

370

LANDS

SCANDINAVIAN

382

SWITZERLAND

FRENCH

AND

GENEVA

BEFORE

CALVIN

386

JOHN

CALVIN

IX.

THE

ENGLISH

REVOLT

401

X.

THE

SCOTTISH

REVOLT

415

XI.

THE

ROMAN

XII.

THE

VIII.

STRUGGLE

389

REVIVAL IN

422

FRANCE,

THE

NETHERLANDS,

AND

ENGLAND XIII.

GERMAN

430

CONTROVERSIES

AND

THE

THIRTY

YEARS'

WAR

441 .

XIV.

SOCINIANISM

451

XV.

ARMINIANISM

453

XVI.

ANGLICANISM, ENGLAND.

THE

AND

AND

CONGREGATIONALISM PRESBYTERIANISM IN

IN

SCOT 457

LAND

XVII.

PURITANISM, EPISCOPACY

QUAKERS

,(\

26X/

REFORMATION

.

IV.

326

REVOLUTION

SEPARATIONS Swiss

306

RENAISSANCE

LUTHERAN

THE

CRITICISM.

.

298

PERIOD

II.

285 .

COUNCILS

RENAISSANCE

THE

DECLINE

Huss

AND

THE

I.

ITS

AND

AVIGNON,

IN

XIII.

XVI.

283 HEIGHT

ITS

AT

PAPACY

THE

XII.

279

MYSTICS

THE

478

xiii

CONTENTS

THE

TO

TRANSITION

THE

VII.

PERIOD

MODERN

RELIGIOUS

SITUATION PAGE

THE

TURNING

II.

THE

BEGINNINGS

III.

DEISM*AND

IV.

ENGLISH

V.

PIETISM

SCEPTICISM

OPPONENTS.

494 495

501

METHODISM

EFFECTS

OF

THE

MISSIONARY

X.

THE

GERMAN

507

METHODISM

518

AWAKENING

522

ENLIGHTENMENT

(AUFKLARUNG)

524 ....

ROMANTICISM

529

XII.

FURTHER

GERMAN

XIII.

ENGLAND

IN

XIV.

SCOTTISH

DIVISIONS

XV.

ROMAN

THE

DEVELOPMENTS

536

NINETEENTH AND

CENTURY

544

REUNIONS

552

CATHOLICISM

AMERICAN

XVI.

483 487

MORAVIANISM

AND

IX.

XL

PHILOSOPHY

AND

GERMANY

IN

AND

SOME

VIII.

SCIENCE

UNITARIANISM

WESLEY

VII.

MODERN

OF

ITS

ZlNZENDORF

VI.

481

POINT

I.

555

CHRISTIANITY

564

SUGGESTIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

591

INDEX

605

MAPS

LANDS

ABOUT

THE

EASTERN

MEDITERRANEAN

CENTURY EUROPE THE

IN

THE

DURING

THE

FIRST 28

TIME

OF

CHARLEMAGNE

206

CRUSADES

EUROPE

IN

240 THE

REFORMATION .

350

PERIOD

FROM

I.

SECTION

birth

THE

Christ

of

possessionof unapproached

equalled,and

territories, which

embraced

civilized

under

life,were

civilizations

The

side

its borders

The

Roman

All

and

Roman

by

peace

common

small

in

and

tribes. co

were

men

single Em

together by allegiance to a military system subject to him. comparison with that of a modern

the Roman adequate to preserve flourished,communication commerce roads

Out

semicivilized

civilized

the

within

Empire.

by

and

sea,

^mili

made

was

educated

among

The

Under

peace.

was

excellent

by

of

world

the

of

culture.

of

come

Roman or

savage

men

not

vast

knew

held

was

a

army,

tary state, that

and

did

never

these

times,

single type

a

the

degree

a

common

of the

only

knew

Empire

extensive. peror,

he

of China

or

inhabitant

ordinary

of the

vision

of India

in modern

of

sway

To

Rome.

all that the

surrounded

which

lands

the

saw

in the

Mediterranean before

SITUATION

GENERAL

THE

I.

THE

TO

CRISIS

GNOSTIC

*

;

BEGINNINGS

THE

easy

men,

at

language, that of Greece, larger towns, a common facilitated the interchange of thought. It was empire that, an of rulers lower in spite evil and corrupt officials,secured many and before rough justice such as the world had never a seen; least in the

its citizens with

Yet

control, domestic

proud

were

of it and

all its unity

Rome

far

was

the

matters

of its achievements.

imperial authority

of

crushing local

from

inhabitants

of the

and

military

institutions.

provinces

were

In

largely

generally self-governing. Their local religiousobservances were ancient the the respected. Among languages and masses limited allowed customs native rulers were a persisted. Even in portions of the empire, as native states still persist sway under time

British

rule

of Christ's

in India.

birth.

mistress

of its diverse

siderate

treatment

Not

Such a

a

land

little of the

was

Palestine

success

at

of Rome

the as

due to this con subject population was of local rights and prejudices. The diver1

RELIGIOUS

GENERAL

THE

2

BACKGROUND

sityin the empire was scarcelyless remarkable than its unity. nowhere more This varietywas apparent than in the realm of thought. religious Christianityentered no empty world. Its advent found men's minds filled with conceptionsof the universe,of religion, and punishments, with which it had to of sin,and of rewards it had and reckon to which to adjust itself. Christianity could not build on virginsoil. The conceptionswhich it found already existingformed much of the material with which it must erect its structure. Many of these ideas are no longer those of the modern

world.

fact of this inevitable inter

The

the permanent from compels the student to distinguish the transitoryin Christian thought,though the process is one of exceeding difficulty, and the solutions given by various mixture

scholars

diverse.

are

Certain

factors in the world

of

thought into

which

Chris

tianitycame belong to universal ancient religionand are of hoary antiquity. All men, except a few representativesof believed in the existence of a sophistication, philosophical of powers, invisible, or superhuman, and eternal,con power, human trolling destiny,and to be worshipped or placatedby sacrifice. The earth was viewed as the cen or prayer, ritual, it the sun, planets,and stars ran Around tre of the universe. their

Above

courses.

or departedspirits

called natural

ongoings of and

was

the

tfce abode

heaven; below

conceptionof what penetrated the popular mind.

of the wicked.

law had

nature

evil,who

it

the work

were

is now

No

of invisible powers

ruled arbitrarily.Miracles

of

All the of

good

therefore,

A~

were,

be regarded not merely as possible;they were to be expect( d the in the higher forces would whenever impress men witji the abode of inm The world was portant or the unusual.

spirits, righteousor malevolent,who touched human li entered into such possession" in all its phases,and who even to control their actions for good or ill. A profoun as men merable

of

sense

the

unworthiness, of ill desert,and of dissatisfaction wit

conditions "existing

kind.

The

varied

of life characterized the

forms

of

mass

religiousmanifestation

of were

mar ev

dences of the universal need of better relations with the spiritu* and of men's Jonging for help greater than an. and unseen,

they

could

give one

another.

Besides these generalconceptionscommon

to

popular re

PLATO

4

AND

world, since known by reason give whatever of realityis present to

our

vious existence. remembrance

the body, must

before

soul knew

"

these "ideas"

in pre of the visible world call to

"ideas."

The

soul, existing

be independent of it,and

decay.

This

doctrine

of resurrection.

sires to

be

"ideas"

is the true

All "ideas"

affected

not

conception of immortality as of the soul,not shared by the body, was always Greek to thought and stood in sharp contrast

by

its

shared

known

once

than

and by the senses by the passing phenomena

phenomena

The

these

rather

The

senses.

ARISTOTLE

an

attribute

influential in the

Hebrew

of

equal worth. The highestare those of the true, the beautiful,and especially of the good. A clear perceptionof a personalGod, as embodied in the "idea" of the good, was perhaps not attained by Plato; but he certainlyapproached closelyto it. The good rules the of all lesser goods,and de It is the source world, not chance. imitated

in the home

actions

of the

satisfaction in communion

with

not

are

of

soul, which

them.

The

men.

of-

realm

finds its highest

Salvation

is the

recov

goodness and beauty. of a far less mystical spirit Aristotle (B. C. 384-322) was than Plato. To him the visible world was an unquestioned between reality.He discarded Plato's sharp discrimination and "ideas" phenomena. Neither exist without the other. of the vision of the eternal

ery

in the case of substance, the result,save God, who is purelyimmaterial,of the impress of idea," as the in formative Matter which is the content. force, on matter It has always existed,yet itself is only potentialsubstance. the world is eternal,for a realm without form. Hence never Each

existence

is

a

"

of

"ideas"

does -not and

antecedent

exist.

Aristotle

The

world

is therefore

changes

demand

Himself

unmoved.

argument

to

the

their manifestation is the in

a

prime object of true

initiation of Hence

for the existence

in

a

sense

a

phenomena knowledge,

scientist.

"prime mover,"

Its

who

is

Aristotle

presents this celebrated

of God.

But

the

"prime

mover"

God and is, therefore,not intelligent purpose, only the beginning but the end of the process of the world's belongs to the world of substances, but development. Man in him there is not merely the body and sensitive "soul" of the which he animal; there is also a divine spark,a Logos (Xcfyo?), is eternal,though, unlike Plato's shares with God, and which impersonal. In morals Arisconception of spirit, essentially

works

with

EPICUREANISM

5

1

Itotleheld that happiness, or

is the aim, and is at well-being, of the golden mean. tained by a careful maintenance much be Greek philosophy did not advance scientifically yond Plato and Aristotle,but they had little direct influence at

the time

of Christ.

birth,a modified

Two

centuries and

half

a

Platonism, Neo-Platonism,

was

to

after His

arise,of

profoundly affected Christian the powerfully ology, notably that of Augustine. Aristotle was to influence the scholastic theology of the later Middle Ages. in had viewed Those older Greek philosophers man chiefly the lightof his value to the state. The conquests of Alexander, who died B. C. 323, wrought a great change in men's outlook. the Eastern Hellenic culture was world, plantedwidely over but the small Greek states collapsedas independent political entities. It was difficultlongerto feel that devotion to the new and vast political units that a little, independent Athens had, for instance, from its citizens. The individual as an inde won pendent entitywas emphasized. Philosophy had to be inter could the individual preted in terms of individual life. How of himself? Two make the most were given, great answers of which was one wholly foreignto the genius of Christianity, and could not be used by it; the other only partially foreign, and therefore destined profoundly to influence Christian the ology. These were Epicureanism and Stoicism. Epicurus (B. C. 342-270), most of whose life was spent in Athens, taught that mental bliss is the highest aim of man. This state is most perfectwhen passive. It is the absence of all that disturbs and annoys. Hence Epicurus himself does deserve the reproaches often cast upon his system. In not great importance, which

deed, in his mental

baseless.

they

life,he

was

govern

an

ascetic.

The

worst

foes of

fears. Of these groundless/ dread of the anger of the gods and of death. Both did do The gods exist,but they not create nor

happinesshe taught

the chief are are

own

the world, which

are

Epicurus holds,with Democritus

by the chance and ever-changing combinations All islnaterial, of eternally even existingatoms. DeatlTelridsall,but tlie soul of man and the gods themselves. is no evi" since "in it there is no consciousness remaining. Hence, as far as it was a religion, Epicureanismwas one of in difference. The school spread widely. The Roman poet Lu (B. C. 470?-3SO?),

cretius

was

formed

(B. C. 98?-55), in his brilliant De

Rerum

Natura,

gave

STOICISM

6

of the

ence

system

view

sensual

side of

the worthier

expressionto

as

whole

a

Epicureanism;

but the influ

destructive and

was

toward

a

of

happiness. Contemporarily with Epicurus,Euhemerus (about B. C. 300) were taught that the gods of the old religions simply deified whom about myths and tradition had cast a halo of men, divinity. He found a translator and advocate in the Roman (B.C. 239?-170?). Parallel with Epicureanism, poet Ennius in the teaching of Pyrrho of Elis (B. C. 360?-270?), and his followers,a wholly sceptical point of view was presented. Not be understood, but merely can the real nature of things never of action the best course In practice is equally dubious. Pyrrho found, like Epicurus,the ideal of lifeone of withdrawal all that

from

could Christianity did not

disturbs.

or

annoys

nothing in

have

all these

With

and

common,

theories

they

in turn

affect it.

The

other

great

of Stoicism,the noblest ethical thought, the nearest in some re

answer

was

that

type of ancient pagan and in others spects to Christianity,

remote

from

it. Its lead

(B. C.?-264?),Cleanthes (B. C. 301?-232?), and Chrysippus (B. C. 280?-207?). Though developed in Athens, it flourished best outside of Greece, and notably in Rome, where Seneca (B. C. 3?-A. D. 65), Epictetus(A. D. 60?-?), and the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 121-180), had great influence. ers

wereZeno

powerfullyrepresentedin Tarsus during the early life Stoicism was of the Apostle Paul. primarilya great ethical system, yet not without claims to be considered a religion. Its thought of the universe was curiouslymaterialistic. All It

was

is real is

that

fineness of Hence

bodies, and

fine and

dis correspond roughly to the common Stoicism approximated, spiritand matter.

coarse

tinctions between

though

there is great difference in the the coarser are penetratedby the finer.

physical. Yet

it much

The

modified, the view of Heraclitus.

source

the shaping,harmonizing influence in the universe is the vital warmth, from which all has developed by differing of

all,and

interpenetratesall things,and

degrees of tension, which

to

Heraclitus's fire,which it resembles,it is the intelligent, self-conscious world-soul,an all

which

all will return.

indwellingreason, It is

We

God,

can

the

Far

more

than

of which Logos (Xcfyo?),

life and

"follow the God

wisdom

of all.

within" ; and

reason

our

It is

by

is

a

truly within

reason

of it one

part. us.

can

STOICISM

popular gods

The

Since

law,

are

of Zeus:

"We

too

are

thy offspring."

for the forces that stream

simply names

God.

from

out

did

Cleanthes

as

say,

7

wisdom

one

exists in all the world, there is one

rule of conduct

one

Since all

are

frfom

station in lifeare

for all

God, all

accidental.

men

are

To

All

men.

are

brothers.

follow

reason

natural

morally

free.

Differences in the

in

placein

is equally oneself is the highest duty, and is an Emperor or a slave. So to praiseworthywhether a man which

finds

one

J obey reason, is

no

the Logos, is the sole objectof pursuit.Happiness just aim, though duty done brings a certain happiness

by-product. The chief enemies of a perfectobedi are passions and lusts, which pervert the judgment. ence These must resolutelybe put aside. God inspiresall good pantheistic. acts, though the notion of God is essentially The strenuous ascetic attitude of Stoicism,its doctrine of the divine wisdom, Logos (Xctyo?), its all-pervadingand all-ruling insistence that all who do well are equallydeserving,whatever i their station,and its assertion of the essential brotherhood of / all men, were profoundly to affect Christian theology. In its the creed and its results were noble. ( highestrepresentatives It was, however, too often hard, narrow, and unsympathetic. It was for the few. It recognizedthat the many could never reach its standards. Its spiritwas often one of pride. too That of Christianity is one of humility. Still it produced re markable effects. Stoicism gave Rome excellent Emperors and lesser officials. Though it never became a really popular many followed by many of high influence and position creed, it was in the Roman law for the better. world, and modified Roman It introduced into jurisprudencethe conception of a law of and above all arbitraryhuman nature, expressed in reason, statutes. are By its doctrine that all men by nature equal,the features of slavery were worst gradually ameliorated,and Roman citizenship widely extended. One may and thought in Rome say that the best educated the provinces,by the time of Christ, in spiteof wide-spread Epicureanism and Scepticism,inclined to pantheisticMono to the theism, to the conception of God as good, in contrast non-moral character of the old Greek and Roman deities,to belief in a rulingdivine providence,to the thought that true is not ceremonies but an imitation of the moral qualireligion

purelyas

a

POPULAR

8

RELIGION

The two God, and toward a humaner attitude to men. elements those of lacking in this educated philosophy were certaintysuch as could only be given by belief in a divine revelation,and of that loyaltyto a person which Christianity to emphasize. was The common people,however, shared in few of these bene fits. They lay in gross superstition.If the grip of the old of Greece and Rome had largelyrelaxed,they never* religions theless believed in gods many and lords many. Every town had its patron god or goddess,every trade,the farm, the spring, of life,marriage, childbirth. the household, the chief events These views, too, were ultimatelyto appear in Christian his into saint-worship.Soothsayers and magi tory transmuted cians drove a thrivingtrade among the ignorant,and none Above all, were more patronizedthan those of Jewish race. the of the common convinced that maintenance people were the historic religious cult of the ancient gods was necessary If not observed, for the safety and perpetuityof the state. in calamities the gods wreaked vengeance an opinionthat was of much later persecutionof Christianity.These the source not vigorouslyopposed by the learned, popular ideas were who largelyheld that the old religionshad a police value. They regarded the state ceremonies as a necessityfor the com Seneca put the philosophical mon man. opinionbluntlywhen will observe all religious he declared that "the wise man usages commanded as by the law, not as pleasingto the gods." The lowest point in popular religious Empire feelingin the Roman correspondsroughly to the time of the birth of Christ. The abler Emperors strove to strengthen and modify the into worship \Jancient popular worships, for patrioticreasons, deification of the This patriotic of the state and of its head. Roman state began, indeed, in the days of the republic. The be found in Smyrna as early worship of the "Dea Roma" may This reverence B. C. 195. was strengthenedby the popu as larityof the empire in the provincesas securingthem better than that of the republic. As early as B. C. 29, government Pergamum had a temple to Rome and Augustus. This worship, ties of

"

/

directed

and

the ruler

as

the embodiment

of the state,

or

rather

spread rapidly. It soon indwellingspirit, elaborate an priesthood under state patronage, divided and celebrating not only worship organizedby provinces,

to his

had

to

"genius"

or

WORSHIP

OF

THE

STATE

9

largescale. It was probablythe most char of a professedly religious highlydevelopedorganization the earlyempire,and the degreeto which it ulti acter under mately affected Christian institutions awaits further investiga of tion. From a modern point of view there was much more in this system. Christian mission than of religion patriotism aries in Japan have solved a similar, though probablyless diffi to the Emperor to be cult, situation by holding reverence But early Christian feelingregarded this purely patriotic. irreconcilablewith allegiance worshipof the Emperor as utterly of Pergamum is shown in the description to Christ. The feeling in Revelation 213. Christian refusal to render the worshipseemed treasonable,and was the great occasion of the martyrdoms. Men need a religion deeper than philosophyor ceremonies. Ceremonies Philosophy satisfiesonly the exceptionalman. but not those whose avail far more, thoughts are active,or Some attempt of personalunworthiness is keen. whose sense made to revive the dying older popular paganism. The was of them, extensive builders and earlier Emperors were, many patrons of temples. The most notable effort to effect a revival that of Plutarch (A.D. and purification of popularreligion was but annual

games

on

a

46?-120?), of Chseronea of others.

He

in

Greece, which

criticised the traditional

may

serve

mythology.

as

typical All that

impliedcruel or morallyunworthy actions on the part of the All the popular gods gods he rejected.There is one God. Plutarch His attributes personified, subordinate spirits. are or had faith in oracles, and future retribution. providences, special He taught a strenuous morality. His attempt to wake up what best in the dying older paganism was a was hopeless task and

won

few followers.

The great majorityof those who felt religious longingssimply those of a redemptivena adopted Oriental religions, especially

mysticismor sacramentalism were prominent fea the great -influx Ease of communication, and especially tures. world of Oriental slaves into the western portionof the Roman The spread during the later republicfacilitated this process. of these faiths independentof,and to a certain extent as rivals of,Christianity duringthe firstthree centuries of our era made that epoch one of deepeningreligious feeling throughoutthe em pire,and, in that sense, undoubtedly facilitatedthe ultimate^ ture in which

'

triumphof Christianity.

J-

MYSTERY

10

RELIGIONS

One

of considerablyextended appeal, such Oriental religion, though with little of the element of mystery, was Judaism, of which

there

will be

occasion

fullyin another The connection. popular mind turned more largelyto other Oriental cults,of greater mystery, or rather of largerredemp tive sacramental significance.Their meaning for the religious world has been only recentlyap development of the Roman preciatedat anything like its true value. The most popular of these Oriental religions those of the Great Mother were (Cybele) and Attis,originating in Asia Minor Isis of and Serapisfrom ; time there Egypt ; and of Mithras from Persia. At the same much of these religions, with mixture was syncretistic one of the lands to which they another, and with the older religions That of the Great came. Mother, which was a essentially primitive nature worship, accompanied by licentious rites, in B. C. 204, and was the first to gain extensive reached Rome That of Isis and Serapis,with its em foothold in the West. well established in was phasison regenerationand a future life, Rome by B. C. 80, but had long to endure governmental oppo sition. That of Mithras, the noblest of all,though having an extended historyin the East, did not become conspicuous at tilltoward the year A. D. 100, and its great spread was Rome in the latter part of the second and during the third centuries. It was especiallybeloved of soldiers. In the later years, at to

speak

more

in the Roman least of its progress Empire, Mithras fied with the sun the Sol Invictus of the Emperors "

Constantine.

Like

the universe

was

other

was

identi

just before

of Persian origin, its view religions

of

dualistic.

religions taught a redeemer-god. All held that the initiateshared in symbolic(sacramental) fashion the experiences with him, became of the god, died with him, rose partakersof the divine nature, usuallythrough a meal shared symbolically in his immortality. All had secret with him, and participated rites for the initiated. All offered mystical (sacramental) cleansingfrom sin. In the religionof Isis and Serapis that cleansingwas by bathing in sacred water; in those of the and of Mithras by the blood of a bull,the tauGreat Mother the initiate was robolium,by which, as recorded in inscriptions, "reborn forever." All promised a happy future life for the All these

faithful.

the world.

All

were

more

or

less ascetic in their attitude toward

Some, like Mithraism, taught the brotherhood

and

AND

LAW

THE

12

undisturbed practically

SYNAGOGUE

after their restoration

consequent upon

conquest of Babylonia ; and the hereditarypriestly the real native aristocracy of the land. In their

the Persian families

THE

were

they

higher ranks

be marked

interest and by political indifference. The high-priesthood in particular became religious of its influence. a coveted office by reason pecuniaryand political from the Greek With it was associated,certainly period,a body the Sanhedrim, ultimately of advisers and legalinterpreters, Thus administered,the temple and its seventy-one in number. came priesthood

to

came

to

represent the

more

formal

aspect of the reli

On the other hand, the feeling that gious life of the Hebrews. a holy people livingunder Yahwe's holy law, their they were of religious separatism,and the comparative cessation of sense prophecy,turned the nation to the study of the law, which was of tradition. As in Mo mass interpreted by an ever-increasing lands to-day,the Jewish law was hammedan at once religious and civil the Its statute. interpreters, scribes,became precept the real religious and more leaders of the people. Juda more ism grew of a the religion to be, in ever-increasing measure, and its mass of interpretative sacred scripture precedent. For of the law, and for fuller understanding and administration a developedwherever Judaism prayer and worship,the synagogue was represented.Its originis uncertain,going back probably to local congregationin the Exile. In its typicalform it was a by a group of cluding all Jews of the district presidedover These were em "elders,"having often a "ruler" at its head. and punish offenders. The services powered to excommunicate were very simple and could be led by any Hebrew, though usu a ruler of the synagogue." They included prayer, allyunder the readingof the law and the prophets,their translation and exposition(sermon), and the benediction. Because of the un and the growing im character of the priesthood, representative the temple,though highlyregarded, portance of the synagogues, life of the people as less and less vital for the religious became the time of Christ is approached,and could be totallyde stroyedin A. D. 70, without any overthrow of the essential ele "

in"Judaism.

ments

Under into

the Seleucid

Judaea, and

office.

The

Epiphanes

influences Kings Hellenizing

divided

the

claimants

for the

strongly high-priestly

came

forcible support of Hellenism IV, by Antiochus (B. C. 175-164), and its accompanying repression

AND

PHARISEES

SADDUCEES

13

worship and customs, led, in B. C. 167, to the great rebellion headed by the Maccabees, and ultimatelyto a period lasted till the conquest by the of Judsean independence which This Hellenizingepisodebrought about in B. C. 63. Romans

of Jewish

a

profoundcleft in

Jewish

life. The

rulers secured

Maccabean

the family office ; but high-priestly though and by re had risen to leadershipby oppositionto Hellenism ;zeal,it graduallydrifted toward Hellenism and purely ligious Under John Hyrcanus, the Maccabean politicalambition. for themselves* the

ruler from

B. C.

135

to

105, the distinction

between

the

re

marked. The aristo became ligiouspartiesof later Judaism cratic-political party, with which Hyrcanus and the leading to be known Sad as priestlyfamilies allied themselves, came ducees title the meaning and antiquityof which is uncer a tain. It was a worldly party without strong re essentially ligiousconviction. Many of the views that the Sadducees entertained were conservativelyrepresentativeof the older Judaism. Thus, they held to the law without its traditional and denied a resurrection or a personalimmor interpretation, tality. On the other hand, they rejectedthe ancient notion of influential, Though politically they were spirits, good or bad. of the people,who opposed all foreign unpopular with the mass influences and stood firmlyfor the law as interpretedby the traditions. of this The most thoroughgoing representatives which attitude were the Pharisees,a name democratic-legalistic the Separated, presentingwhat was signifies undoubtedly a long previouslyexistingattitude,though the designationap shortly before the time of John Hyrcanus. With his pears reignthe historic struggleof Pharisees and Sadducees begins. As a whole, in spiteof the fact that the Zealots,or men of not action, sprang from them,_lhe Pharisees were a political held the admiration of a majority of the party. Though they The ordinaryworking never people,they were very numerous. "

Jew to

lacked the education

become

daism which normal

wras were

a

Pharisee.

in the minutiae of the law Their

the

the leisure of Ju

mass

however, They represented,

contemptuous.1

widely

attitude toward

or

entertained

and

results of Jewish

were

in

many

views

respects

since the Exile.

religious development prime emphasis was on the exact keeping of the law interpretedby the traditions. They held stronglyto the

Their

1

John

749.

as ex-

MESSIANIC

THE

14

istence of

and

good spirits,

that

bad

HOPE a

"

doctrine of

angels and of powerful impulse from growth of a belief in

apparently received a Persian ideas. They representedthat the resurrection of the body, and in future rewards and punish^ remarkable which had seen ments a development during the centuries preceding Christ's birth. They held, like the two The Pharisees,from to the Messianic hope. people generally, pointsof view, were deservingof no littlerespect. From many the circle infused with these ideas Christ's disciples were largely Satan

to

had

The

come.

learned

most

a

Pharisee,and

a

Christian.1

called himself Their

keeping of

an

such

earnestness

failure of Pharisaism the

of the

was

twofold.

was

external

Apostleshad

been

himself

after

having become praiseworthy. The great It looked upon as religion

years

law, by which

a

reward

was

earned.

necessityneither a real inward right eousness a warm personalrelation to God. It also"* shut out from the divine promises those whose failures,sins, the attainment of the and imperfectkeeping of the law made lost sheep" Pharisaic standard impossible. It disinherited the

Such

keeping involved of spirit, nor

of

"

of the

house

condemnation

of Israel.

As

such

the

it received

well-merited

of Christ.

hope, shared by the Pharisees and common the outgrowth of strong national conscious people alike,was and faith in God. It was most ness vigorous in times of na God the earlier Maccabees, when tional oppression. Under a fearingline had given independence to the people,it was little their family felt. The later Maccabees, however, deserted tradition. The Romans conquered the land in B. C. 63. Nor the situation reallyimproved from a strict Jewish stand was point,when a half-Jewish adventurer, Herod, the son of the Idumean overAntipater,held a vassal kingshipunder Roman lordshipfrom B. C. 37 to B. C. 4. In spiteof his undoubted services to the material prosperityof the land, and his mag looked upon nificent rebuildingof the temple, he was a tool as The

Messianic

of the Romans

and

a

Hellenizer

at heart.

The On

Herodians

were

Herod's

death

and Pharisees alike. by Sadducees his kingdom was divided between three of his sons, Archelaus of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumea (B.C. becoming "ethnarch" and Persea 4-A. D. 6); Herod Antipas "tetrarch" of Galilee (B. C. 4-A. D. 39) ; and Philip"tetrarch" of the prevailingly disliked

1

Acts

236.

aroused

Augustus,

bitter

enmity,

was

succeeded

and

deposed by the

was

by A.

occupant of this post from

15

of the Sea of Galilee.

heathen regioneast and northeast laus

JUDAISM

IN

FORCES

OTHER

D.

26

to

Emperor

procurator the

Roman

a

Arche-

"

being Pontius

36

Pilate. With

it seemed adverse political conditions, hppelessly

such

if the Messianic

as

be realizable

could

hope

only by divine aid.

hope involved the destruction of Roman authorityby supernaturaldivine intervention through Messiah; and the establishment of a kingdom of God in a should flourish under Judaism freed and all-powerful which a a righteousMessianic King of Davidic descent,into which the Jews scattered throughout the Roman Empire should be gath be begun. To the ered, and by which a golden age would than that, by divine littlemore Jew it probablymeant average would be driven out and the kingdom the Romans intervention, based on Malachi restored to Israel. A wide-spreadbelief, 31, of heralded Messiah would be the the that held by a coming By

the

of Christ that

time

forerunner. These

ture,

nourished

hopes were

as pessimistic

color the age

ancient

to

to

come.

litera body of apocalyptic the present, but painting in brilliant often ascribed to The writingswere a

in the Old

Such

worthies.

by

prophecy of Daniel, such without Assumption of Moses, and a number this class of literature from much

use

are

the Book

of others.

Christian

canon

is the

of Enoch, the A specimen of

point of view, but with

is Revelation in the New Testa conceptions, nourished a forward-looking,hopeful religious

of Jewish These

ment.

a

Testament

attitude that must

served

have

in

a

to offset

measure

the strict

of the law. interpretation of religious lifewere Other currents moving also in Palestine, of which it is impossibleto estimate,but the reality the extent

legalismof

of which from

the Pharisaic

In the country districts especially, away of official Judaism, there was real mystical a

is evident.

the centres

that piety. It was spirit"of the New

later Psalms

"poor in Testament, and the "Magnificat" and l well be expressions of it. To this mystic Benedictus may type belong also the recentlydiscovered so-called Odes of Solo From this simplerpiety,in a largerand less mystical mon. appeals for repentance, of which those prophetic sense, came "

of the

"

1

Luke

I46-"- ""'",

and

of the

of John far

the

on

the

not

was

Pharisaic,but

"wisdom/' which istingside by side with God, of the

the foundation

is of

importance by theology. as practically ex personified with Him, His "possession"

development of Christian is

It is that of

before

It

later Judaism

conceptionof

further

of its influence

reason

best known.

Baptistare

vital.

more

One

PALESTINE

OUTSIDE

JUDAISM

16

one

world, His agent in its creation.1

possiblethat the influence of the Stoic thought of the allis here to be seen ; but a more pervading divine Logos (Xcfyo?) ethical note sounds than in the correspondingGreek teaching. It is

Yet

views

the two

Palestine is Judaism.

It

were

easy

of assimilation.

naturallyfirst in thought its

home, and

the

in

a

consideration

of

of the

beginningsof the importance of the dispersion Christianity.Nevertheless life of of the Jews outside of Palestine,both for the religious the Roman Empire as a whole, and for the reflex effect upon Judaism itselfof the consequent contact with Hellenic thought, was great. This dispersionhad begun with the conquests of the Assyrianand Babylonian monarchs, and had been furthered rulers,notably by the Ptolemies of Egypt, and the by many of the closingdays of the republicand the dawn great Romans but it is not ing empire. Estimates are at best conjectural, five or six improbablethat, at the birth of Christ there were was

scene

"

times

as

many

Jews

outside

as

within its borders.

population of Alexandria. were They were stronglyrooted in Syriaand Asia Minor. small numbers, in Rome. Few to be found, if in relatively without their presence. Clannish and citiesof the empire were viewed with littlefavor by the heathen population,they pros by the rulers, pered in trade,were valued for their good qualities their religious scrupleswere generallyrespected,and, in turn, they displayeda missionaryspiritwhich made their religious impress felt. As this Judaism of the dispersionpresentedit self to the surroundingheathen, it was a far simplercreed than It taught one Palestinian Pharisaism. God, who had revealed His will in sacred Scriptures, a strenuous morality,a future life with rewards and punishments, ,and a few relatively simple and the the commands to circumcision, use Sabbath, relating with It carried with it everywhere the synagogue, of meats. its unelaborate and non-ritualistic worship. It appealedpower-

They They

were

a

notable

of Palestine

part of the

"

iProv.

319; 8; Psalms

336.

.

HELLENIZED

JUDAISM

fullyto

many

agogues

had

Judaized

17

the heathens; and, besides full proselytes, them

about

much

a

converts,

for much

largerpenumbra men/' wh'o

the "devout

of

to

were

syn

partially as

serve

a

early Christian missionary

of the

ground recruiting propaganda. In its turn, the. Judaism of the dispersion much influenced was by Hellenism, especiallyby Greek philosophy,and nowhere more deeply than in Egypt. There, in Alexandria, the Old Testament was given to the readingworld in Greek translation, the so-called Septuagint,as earlyas the reignof Ptolemy Philathe Jewish Scriptures, delphus (B. C. 285-246). This made heretofore locked up in an obscure tongue, widely accessible. In Alexandria, also,Old Testament ideas were com religious bined with Greek philosophical conceptions,notably Platonic and Stoic, in a remarkable syncretism. The most influential of these Alexandrian Philo (B. C. 20?-A. D. was interpreters To

is the wisest of books, a Philo, the Old Testament real divine revelation,and Moses the greatest of teachers ; but

42?).

Philo by allegorical interpretation harmony with the best in Platonism that the Old

Testament

and

finds the Old and

in

Testament

Stoicism.

The

belief

Greek

in essential philosophywere of far-reaching for the develop one significance agreement was of Christian theology. This allegorical ment method of Bib lical explanationwas greatlyto influence later Christian study of the Scriptures. To Philo, the one God made the world as an expressionof His goodness to His creation; but between God and the world the unitinglinks are a group of divine powers, viewed partlyas attributes of God and partlyas personalexist Of these the highestis the Logos (Xctyo?) which flows out ences. of the being of God Himself, and is the agent not merely through ,

whom

God

flow.

Through

actual

man

well

created

is

the

the

a

world, but from whom

Logos

poor

God

created

the work

copy,

all other

powers

the ideal man, of whom of lower spiritual powers

of the

Logos. Even from his fallen state man may rise to connection with God the the through Logos, agent of divine revelation. Yet Philo's conception of the Logos is far in Proverbs, of more philosophicalthan that of "wisdom" as

which tament

as

mention

Logos

has been

made

doctrine

is to

tion of "wisdom" was,

however, a

rather

; and

the

be found

source

of the New

in the Hebrew

Tes

concep

in the thought of Philo. He in which Helgreat illustration of the manner than

THE

JOHN

18

lenic and

Hebrew

be

united, in the

no

other

Philo

BAPTIST

ideas

might be united, and were actuallyto development of later Christian theology. In

world portion of the Roman so fullydeveloped as represented

SECTION

^

III.

JESUS

AND

THE

was

the

process

which

in Alexandria.

DISCIPLES

prepared for Jesus by John the Baptist,in the of the Mes thought of the early Christians the "forerunner" he preached in the regionof the Jordan siah. Ascetic in life, Israel was that the day of judgment upon at hand, that the Messiah about and despisingall formalism in to come; was and all dependence on Abrahamic descent, he pro religion, claimed in the spiritof the ancient prophets their message: "repent,do justice." His directions to the various classes of He his hearers were bap simple and utterlynon-legalistic.1 tized his disciples in token of the washing away of their sins ; the Jesus classed him he taught them as a specialprayer. last and among the greatest of the prophets. Though many those of Jesus, some of his followers became persistedinde pendently and were, to be found as late as Paul's ministryin Ephesus.2 While the materials are lackingfor any full biography of of one Jesus such as would be available in the case livingin modern times, they are entirelyadequate to determine His if many of life, His character,and His teaching,even manner points on which greater lightcould be desired are left in ob scurity. He stands forth clearlyin all His essential qualities. of Galilee,in the simple sur He was brought up in Nazareth The home. land, though despised roundings of a carpenter's of of the Judaea on account more by purelyJewish inhabitants of races, was re a considerable admixture loyalto the Hebrew ligionand traditions,the home of a hardy, self-respecting pop ulation, and particularlypervaded by the Messianic hope. Here Jesus grew to manhood through years of unrecorded experience,which, from His later ministry,must have been The

also of

way

was

insightand profound spiritual

with

"favor

God

and

man." From

the 1

this

quietlife He

Baptist. Luke

To

32-14; Matt.

him 31-12.

He

by the preachingof John baptized in went, and by him was

was

drawn

2

Acts, 191-4.

TEACHING

THE

20

of the

founder

the Messianic

OF

JESUS of God.

kingdom

Yet

that

king always spiritual.

It was earthly,Maccabean. But His conceptionof it enlarged. At first He seems to have regarded it as for Jews only.1 As He went on, His conception of its inclusiveness grew, and He taught not merely that many dom

not

was

"shall

from

come

the

that

south,"2 but

the

unbelievingJews.3 friend

the

and

Jesus

and

west

held

the

north

taken

from

from

itself will be

kingdom

Himself

in

and the

peculiardegree sons daughters kingdom whom disinherited,the outcasts, publicans,harlots, of value in the sight of Their repentance was and

of the had

Pharisaism

and

east

the poor.

a

of the

God. The

sovereigntyand

nition -of God's dren.

Hence

whom

we

now.

Hence God

to

help

are

need

we

fatherhood.

love

should

we

can

; and

God, in Jesus' teaching,involves the

of

kingdom

Him

and

repent with

this attitude

of

faith) is followed

like

was,

Though much

more

love

so

sin,and

turn

is in heaven

which

toward

strenuousness

others.9

Forgiveness forgivingus.10 There the other

easy,

the

are

and

narrow

ends.11

Jesus

strongly eschatologicalin His outlook. felt that the kingdom is begun now,12 it is to be in the near future. The powerfully manifested

His

He

and

destruction

or

for

not

trust

of God's

broad

blessed future

A

hard.

chil

(repentanceand ethical divine forgiveness.6The the highest conceivable. "Be ye and

sorrow

condition one

are

do

sorrow

by the standard of the kingdom is Father therefore as perfect,even your the utmost is perfect."7 It involves self,8and unlimited forgivenesstoward of others is a necessary in life: two are ways

recog

His

neighbors.4 All

our

neighbors.5 We

our

to

We

age,

of the present age seemed not far off.13 doubtless Most of these views and sayingscan

end

of the

thought religious revolutionary. "He taught

in the

and

not

as

1

Mark

4

Mark

7

Matt.

10

727; Matt.

than

John

2

105-7,1524.

1228-34. 548.

Mark

II25- 26.

13

Matt.

1023,1928,2434

14

Mark

I22.

as

one

could

say

the

paralleled

total effect

that

had

that the least of His that heaven

3

Mark

121-12.

Luke

1025-37.

6

Luke

1511-32.

Mark

943'60.

9

Matt.

IS21- 22.

Mark

41-32;Luke

Matt.

713- 14.

1330. Matt.

11".

was

authority,

1329.

Luke

8

16

the

Baptist;15and

B

"

; Mark

them

He

the scribes."14

is greater disciples

age;

but

be

12

1721.

earth should pass

and

who

them

before His but

Father

a

Son, and he

law.

the God-given Jewish felt His

did not

that

world-age; His

left in His His

power

hand, He

He

arid His

the Father's

will,not

of the The

me?"10

not

was

right hand

cried in the agony

forsaken

It

alone.7

His

on

prayed that

He

exaltation.8

God, why hast Thou

sit

should

who

be done.9

own,

to the Father

known

was

determine

to

had

other

the

part of

humanity and its limitations no less clearly. He He declared that to pray. taught His disciples know the day or the hour of ending of the present

own

prayed, and He

He

that

sins.6 On

reveal the

sacred

more

no

affirmed

He

forgivenessof

pronounce

was

the

Sabbath,5 than

of the

lord

to

confess knew

none

should

the Son

to whom

proclaimedHimself popular estimate, there

which, in

that

declared

He

Father.3

promised

would

He

that

called the

He He

rest.2

men

He

Father.4

to

before

Him

confessed

those

offered them

and

21

before His words.1

away

Him

heavy-laden to

PERSON

HIS

OF

MYSTERY

THE

"My

cross:

of His

mystery

divinityis no less evident how is beyond our than its humanity. The experience,and of comprehension ; but the church therefore beyond our powers has always busied itself with the problem, and has too often emphasized one side to the exclusion of the other. practically Jesus substituted for the external, work righteous,cere monial religion of contemporary Judaism, the thought of piety as consistingin love to God and to one's neighbor to a God manifested is a brother who is a Father and a neighbor who primarilyin an attitude of the heart and inward life,the fruit is in these

person

Its

utterances.

"

"

is external acts.

of which

to personalallegiance

the

type of redeemed

motive

The

Himself

as

of that

power

of the

the revelation

humanity, the

Elder

end is

"

Father, the

Brother, and

kingdom- of God. What Jesus taught and was gained immense from the conviction of His disciples that His death King

life is

of the

from

one

the resurrection

of the most

of this conviction first to 1

Mark

4

who Peter,11

faith.

puzzlingof

The

how

historical

is unquestionable. It was

in that

sense

significance not

was

of this conviction The

problems. the

have

to

seems

at least

the

"

rock"

fact come

Apostle

1331.

2

Matt. II28.

8

Matt.

1032.

Matt.

II27',Luke

6

Mark

223-28.

"

M

21-11.

7

Mark

1332.

8

Mark

1040.

9

Mark

16

Mark

1534.

"1

1022.

Cor. 155.

ark

1436.

It

shared it. It gave

church

the

whom

on

to

courage

risen

Lord,

All

the

early disciples

turning-pointin the conversion

the scattered

made

them

in the exaltation

Messiah

of Jewish

realitythan

Judaism

had

ever

of Paul.

disciples, brought

witnesses.

The

them.

PENTECOST

founded.

was

the

was

getheragain,and a

AND

RESURRECTION

22

them

Henceforth

to

they

had

of

glory,yet ever interested in hope,in a profounder spiritual imagined Him, had reallylived,

died, and risen again for their salvation. These

convictions

deepened by the experiencesof the of the pentecostalmani The exact nature day of Pentecost. festation is,perhaps,impossibleto recover. Certainlythe con ception of a proclamation of the Gospel in many foreignlan is inconsistent with what know of speaking with we guages tongues elsewhere1 and with the criticism reported by the "full of new author of Acts that they were wine/' 2 which Peter deemed worthy of a reply. But the point of significance manifestations is that these spiritual appeared the visible and of Christ.3 To these audible evidence of the giftand power the triumphant inaugurationof a rela first Christians it was tion to the livingLord, confidence in which controlled much If the disciple of the thinkingof the ApostolicChurch. visibly by faith,repentance, and baptism, acknowledged his allegiance the exalted Christ, it was believed,in turn no less evidently by His giftof the Spirit. Pentecost acknowledged the disciple indeed a day of the Lord ; and though hardly to be called was the birthdayof the church, for that had its beginningsin Jesus' it marked association with the disciples, an epoch in the proc conviction of Christ's lamation of the Gospel,in the disciples' and

presence,

SECTION

The

were

in the increase of adherents

IV.

THE

in Jerusalem

rapidly. persionas

It speedilyincluded well

as

Jews

who

natives of Galilee and

the

faith.

new

COMMUNITIES

CHRISTIAN

PALESTINIAN

Christian community

to

seems

had

to have

grown

lived in the dis

Judaea,and

even

some

the

name priests.By the Christian body "church" was early adopted. The designationcomes very from the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, where it had been employed to indicate the whole people of Israel as a fittingtitle a divinelycalled congregation. As such it was

the

of

1

See

Hebrew

1 Cor. H2-19.

2

Acts 213.

3

Acts 233.

felt themselves

Christians

he.

to

23

such the early

The

early Jerusalem com in obedi at the temple, and addition, they had their own

faithful in attendance

were

ORGANIZATION

Israel,the real people of God, and

for the true

pany

AND

WORSHIP

PRIMITIVE

law, but, in mutual themselves, with prayer, specialservices among ex of bread" in and houses.1 hortation, "breaking daily private the Jewish

ence

to

This

bread" "breakingof and of fellowship

bond

served a

a

twofold of

means

It

purpose.

for the

support

was

a

needy.

The

expectationof the speedy coming of the Lord made the at Jerusalem a waiting congregation,in which the company provided by the giftsof the support of the less well-to-do was better able, so that they "had all thingscommon."2 The act was

much

and

a

than

more

of the Lord's

reminder

before

His

that, however.

crucifixion.

It

Last

had,

It

was

Supper

continuation

a

\vith His

disciples the first, a

therefore, from

sacramental

significance. of the Jeru Organizationwas simple. The leadership very salem congregationwas in a lesser at first that of Peter, and With them the whole apostoliccompany degree of John. was associated in prominence, though whether they constituted so fullya governing board as tradition affirmed by the time that be doubted. Acts was written may Questions arisingfrom the distribution of aid to the needy resulted in the appointment of

a

of seven,3 but

committee

originof

the diaconate

a

or

lar situation is uncertain.

the

duties

thus

by

deacons

in

The

Gentile

this action

device to meet

temporary

intrusted the

whether

that

utmost

resembled

those

churches.

At

the

was a

particu

be said is that

can

later discharged

early though (Trpeafivi-epoi) are mentioned,4 these whether older the of the members were though simply officers6 not improbably patterned after those church,5 or were of the Jewish synagogue, is impossibleto determine. The Jerusalem filled with the Messianic congregation was at first in a cruder and less spiritual form hope, it would seem than Jesus had taught.7 It was devoted in its loyaltyto the somewhat

later

Christ, who receive

period "elders"

would

until the

tion it viewed

as

return, but

soon

times

of restoration

to be obtained

1

Acts 248.

2

Acts 244.

4

Acts

"

As

7

See Acts

8

Acts

II30. I6.

an

Acts 3".

1523

"whom of all

the heaven

things."8

by repentance, might imply.

which

must

Salva

included

8

Acts 61-8.

6

Acts

1423.

CONGREGATION

24

THE

sorrow

for the

national

IN

sin of

JERUSALEM

rejectingJesus

as

the Messiah

personalsins. This repentance and acknowledg followed by baptism in the name of loyaltywas of Christ, ment and was a as relationship, sign of cleansingand token of new of spiritual sealed with the divine approval by the bestowment gifts.1This preaching of Jesus as the true Messiah, and fear of a consequent disregardof the historic ritual,led to an at tack by Pharisaic Hellenist Jews, which resulted in the death of the first Christian martyr, Stephen,by stoningat the hands The immediate of a mob. was a partialscatter consequence ing of the Jerusalem congregation,so that the seeds of Chris sown throughout Judsea, in Samaria, and even tianitywere in as remote regionsas Csesarea,Damascus, Antioch, and the island of Cyprus. Of the original Apostles the only one who known is certainly to have exercised a considerable missionary Peter, though tradition ascribes such labors to activitywas well

as

as

all.

them

for

John

may

have

engaged,also, in

such

endeavor,

historyof this Apostle is much in dispute. The comparative peace which followed the martyrdom of Stephen was broken for the Jerusalem church by a much more severe persecutionabout A. D. 44, instigated by Herod Agrippa the I, who from 41 to his death in 44, was vassal-kingover the Great. former territories of Herod Peter was imprisoned, but escaped death, and the Apostle James beheaded. In was this persecu connection with the scatteringconsequent upon truth underlies the tradi tion is probably to be found whatever twelve years after the tion that the Apostles left Jerusalem crucifixion. At all events, Peter seems to have been only oc of the Jerusalem there henceforth;and the leadership casionally though

the later

church

fell to

James, "the

Lord's

brother," who

even

earlier

which he prominent in its affairs.2 This position, held till his martyr's death about 63, has often been called a "bishopric,"and undoubtedly it corresponded in many ways There churches. the Gentile in to the monarchical bishopric of the is no evidence, however, of the applicationto James the successions of re term "bishop" in his lifetime. When Semitic remembered, peoples are ligiousleadership among to relationshipto the especiallythe importance attached much more founder, it seems likelythat there was here a rudi is rendered the more mentary caliphate. This interpretation

had

1

become

Acts

2".

38.

2

Gal. I19,29; Acts 2118.

PALESTINIAN

IN

TENDENCIES

James's

probable because

church, though

Jerusalem

CHRISTIANITY

25

in the leadershipof the chosen tillafter the conquest of

successor

not

Jesus' kinsman. the cityby Titus in 70, was Simeon, esteemed the church in Jerusalem Under the leadershipof James em both in agreement that the ancient law of parties, Israel was binding on Christians of Jewish race, but differing it was to whether similarly regulativefor Christian converts as One wing held it to be binding on all ; the from heathenism. was was a willingto representative, other, of which James from the law to Gentile Christians,though it allow freedom viewed with disfavor such a mingling of Jews and Gentiles at table as Peter was a disposed,for a time at least,to common The welcome.1 catastrophewhich ended the Jewish rebellion braced

two

in the year 70 was fateful,however, to all the Christian com munities in Palestine,even though that of Jerusalem escaped

by flight.The yet greater overthrow of perilsof the 'siege of 132 to 135, left Jewish hopes under Hadrian, in the war Even before the Palestinian Christianitya feeble remnant. influential foci of Christian in first capture of the city,more in other portionsof the empire. The fluence were to be found the

were

flowed

and

church

Jerusalem

important forth,and

as as

of Jesus' life and rather

from

which

Christianityfirst

of many securingthe preservation that

words

would

otherwise

have

as

SECTION

As

the fountain

memorials

been

influencing, by direct and permanent as a whole. development of Christianity

than

ship,the

its associated Palestinian communities

V.

AND

PAUL

GENTILE

lost,

leader

CHRISTIANITY

already been mentioned, the persecution which brought about Stephen's martyrdom resulted in the planting of Christianity beyond the borders of Palestine. Missionaries, whose have perished,preached Christ to fellow Jews. names In Antioch a further extension of this propaganda took place. Antioch, the capitalof Syria,was a city of the first rank, a remarkably cosmopolitan meeting-placeof Greeks, Syrians, faith was and Jews. The There the new preached to Greeks. effect of this preaching was the spread of the Gospel among those of Gentile antecedents. By the populace they were title little used by the followers nicknamed Christians" a has

"

"

1

Gal. 212-18.

till well into the

themselves

of Jesus

the

earlier

prevalent among farthest goal of Christian tumults

among

second

heathen.

effort.

the Jews

UNIVERSAL

BE

CHRISTIANITY

SHOULD

26

By

Nor 51

Antioch

was

52, under Christian

or

consequent upon

the

Claudius, preaching

governmental attention itself. At this early period,however, Antioch in Rome was this of of effect conversion of the centre development. The had been heathen was antecedents those whose inevitablyto of the of these the relation raise to the Jew disciples question that rule be imposed upon Should ish law. Gentiles,Christi anity would be but a Jewish sect ; should Gentiles be free from universal religion, but at the it Christianity could become a this inevitable conflict Jewish sympathy. That cost of much decided in favor of the largerdoctrine was was primarilythe work of the Apostle Paul. by

missionaries

century, though

unknown

Paul, whose

V"

Hebrew

attracted

reminiscent of the hero

Saul, was

name,

Benjamin, of which he was a member, was born in the Cilician city of Tarsus, of Pharisaic parentage, but of a father citizenship.Tarsus was eminent possessedof Roman

"of the tribe of

in the educational a

of Stoic

seat

there is

no

world, and

teaching. Brought

reason

He

education.

of Philo

of Alexandria.

could not become

grew now

it

and

up,

unknown,

study

to

How

of Jesus

other

than

termine.

His

holy by his

less." faction not

mind was

even

with

give

a

when no

by

true

largerworld

future under

while his

as

a

own

a

city

his orthodox

tried

that

he

of the

ministry impossibleto de conceptionof a nation

report, it is

of the Jewish law

by

Pharisee, to

attainments

was

that standard, was

of the keenest

man

sense

scribe that he went, at an age the famous Gamaliel the elder,

common

careful observance

a

outside

in the rabbinical tradition

to the Pharisaic

devotion

Always

youth

in such

Hellenic ideas,and to and at least,with the political

much, if anything,he knew

conduct,

own

he came,

a

ever

was

strictJewish home, received a formal

receive many

of the

as

was

a

never

a

birth

Hellenizer in the

wide-awake

it was Still,

in Jerusalem.

and

A

fail,however, familiar,in a measure

home.

made

was

to

religious atmosphere Jewish

up

in

to believe that Paul

Hellenic

of Paul's

the time

at

extreme, "blame

however, insight, spiritual dissatis feel deep inward

in character.

The

law

did

his state of righteousness.Such was with Christianity.If Jesus brought into contact Messiah, He had justlysuffered,and His disciples

real inward

THE

PAUL

28

point of

focal

MISSIONARY

Christian activity;and

it in

from

obedience,as

congregation believed, to divine guidance, set forth for a missionary journey that Paul and Barnabas of Pisidia, took them to Cyprus and thence to Perga, Antioch the so-called first missionary Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe journey described in Acts 13 and 14. Apparently the most thus far in the history of the endeavor fruitful evangelistic Antiochian

the

"

church, it resulted in the establishment of a group of congre gationsin southern Asia Minor, which Paul afterward addressed scholars would find the those of Galatia, though many as Asia

Minor,

growth

mixed

churches

of Gentile

Moses

"

:

cannot

ye

Taking

vert,

as

went

with

a

among

Galatia on

turmoiled

and

the

plantingof

raised the

now

great scale.

a

regions of

The

visitors from

by

question congre

Jerusalem

of Except ye be circumcised after the custom be saved."1 Paul determined to make test a him

Barnabas

uncircumcised

Titus, an

example

concrete

a

and

central

is recorded.

in Antioch

the law

was

with

privately. The was

Cyprus

relation to

asserted

case.

in

and

visit of Paul

no

of the church

in Antioch

gation

northern

more

which

to

The

who

in

churches

Galatian

to

of

con

he non-legalistic Christianity,

Jerusalem

result reached

Gentile

and

with

met

the

leaders

there

James, Peter, and

John

cordial recognitionof the genuineness of Paul's work the Gentiles,and an agreement that the field should be leaders to continue

divided,the Jerusalem

the mission

to

Jews,

of the law, wThile Paul and Barna course It was bas should go with their free message to the Gentiles.2 a decision honorable to both sides;but it was impossibleof full with maintenance

of

What

execution.

to be the relations in

were

mixed

a

church ?

law-keeping Jews and law-free Gentiles eat together? with a raised in connection That further question was soon visit of Peter to Antioch.3 It led to a publicdiscussion in the Jerusalem congregation, probably in the year 49 the so-called Could

"

Council

of Jerusalem

"

and

the

formulation

of certain rules

governing mixed eating.4 To Paul, anything but the freest equalityof Jew and Gentile seemed impossible. To Peter and Barnabas the question of terms of common eating seemed of both. them He must prime importance. Paul withstood held to have fightthe battle largelyalone, for Antioch seems with 1

Jerusalem

Acts

151.

in this matter z

Gal

21-10.

of intercourse 3

Gal.

211-16.

at

table. 4

Acts

158-29.

Longitude

LANDS

ABOUT

EASTERN IN

East

THE

MEDITERRANEAN THE

FIRST

CENTURY

Scales .Roman

9

'"*".

English 00

50

O

L

I

B

Y

A

from

Greenwich

PAUL

MISSIONARY

THE

29

followed the brief years of Paul's greatest missionary all his epistles. activity,and the period to which we owe Then

citizenship, Taking with him a Jerusalem Christian,of Roman of dis from Barnabas Silas by name, he separated by reason agreement regardingeating,and also by dissension regarding A journey through the conduct of 'Barnabas's cousin, Mark.1 the region of Galatia brought him Timothy as an assistant. Unable to labor in western Asia Minor, Paul and his companions entered Macedonia, founding churches in Philippiand now Thessalonica, being coldly received in Athens, and spending

eighteenmonths 53). Meanwhile

in successful work the

Judaizers

in Corinth

had

(probably51-

undermining his

been

apostolicauthorityin Galatia, and from Corinth he wrote to these churches his great epistlevindicatingnot merely his from all obliga own ministry,but the freedom of Christianity tion

to

the

Jewish

It

law.

was

the

of

charter

universal

a

Christianity.To the Thessalonians he also wrote, meeting their peculiardifficultiesregarding persecutionand the ex pectedcoming of Christ. his fellow la who had become Taking Aquila and Priscilla, borers in Corinth, with him to Ephesus, Paul left them there and made

a

hurried visit to Jerusalem

and

Antioch.

On

his return

Ephesus, where Christianityhad already been planted,he began a ministry there of three years' duration (53?-56?). also full of oppositionand of such peril it was Largelysuccessful, of life"2 and ultimatelyhad to flee. that Paul "despaired even but increased during this stay at The Apostles'burdens were and consequent Ephesus by moral delinquencies, party strife, rejectionof his authority in Corinth. These led not merely letters to the Corinthiam, but on to his significant departure in Corinth itself. His from Ephesus, to a stay of three months restored. In this Corinthian sojourn he wrote authoritywas the greatestof his epistles, that to the Romans. Paul had never ceased to hope that the breach Meanwhile to

between

him

and

of the Jerusalem for what

his Gentile Christians and

church

to

and

file

thank-oft'ering the parent community, he had

could be healed.

the Gentiles owed

the rank

As

a

collectinga contribution from his Gentile converts. he determined to take to Jeru This, in spiteof obvious peril, salem. of this giftand of the course Of the reception of Paul's

been

1

Acts

1536-40.

2

2 Cor.

I8.

negotiationsnothing is known speedily arrested in Jerusalem ing.

;

but

the Apostle himself

and

sent

a

Two

was

prisoner of

Csesarea,doubtless as an years'imprisonment (57?-59?) led

Government

Roman

DEATH

AND

IMPRISONMENT

PAUL'S

30

the

inciter of riot

to

to

decisive

no

result,since Paul exercised his rightof appeal to the imperial followed by his adventurous tribunal at Rome, and were jour ney

to the

capitalas

part of the

time

prisoner. At

a

at

least in his

Rome

he lived in

hired

own

custody, lodging,for two

wrote to his beloved churches (60?-62?). Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and briefer letters

he

Here

years

our

to

Timothy (thesecond epistle).Whether he was further journeys is a released from imprisonment and made problem which still divides the opinion of scholars,but the weight of such slightevidence as there is appears to be against and

Philemon

it.

to

is

There

beheaded

on

no

the Ostian

doubt

to

reason

the

; but

outside of Rome

way

that

tradition

places his martyrdom in with the great Neronian persecutionof 64. It was joined in place with that savage attack, and may occurred a little earlier without being dissociated in Tradition

uncertain.

from

heroic

anity has

been

considered

in

remaker

nestlyhave tion

was

the year is connection not

well

con

have

later view

that event.

Paul's

the

he

battle

for

a

Christi universal,non-legalistic

indicated. sufficiently another

connection.1

His Was

Christologywill he

the

theology? He would repudiated these imputations. Yet

trained

founder himself

of Christian

an

be or

ear

interpreta

to present the simple faith of sure altered form. somewhat Though

mind

was by a primitive Christianityin that came from his Paul wrought into Christian theologymuch rabbinic learningand Hellenic experience,his profound own Christian feelingled him into a deeper insightinto the mind of Christ than was possessedby any other of the earlydisciples. with the picture of Paul the theologianis often at variance Christ presentedby the Gospels. Paul the Christian is pro foundly at one. far from the Jewish law was Paul's conceptionof freedom as undervaluation of morality. possiblefrom any antinomian as "the the Christian is under If the old law had passed away, has the Spiritdwellingin law of the Spiritof life." He who and will "mortify him, will mind "the things of the Spirit," 1

Section

VII.

TEACHING

PAUL'S

32 it is

in the

is confidence

Nor

"slave."

of Christ's

crowning proof

is the

Christ

epitome of his faith.

an

"Lord/' himself the

resurrection

less necessary,

divine

Sonship.1 one Spirit. All graces from Him, all giftsand guidance. Man having the Spirit are is a new creature. Living the life of the Spirit,he no longer But that all-transformingand in lives that of the "flesh." "The Lord is the Spirit."2 dwelling Spiritis Christ Himself. If Christ thus stands in such relation to the individual disciple the

as

is in

He

is necessary less vital association

lievers

"

no

designatingthe

as

"the

church

body body

of

Paul

church.

the

all true

with

the

whole

church

the word

uses

Christian

life, of

body in two

be

senses,

congregation,Philippi,Corinth, Rome, their house," and as indicatingthe whole

local is in

that

the

for

Him

with

union

that

filled with

life is

Christian

The

believers,the true of Christ, of which

In the

Israel.

latter

it is the

sense

local

each

congregation is a part.3 all officers and Christ come From helpers,all spiritualgifts.4 of the life of the church, and these giftsare is the source He evidence of His glorified lordship.5 Like the early disciplesgenerally,Paul thought the. coming of Christ and the end of the existingworld-order though near; modification. In his earlier epistles his views underwent some it would he evidently believed happen in his lifetime.6 As he felt it likelythat he the close of his work toward he came die before the Lord's would coming.7 Regarding the resur had

rection, Paul Hebrew

tion the

of the

great

in

1

all,8and

Tbe great differences.9 Christ, to God all,even 1

I22-

*Eph. 5 Eph. 47-10. 7 Philippians 9

1 Cor.

of all

123"

310-15.

; 2

posi

thought; the

to

saved

Greek.

there

A

things is the subjectionof

2 Cor.

*Eph.

Tim'.46-8.

but

will be

the Father.10

I18.

24

con

his

make

Hebrew

the

Hebrew

Greek, the im

The

points

2

2S; Col

The

always

not

among

I4.

Romans

flesh.

1535'54

even

Here, however,

variance.

like the

Cor.

end

confidence.

does

811 looks

Romans

is for

judgment

of the

Paul

soul.

passage

at

were

livingagain

a

clear.

greatest

ideas

Greek

and

ception was mortality

the

317.

411; 1 Cor.

6

1 These.

8

2 Cor.

510.

10

1 Cor.

1520-28.

413-18.

124-11.

SECTION

historyand

The

Peter

Though

OF

CLOSE

THE

VI.

of the

have

in

cannot

been

a

shprt time

at

least,and

and

such especially

the

Roman

a

A

Nero

great fire in Rome,

in Rome

was

for

martyrdom

in

stay,

a

of John

residence

a

it

ikjce as

as

sur

permanently with

link him

was

was

have

as

Such persecutions.1

death, would

persecutionunder

The

he

On

Ephesus is much

in

intimations

the other hand, less assured.

Church.

Paul

while

his stay ended

that

Neronian

in the

by crucifixion

show

probable that

the conclusion

vived make

unknown.

scholars of weight still there that he was ever

force of such

all,the cumulative

at

AGE

Apostlesis

Rome

some

insufficient to

the evidence

33

APOSTOLIC

THE

fate of most

writing his epistlesthence, and hold

GROWTH

AND

PERSECUTION

local.

was

followedby charges un Christians,probably at Nero's instigation, in

July,64, was

justlyinvolvingthe suffered death Numbers from himself. to turn popular rumor by horrible torture in the Vatican gardens,where Nero made he lived in Chris Thenceforth their martyrdom a spectacle.2 tian tradition survived

in

as

a

of the church.

heathen

of Jerusalem an

of

event

at

more

the per

already waning in Palestinian congregationsin the largerconcerns and the rapid influx of converts This collapse,

fluence of the

from

rebellion,in 70, was

significance.It

manent

destruction

strength. The

close of the Jewish

Church

type of antichrist ; but the Roman

ended

almost

antecedents

soon

the

Paul's

made

battle for freedom

longera livingquestion. Antioch, Rome, and be the chief cen fore the end of the century, Ephesus, were now tres of Christian development. The converts were mostly from of better position, the lower social classes,3 no though some them. Such were to be found Lydia were tably women, among of Philippi,4 and, in much higher station,probably the consul,

from

law

no

Flavius

Clemens, and

the

death

one

under 1

2118-

19

; 1

Against Heresies,3:1:1;

tory, 2:25: 2

513 ; John

To

95.

of banishment

sentence

Domitilla, the

Clement, 5, Caius

suffered

Domitilla, who

wife, Flavia

the other

Domitian, in

1 Peter

naeus,

and

his

6 ;

of Rome

in Rome

Church

Roman

Ignatius,Romans, 43 in Eusebius, Church

; IreHis

5-7.

Tacitus, Annals

p. 6. 31 Cor. I26-2*.

1544; Ayer, A Source-Book

for Ancient

Church *

Acts

History,

1614.

CHANGES

RAPID

34

owed

Of

of its oldest catacombs.

one

details

(81-96) few

Domitian

this

but

known,

are

under persecution it must

have

and in Asia Minor.1 severityin Rome be recovered from this period, Yet though some can gleanings the fortyyears from 70 to 110 remain one of the obscurest por tions of church history. This is the more to be regrettedbe an cause they were epoch of rapid change in the church itself. be clearly the characteristics of the church can When once more shows surprisingly traced its generalconceptionof Christianity Not only must little of the distinctive stamp of Paul. many been

of

unknown

now

labored in addition to the great other than Christian of ideas from

missionaries have

Apostle, but an inrush brought undoubtedly by sources,

of heathen

converts

ante

practices,especially regarding the sacraments, fastings,and the rise of liturgical forms. The old conviction of the immediacy of the guidance of the Spiritfaded, without becoming wholly extinguished. The constitution of the church itself underwent, in this period, will be account a far-reachingdevelopment,of which some given (p.44). An illustration of this non-Pauline though Christianity, cedents, modified

without

evidence

beliefs and

Christian

of the

infiltration of heathen

ideas,is

to be

Written late in the first cen Epistleof James. tury or early in the second, it is singularly poor in theological in Its directions are content. largelyethical. Christianity, the conceptionof the writer,is a body of rightprinciples duly practised. Faith is not, as with Paul, a new, vital,personal relationship.It is intellectual conviction which must be sup and simple plemented by appropriateaction. It is a new in the

seen

moral To

law.2

this obscure

periodis

due

the

the Gos difficult. It would

compositionof

subjectin church historyis more definitely however, that at an early period,not now appear, in circula to be fixed,a collection of the sayingsof Christ was tion. Probably not far from 75-80, and according to early into Mark's .and credible tradition at Rome, Gospel came pels.

No

existence.

Its

arrangement

tion of the materials

portance which 1

attached

to

was

not

purelyhistoric,the

being determined the doctrines

they illustrated. With

1 Clement, 1; Rev. 2l"- 13; 713- 14.

and

large use

selec

evidentlyby the im ecclesiastical usages of the collection of 2

James

I26; 214-26.

GOSPELS

THE

35

into sayings and of Mark, Matthew and Luke's Gospels came being,probablybetween 80 and 95 ; the former probablyhaving Palestine as its place of writing,and the latter coming, there The Johannine Gos believe,from Antioch. not unfairlybe ascribed individual,and may pel is distinctly is

to

reason

some

Ephesus, and

to

to

of which circulation,

canoriical. There

as

fragments survive, but

with the four which

in value

pare

Other

the period 95-110.

seems

which

none

the church

to have

in

gospelswere to

came

com

regard

littleof recollections

been

at the close of the first century which extant was That this was the gathered into the familiar Gospels.

of Jesus

be ascribed to the great Jewish war Palestinian Hebrew congregations. To

and

may

the

owes

priceless heritageof

Master, and

a

case

the decline of the

the

Gospels the church its knowledge of the life of its

perpetualcorrective

which, like interpretation, pays littleattention to His

not

to

the

even

the one-sidedness

of

an

of Paul,

great message

earthlyministry. r

VII.

SECTION

inevitable

An with

the

THE

INTERPRETATION

questionof

proclamation of

the

OF

JESUS

highestimportancewhich

and Christianity,

arose

always de

must

in every is age of the church, is: What of be the Founder? The earliest Christology,as to thought has been pointed out, was Messianic. Jesus was the Messiah mand

consideration

hope, only in a vastlymore hope commonly implied. He had

of Jewish

time.1 of His

He

was

now

death,

but

was

shadowed Jewish

exaltation,yet what

earthlylife,that had

that term?

use

in

the

little of

for be

must

"

than a

that brief

thought

"

so glory in it,as men That life of humiliation,ending in a slave's the fulfilment of prophecy. God had fore

things that "His

Christian

sense spiritual but only gone,

Christ should

thought recurred

suffer.2

Early

to the

of sufferingservant for our "wounded Isaiah,who was transgressions."3Christ is the "servant" or "child," (TTCUS"eoO), in the early Petrine addresses.4 The glorification He is at the resurrection. was now "by the right hand of God exalted." 5 This primitive conception of the sufferingservant exalted, persisted. It is in of that, spite a good deal of Pauline admixture,of the epistle 1

Acts 321.

4

Acts

313.

26

; 427- 30.

2

Acts 318.

6

Acts

232-

3 33

:

4l".l2.

Isaiah

536.

known

Clement, writingfrom

1 Peter 318"22.

as

CHRISTOLOGIES

EARLIEST

THE

36

Corinthians, 93-97, also shares

imply

It does pre-existence.

Christ

by

Christ

known

in His

not

soon

necessarily

not

that

problem

earth.

They

out.

The

apparent.

was

life on

does

to the

clear the relationship of

make

thought

not

distinction

obvious

An had

It had

to God.

it.1 It

Rome

disciples knew

now

Him

Him after giftsin His exaltation. They had known knew Him after the spirit2 that is as flesh; they now Jesus of historyand the Christ of experience. To super

His

the

"

the

ficial consideration,at

adjustment. The

least,these of

Jesus

two

aspects

history lived

in

were a

not

easy

of

definite land,

of space and time. under human conditions The Christ of the as experienceis Lord of all His servants, is manifested in

placesthe most diverse,is om Paul regardsit as a mark of Chris Him everywhere.3 He prays to Him solemn asseveration that his apostleorigin,Paul classes God and Christ

moment Spiritat the same nipresentand omniscient. call upon tianitythat men

himself.4

In

his most

ship is not of any human These attributes and powers of the together as its source.5 is Christ of experienceare very like divine,it evident ; and they inevitablyraised the questionof Christ's relation to the Father it had

as

powers

been

not

and

far,and in

raised thus

greater trainingand

education

a

mind

of far subtler

than that of any

of

that of Paul. the earlier disciples, Hebrew Paul knew theology well,with its conceptionof the divine "wisdom" as present with God before the foundation of the world.6

something of Stoicism, with its doctrine of the universal,omnipresent,fashioningdivine in resembled the He the Logos, that in many telligence, ways the Isaian conception of the suffer brew wisdom. He knew To Paul, therefore, the identification of the ing servant. exalted Christ with the divine wisdom not only Logos was wisdom be but and that natural; Logos must preeasy, existent and always with God. He is "the Spiritof God,"7 He

also knew

"

"

"

"

the

"wisdom

"In

of God."8

Him

dwelleth

all the fulness of

bodily." Even more, as in the Stoic conception of the Logos, He is the divine agent in creation; "all things have been created through Him and unto Him." 10 Though Paul

the Godhead

1

1

Clement,

9

2

16.

4

2 Cor. 128- 9.

7

1 Cor. 210- ".

5 s

Romans Gal.

I3- 4.

I1.

Ibid.,I24.

9

Col. 29.

3

1 Cor. I2.

6

Prov. 822- 23. 10

Col. I16.

CHRISTOLOGY

PAUL'S

God,1 he taught

called Christ

in set terms

probably never

37

He "knew Christ's unity in character with God. sin";2 He no is the full manifestation of the love of God, which is greater than any human love, and the motive springof the Christian

plain,therefore,that though Paul often calls and he gives Him an absolutelyunique position,

life in us.3 Christ

It is

man,

classes Him

with God.

If the Christ of

existent in glory for Paul, how He the sufferingservant.4 was in the

followed, as reward.

explain the

Jesus

conception,by highly exalted Him

also God

is above

great

and

gave

that

Him

every

tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord."

looks

upon

tion.

It

earthly life of Jesus indeed significant."God was

the whole was

world

cilingthe

resurrection"

unto

that He

Himself." was

it

Yet

5

name

every

"declared

to

as

.

.

.

Paul

of humilia

one

in Christ

recon

the

only "by

was

of God

the Son

be

was

the

unto

name

which

history?

obedience

humble

His

of

earlier Petrine

"Wherefore the

and postpre-existent

thus

experiencewas

Christology combines, therefore,in a Hebrew and Gentile conceptions. In it remarkable manner, the sufferingand exalted servant, the pre-existent appear

with

power."

Paul's

6

divine wisdom, the divine agent in creation,and the redeemer down who for man's sake came from heaven, died, and power

again.

rose

Within

half

a

generationof

Paul's

death, however,

a

ing interpretationappeared, probably representingan

differ inde

that of the Gospel of Mark. thought. It was The writer knew nothing of Paul's view of Christ's pre-existence. In his thought, Christ was from His baptism the Son of God the Son of God thenceforth, in by adoption.7 That He was all His earthly lot, is the evangelist'sendeavor to show. There was humiliation,indeed, but there was a glory also in His earthlylife, of which Paul gives no hint. He had not to

pendent line

wait from with

for

of

the

heaven an

demonstration

of

declared

the

unclean

"the Holy One 1

The

various 2

6

to

Son

spiritsaluted Him of God" (I24). The

which translations, reasons

Him

the resurrection.

2 Cor. 521.

3

2 Cor. 519.

6

Romans

Romans

baptism. The man His first preaching as

at

of spirits

those

95 and

possessed

Titus 213,are

for

Pauline.

839,57I4.

voice

at

imply that, in Romans

be rejected as

The

8

; Gal. 220.

4

Philippians

7

Mark

I9-11.

26-11.

CHRISTOLOGIES

38

cried,"Thou

art

OF

the Son

of God"

Peter, James, and

before

THE

(312). He

John, while

only

is my beloved Son" explainthe lack of universal

time

on

"This

claims:

earth by the declaration

not disciples

that

evident

to

make

Him

this is

a

GOSPELS

very

heavenly voice

a

(92'8).The

pro

evangelistcan

recognitionin Christ's life that

known

transfigured

was

He

(e.g.

different

and charged spirits I34,312,543,99). It is

from interpretation

that

of Paul.

view

Mark's It had

back in

no

to evidentlyunsatisfactory

was

real theory

of the incarnation.

It does

own

not

age. trace

the sonship far enough. If that sonship was manifested portionof Christ's life, why not in all His life? That im

a

pressedthe writers of the Like Mark, they have no ence

his

"

their authors

osophicalrealm.

next trace

did not

But

two

move

they make

and Luke.

Gospels,Matthew

of Paul's

doctrine

in Paul's

of

pre-existor phil theological of Christ's

the manifestation

inceptionof

His

earthly of supernaturalbirth. existence. He was Like Mark, both regard His life as other than one of humiliation only. these Yet for minds steeped in the thoughts of Paul even could not be satisfying interpretations.A fourth Gospel ap peared about 95-110, probably in Ephesus, which sprang into inter of its profoundly spiritual favor, not only on account pretationof the meaning of Christ, but because it combined in one harmonious presentationthe divided elements of the In the Gospel which had thus far been current. Christologies of John, the pre-existence and creative which bears the name Christ is the activityof Christ is as fullytaught as by Paul. with God, and the Word who "was was Logos, the Word made God"; "All things were (I1-3). There is no by Him" and Luke, but a real,though hint of virginbirth,as in Matthew unexplained,incarnation is taught: "The Word became flesh and dwelt among us" (I14). The tendency of the earlier Gos pels to behold glory,as well as humiliation,in Christ's earthly divine

sonship

life is carried which to

the

He woman

date

much

from

the very

further.

That

life is

one

primarilyin

His glory" (211, see I14). He declares of Samaria that He is the Messiah (426). He is

"manifested

(518). He re "making Himself equal with God" members the glory of His pre-existence (175). He walks through life triumphantly conscious of His high divine mis regarded as

sion. In the account

of the Garden

of Gethsemane

no

note

NATURE

THE

40

its rise in

probably had worked. tion

of

much

a

the

about

region,Ephesus, where Paul long Pauline, but developed in the direc mysticism. This mysticism centres a

positionis

Its

intenser

thoughts

SALVATION

OF

of life and

union

with

Christ, both

of

Pauline, and

unlike that of yet treated in a way Life is the great word of the Johannine literature. Paul. This He who knows the Christ of present experiencehas life. which

are

"

is life eternal,that Him

and

whom

they

know

didst send,

Thou

writer,the world

the

should

Thee, the only true

is divisible into two

simple classes

For "

:

He

life,he that hath not the Son of hath not the life." God By life,the author does not mean simple existence. To him it is blessed,purifiedimmortality. children of God, and it is not yet made mani "Now are we hath

that

hath

Christ.3'1

Jesus

even

God,

the Son

the

2

fest what

shall be.

we

We

shall be like Him."

we

and

this union

is

know

that if He

This lifeisbased

3

on

union

with

Christ,

participation.One

real sacramental

a

shall be manifested

can

but feel that there is here the influence of ideas similar to those of the mystery religions.Paul had valued the Lord's Supper. of the body and blood of Christ, To him it was a "communion" "remembrance"

a

the goes

till He

death

Lord's

Christ,through which:

of

come."4

The

"Ye

Johannine

further: "Except ye eat the flesh of the Son

drink

His

blood

is

Supper

have

ye

already a

not

life in

mystical

proclaim literature

yourselves." The

sacrament

is to procure literature stands on which

and

of Man

5

necessary

Lord's

for

blessed

that

immortality. a spiritual plane of ut loftiness. It is instructive to see how some of these prob most of the same lems looked to a contemporary general school, elevation. an equallyearnest Christian,but of far less spiritual Condemned Such a man is Ignatiusof Antioch. as a Christian in his home city,in the last years of Trajan, 110-117, he was Of sent a prisonerto Rome to be thrown to the wild beasts. his historylittleis known, but from his pen seven brief letters exist,six of them written to the churches of Ephesus, Magnesia, and Smyrna ; and one Tralles,Rome, Philadelphia, a personal full of of note to Polycarp,bishop gratitude Smyrna. They are of for kindnesses shown his journey, on warnings againstspiriunion

The

with Christ Johannine

1

John

2

1 John

4

1 Cor.

173 ;

see

also 316- 36,647,1027. 28,etc. John 336.

512 ; compare 1016, II24- 26.

a

3

6

1 John John

32. 653.

IGNATIUS tual

of exhortations

and perils,

41

unity. Their significance

to

for the

history of Christian institutions will be considered

Section

IX.

Ignatius has

the

same

God."1

the

blood

of

in "Jesus

greets the Romans

He

loftyChristologyas

sacrifice is

literature. Christ's

Johannine

in

"the

Christ

our

God."

"He he did nojt identifyChrist wholly with the Father. of David accordingto the flesh,but Son of is trulyof the race As in the Johannine God by the divine will and power."

Yet

for life: Ignatiusheld union with Christ necessary literature, and have not true life" 3 "Christ Jesus, apart from whom we "

His concep magical. He says well-nigh

that life is ministered through the Lord's

Supper was, however, Breaking one bread which

tion of the of it :

"

the antidote that

talityand

Christ."

in Jesus

the incarnation tion of

a

death.

the devil and

In the Johannine

life,in the

was

should not

die but live forever

originalthought

the manifestation

was

humanity.

new

we

of immor

is the medicine

Ignatius'smost

4

Supper.

of God

for the

Christ the world

Before

that

was

was

revela

under

Christ brought life and immortality.5 and the Ignatianwritingsalike,salvation of the transformation

sense

of sinful

mortality

into blessed immortality. This thought had roots in Paul's this teaching. Through the school of Syria and Asia Minor

became, in the Greek-speaking church, the conception of sal vation.

was

one

of Christ and

son

will be of

It

seen,

was

rightrelations

that lays necessary emphasis on the per Latin conception,as The the incarnation.

that with

its Pauline

too, had

salvation consists in the establishment God

and

the

sins.

forgivenessof

antecedents.

It

This,

lays prime n^fcarily

the atonement. weight on divine grace, the death of ChrisflBKd These conceptions are not mutually exclusive ; but to these differences of emphasis is ultimatelydue much of the contrast in the later theological development of East and West.

VIII.

SECTION

GENTILE

CHRISTIANITY

OF

THE

SECOND

CENTURY

By the Asia

bly

year

100

Christianitywas

stronglyrepresentedin

Minor, Syria,Macedonia, Greece, and also in .

Eph.

20.

Egypt, though

and

Rome,

regardingits introduction 2Smyrn.,\. *Eph. 19, 20.

8

proba

into that

Tral,

9.

land

is

there

Asia Minor

**

FATHERS

certain knowledge.

no

all,to the

if at slightly,

i

APOSTOLIC

THE

42

extended

portion of

western

more

It had

the

very

empire.

extensivelyChristianized than any other About land. of Bithynia,could 111-113 Pliny,the governor the older temple worship.1 affecting report to Trajan that it was and constantlyextending, It was stronglymissionaryin spirit, Common far from Christianity,however, was representing, of Paul the of the understanding, loftytheology or even or Johannine

was

more

literature.

in

It moved

a

much

thought. Profoundly loyal to Christ, it

primarilyas

the divine revealer of the

God, and the proclaimerof

a

"new

simplerrange conceived

of

knowledge of

law"

of

of

Him

the true

simple,lofty,and

morality. This is the attitude of the so-called "ApostolicFathers," with the exceptionof Ignatius,whose thought has already been discussed. strenuous

These

Christian

writers

were

thus

named

because

it

was

believed that they were long,though erroneously, personaldis ciplesof the Apostles. They include Clement of Rome (c.93-

97); Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110-117); Polycarp of Smyrna of Rome (c.115-140); the author who (c.110-117); Hermas of Barnabas, possibly in Alexandria under the name wrote called Second Clement sermon (c. 131) ; and the anonymous (c.160-170). To this literature should be added the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles(c. 130-160, but presentinga survival

primitiveconditions). The anonymous Epistleto Dithe writingsof the Apostolic Fa ognetus,often included among thers,is probably later than their period. themselves Christians looked upon as a separated people, the whose true Israel, new was a no longer citizenship race, for its in the Roman and welfare Empire, though they prayed that of its ruler,but in the heavenly Jerusalem.2 They are created before the sun and the church "which was moon," framed."3 "and for her sake the world was The conceptionof the church was not primarilythat of the aggregate of Chris tians on earth, but of a heavenly citizenship reaching down the scattered embrace to earth, and gathering into its own this church To Christian communities.4 the discipleis ad mitted waters."5 That by baptism. It is "builded upon of very

1 3

5

Letters,1096 ; Ayer, p. 20. Hermas, Vis.,24; 2 Clem., 14. Hermas, Vis.,33.

2 4

Clem., 61 ; Hermas, Teaching, 9. 1

Sim., 1.

CHRISTIAN

live the Christian

to

engagement

43

belief in the truth of the Christian

baptism impliedantecedent message,

WORSHIP

AND

LIFE

and repentance.1 life,

probably on other days.2 kinds: had consisted from the Apostles'time of two These preaching, song and meetings for reading the Scriptures, evening meal with which the Lord's prayer;3and A common conjoined. By the time Justin Martyr wrote his Supper was meal had disappeared, (153), the common Apology in Rome and the Supper was joinedwith the assembly for preaching, the occasion for The Supper was as a concludingsacrament.4 forms offeringsfor the needy.5 The beginnings of liturgical Services

to

are

held

were

on

Sunday,

and

be found

before the close of the first century.6 life was ascetic and legalistic. Wednesday

Christian

Friday

fasts,which

were

called

were

and

"stations,"as of soldiers

guard.7 The Lord's Prayer was repeated thrice daily.8 "Fasting is better than prayer, but almsgivingthan both."9 Second marriage was discouraged.10Simple repent is not sufficientfor forgiveness, there must be satisfaction.11 ance of Christ

A

on

Christian

can

even

do

than

more

God

demands

"

works

of

supererogation and will receive a corresponding reward.12 Great generositywas exercised toward the poor, widows, and going so far as to sell themselves into slavery orphans, some felt to be rewarded and rich were to supply the needy.13 The helped by the prayers of the poor.14 Wealthy congregations redeemed and sent relief to a distance,and in these prisoners "

works

none

was

more

eminent

other hand, though slaves their manumission fall into evil

was

For

is

3 4 6 7 8 11 13 16

On

evidence, also,that the

higher stationed found maintain in practice.16

the

of heathen

more

the ideal of brotherhood

antecedents

deny the existence of the old gods. They 1

of Rome.

regarded as Christian brethren, discouragedlest,lackingsupport, they

ways.15 There

Christians

that

were

well-to-do and difficult to

than

it

was

were

difficult to very

real to

2 Justin,Apology, 61 ; Ayer, p. 33. Justin,ibid.,67 ; Ayer, p. 35. Justin,ibid.,67 ; see also Pliny,Letters,1096; Ayer, pp. 21, 35. 8 Justin,ibid.,67. 65, 67 ; Ayer, pp. 33-35. 1 Clem., 59-61, see also Teaching, 9, 10; Ayer, pp. 38, 39. Teaching, 8 ; Hermas, Sim., 51 ; Ayer, p. 38. 10 92 Clem., 16. Teaching, 8; Ayer, p. 38. Hermas, Hand.. 44. 12 7. Ibid.,Sim., Ibid.,Sim., 52- 3; Ayer, p. 48. 14 1 Clem., 55. Hermas, Sim., 2. 16 Ignatius to Polycarp,4. Hermas, Sim., 920.

LEADERS

SPIRIT-FILLED

44

them, but

looked

were

their

between of which

own

they

were

in the

of exorcism

use

be

to

as

aware,

influence

of demon

thus

century explainedthe resemblance rites and those of the mystery religions,

of the second

Christians

The

demons, hostile to Christianity.1

as

upon

a

of Christ.3

resurrection of the flesh,and

a

SECTION

led to much all men there is

For final

a

judgment.4

ORGANIZATION

CHRISTIAN

IX.

Fear,

and characteristic,

was

name

demons.2

parody by

darkened by historyhas been more controversy than that of the originand development of church is more difficult, owing to the scantiness of officers,and none It is probable that the de that has survived. the evidence all early diverse in different localities. Not velopment was Christian congregationshad identical institutions at the same reached by the middle time. Yet a substantial similarity was of the second century. Something has already been said of the constitution of the Jewish Christian congregations.5The

questionin

No

present discussion

churches

mention

make

no

could

hardly have

isted.

Their

held office. you

avoided

that

some

in 1

allusion

in the Lord"

epistlesshow

on

Gentile soil. strict

officers in the

no

Those

Thess.

o12 to

Corinthians

such officers

allusion,had

is,at best, very

all ministries

the

to

approach6 is only an as Stephanas,and does

such

The

had

of local officers.

nearest

subjectionto

those

Galatians,Corinthians,and Romans

Paul's letters to the

sense.

over

has to do with

earliest Gentile

The

in

church

exhortation not

imply

to

Paul's

be

that he

those that

obscure.

ex

"are

earlier

church, of whatever

in the

who in the direct giftof the Spirit, looked upon as sort, were spireseach severallyfor the service of the congregation.7 It is fair to conclude that these bearers of the giftsof the Spirit

in the church might be different at different times, and many vehicles of the charismatic inspiration. might equally become three classes of leaders as in particular Paul, however, specifies the giftof the Spirit Apostles,prophets,teachers.8 He him If the Apostles' self regarded his Apostolate as charismatic.9 work was primarilythat of founding Christian churches, those "

1 " 7

Justin,Apology, 5. 2 Clem., 9, 16. 1 Cor. 124-11- 28-30, 1426-33.

J *

8

Ibid.,62. Ante, p. 23. 1 Cor. 1228.

8

Ibid.,Dialogue, 85.

6

1 Cor. 1618- 1S.

OF

RISE

OFFICERS

PERMANENT

45

the proclamation or interpre prophet and teacher were The exact shade of tation of the divinelyinspiredmessage. difference between prophet and teacher is impossibleto dis of charismatic men. The worst All, however, were cover. sins was to refuse to hear the Spiritspeaking through them.1 Yet Paul undoubtedly exercised a real im^sionarysuperinten the churches founded dence over by him, and employed his in the work.2 It is difficult this to distinguish youngerassistants from ordinarysupervisionsuch as any founder might employ. It was that such unlimited confidence inevitable,however, the earliest congregationspossessed in charismatic gifts as should be abused. The Teachingof the Twelve Apostlesshows that self-seeking and fraudulent claimants to divine guidance soon were preying on the churches.3 Tests had to be found to discriminate the true from the false. In the Teaching,and of the

the touchstone

in Herman*

orthodoxy

of

teaching. The

to be found

are

140), to

say

is character.

in Rome

as

prophets long late

Miletus

unmodified. the "elders"

exhortingthem in which

flock

eWcr/eo7rot

"take

the

and

41*4 it is

1 John

continued.

They

of Hermas

of those whom

(115-

the church

his followers

even

later.

of things, not, in the nature Paul called to his farewell message

of the (Trpeo-pvrepoi,)

heed

unto

These

are

church

of

yourselvesand

hath

Holy Ghost

overseers.5

"

matic

to

For

the time

as

nothing of the claims

judged heretical,like Montanus Such uncertain leadershipcould continue

In

made

in

you

certain

a

Ephesus, to

all the

bishops"sense

charis

They have been made bishopsby the Holy Spirit. But they are recipients of a charism which makes them a defi nite group having particularduties to the congregation. In of his latest letters Paul speaksof the one bishopsand deacons of the church in Philippi(I1). Even if this be held to mean the dischargeof functions only "those who oversee and those who serve" the advance beyond the conditions of the Corin men.

"

"

"

"

thian the

is apparent. epistles

The

giftsmay

be charismatic,but holders of a permanent

recipientsare

beginning to be official relation. Why these local officers developed is un known worship, and the ; but the interests of good order and example of the synagogue are probable suggestions. Absence 1

Teaching,11; Ayer,

2

E. g., Timothy in 1 Cor. 11 ; Ayer, p. 40.

3

p. 40.

417,1610. 4 Mand.,

11.

6

Acts 2017-29.

AND

BISHOPS

46

PRESBYTERS

by whom worship could be con ducted and the congregationled was in some certainlya cause places. The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles directs: "Ap point for yourselves,therefore,bishops and deacons worthy of

prophets

of the

Lord,

teachers

and

who

men

meek

are

and

lovers of money,

not

and

and

approved ; for unto you they also perform the service of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise them not; for they are your honorable men along with the prophets and teachers" (15). At Philippi,Ephesus, and in the Teaching, these "bishops" are spoken of in the plural. This is also true true

and

of Rome 93-97.

l

of Corinth

Clement

when

Clement

speaks, also, of

of Rome

in

wrote

those

the against whom rebelled as Corinth church its "appointed presby ters" (54); and of "those who have offered the giftsof the bishop's office" as presbyters (44). Polycarp of Smyrna, writing to Philippiin 110-117, mentions only presbytersand in

deacons

and

imply that Rome.

church."

had

their duties.

as

late

his time there

as

It is "the 2

He

Hernias, 115-140, would

elders

this

was

(presbyters)that

speaks only

of the

"bishops."3 Ancient such interpretation,

as

duties

to

seem

office at collegiate the preside over

of "deacons"

that of Jerome,

saw

and

in these

the names collegiate bishops and presbytersthe same persons, is the opinion of most being used interchangeably. That modern the probable conclusion. The scholars, and seems view of the late Edwin Hatch, as developed by Harnack, the older brethren in the holds,however, that presbyterswere the collegiate taken. congregation,from whom bishops were but a presbyternot necessarily A bishop would be a presbyter, the the more a as bishop. The subjectis one of difficulty, so word "presbyter,"like the English "elder" is used in early Christian literature both as a generaldesignationof the aged, and as a technical expression. Its particular meaning is hard always to distinguish.It is evident, however, that till some time

after the year the head of each or ers.

4

had

at

congregationa group of collegiate bishops, with number their of deacons a as presbyter-bishops, help chosen the These were church,4 or at least "with the by

consent 1

Greece, and Macedonia

100, Rome,

of the whole

Clem., 42, 44. Teaching, 15; Ayer,

1

church." 2

5

Vis., 24.

p. 41.

3 5

Sim., 926. 1

27.

Clem., 44; Ayer,

p. 37.

APOSTOLICAL

48

the monarchical

How

that

Reasons

ture.

SUCCESSION is a matter

arose bishopric

have

been

leadershipin worship

advanced

conjec scholars

modern

financial

the

and

by

of

oversightof the in the care of the poor and other obligations of congregation charity.These are probable,the first-named perhaps the more probable. It is sufficient to observe,however, that leadership for of a congregation by a committee of equals is unworkable protractedtime. Some one is sure to be given headship. any One further observation of great importance is to be made.

are

(93-97), writingwhen

of Rome

Clement

monarchical

the

bishop,traces

It is

succession.1 apostolical

Rome

had

as

existence of church

impeachment

no

yet

no

officers to

of the firmness

conviction,though it militates againstthe historic ac of his view, that he apparentlybases it on a misunder

of his curacy

in 1 Cor. 1615" 16. On the other standing of Paul's statement hand, Ignatius,though urgingin the strongest terms the value of the monarchical episcopateas the bond of unity, knows the union of these succession. It was nothing of an apostolical monarchical bishop in apostolical two succession, a principles, occurred

which

before

the middle

of the

century, that

second

immensely enhanced the dignityand power of the bishopric^ bishops By the sixth decade of the second century monarchical universal. The institution was had become to gain well-nigh further strengthin the Gnostic and Montanist struggles;but whether be doubted it may anything less rigidcould have car ried the church through the crises of the second century. X.

SECTION

a

of

branch

ROMAN

GOVERNMENT

Judaism, which

of hostility

The

OF

CHRISTIANITY

TO

THE

at first regardedby the Roman

was Christianity as

RELATIONS

the Jews

stood

themselves

under

authorities

legalprotection.2 have

must

made

a

dis

evident,and by the time of the Neronian persecu victims tion in Rome The Roman (64) it was plainlydrawn. then charged,however, primarilywith Christianity, not were

tinction

soon

with

but made

1 Peter

them was

sion had 1

arson

1 Cor.

with though their unpopularity ready objects of suspicion. By

the multitude

"

written become

(c.90), the a

42, 44; Ayer,

for

cause

pp.

36,

37.

mere

fact of

punishment

a

the

time

Christian

(416). How 2

Acts

that

profes much

1814-18.

49

PERSECUTIONS earlier "the

had

name"

become

sufficient criminal

a

charge it

of impossibleto say. Trajan'sreply to Pliny,the governor that was already Christianity Bithynia (111-113), presupposes the viewed as criminal. That recognized, already Emperor mild procedure from his point of orders what must be deemed view. Christians are not to be hunted out, and, if willingto of per to be acquitted. Only in case are abjure by sacrifice, the standpointof a sistence are they to be punished.1 From could only be this was faithful Christian profession a test which Hadrian immediate met by martyrdom. Trajan's successors, Pius (138-161) pursued the same (117-138), and Antoninus Marcus mob accusations. generalpolicy,though discouraging Aurelius (161-180) gave renewed force to the law againststrange religions(176), and initiated a sharper periodof persecution which extended into the beginningof the reign of Commodus the on however, treated Christianity, (180-192). Commodus, and with indifference. the toleration of whole, Always illegal, with extreme Christian the it, penaltieshanging over profession of involved constant perilfor its adherents; yet the number actual martyrs in this period appears been relatively to have .small compared with those of the third and fourth centuries. No generalpersecutionoccurred before 250. atheism The charges brought against the Christians were and anarchy.2 Their rejection of the old gods seemed atheism ; their refusal to joinin emperor-wrorship appeared treasonable.3 made Popular credulity, possibleby the degree to which the Christians held aloof from ordinary civil society, charged them with crimes as revoltingas they were preposterous. A mis is

V

understandingof in the

Supper

accusation

of

the

must

Christian be

doctrine

of Christ's presence the occasion of the common

deemed

cannibalism; and

its celebration

secretlyin the

of the govern evening of that of gross licentiousness.4 Much mental persecutionof Christianity in this period had its incite ment

in mob

attacks

when

Smyrna boycott,on

upon

Polycarp

Christians.

suffered

That

was

the

in 156

at

case

; wThile

a martyrdom the charges of immoral actions,was immediate occasion of the fierce persecution in Lyons and Vienne in 177. 5 It is not surprising, that the majortherefore,

Pliny's 3 6

the basis of

Letters 1097;

Martyrdom

Ayer,

p. 22.

of Polycarp, 3, 8-10. Eusebius, Church History, 51.

2

Justin,Apology, 5, 6; 11,

4

Justin, Dialogue, 10.

12.

y

APOLOGISTS

THE

50

proceedingsagainst Christians in this period ity of judicial been under the generalpolicepower rather to have of seem disturbance than formal trial the on magistratesto repress by criminal charge of Christianity.Both procedures are specific be found.

to

Christians their

about

all these

To

their heroic constancy

was

superiormorality as

answer

of the

in

loyaltyto Christ,and judged by the standards of society

them. XI.

SECTION

These

THE

APOLOGISTS

charges againstChristians,and the hostile attitude

the Roman who

the best

accusations

are

government, aroused known

as

a

number

Apologists. Their

the

of

of

defenders, literary appearance

shows

in making some conquest of the more tellectual elements of society. Their appeal is distinctly to first was Quadratus, intelligence.Of these Apologists the probably of Athens, who about 125 presenteda defense of Chris tianity,now preserved only in fragments, to the Emperor Hadrian. Aristides,an Athenian Christian philosopher,made similar appeal,about 140, to Antoninus Pius. Justin wrote a of these defenses,probably in Home, about famous the most the four Gospels His disciple, combined 153. Tatian, who into his famous Diatessaron,also belonged to the Apologists. With them to be reckoned Melito, bishop of Sardis, who are little between wrote 169 and 180 ; and Athenagoras, of whom that

Christianitywas

is known

whose personally,

defense,which

survives,was

made

belongsthe Epistleto Diognetus, the writingsof the ApostolicFathers. among evidence that any of these Apologistsgreatly There is no influenced heathen seriously opinion,or that their appeal was it was their desire to persuade. considered by the rulers whom Their work was however, deservedlyvalued in Christian circles, of the and undoubtedly strengthened Christian conviction Several of the so nobilityof the cause earnestlydefended. and their from the ranks of the philosophers, Apologistswere aided in the development of the philosophical interpretation Justin,and he may well stand was ology. The most significant about

the year often reckoned

as

typicalof

177.

Here

the whole

also

movement.

Justin,called the Martyr, from his heroic witness unto death born in in Rome under the prefect Rusticus, about 165, was

Shechem,

in the

ancient

Samaria,

of heathen

ancestry.

He

v

JUSTIN

lived,for

a

time

probablythat

MARTYR

51

least,in Ephesus,and it was

at

the conversion of which

in its vicinity

he

givesa vivid account philosophy,he acceptedsuc

place.1 An eager student of and Stoicism,Aristotelianism, cessively Pythagoreanism, took

While

tonism.

Platonist

a

his attention

was

Pla-

directed to the all those who are

ancient than prophets,"men more esteemed philosophers." Theirs is the oldest and truest ex planation"of the beginningand end of things and of those which the philosopher matters ought to know," since they were "filled with the holy Spirit." "They glorified the Creator, the God and Father of all things, and proclaimedHis Son, the Christ." By his newly acquired conviction of the truth of their ancient propheticmessage, Justin says : straightwaya flame was kindled in my soul ; and a love of the prophetsand Hebrew

"

of those

who

men

philosophyalone

are

friends of Christ.

I found

this

...

be safe and

profitable."These quotations show the character of Justin's religious experience. It was not a profound and mystical union with a risen Lord, as with Paul. It was of forgiveness of sin. It was not a sense a con in viction that Christianityis the oldest,truest, and most to

divine of

continued

as

his home

a

wrote,

Justin philosophies. philosopher.He made about

Antoninus

look upon himself in Rome and there

to

153, his Apology, addressed

Pius

and

to

the

that

Emperor

sovereign's adopted sons, defend from governmental antagonism and heathen ing Christianity criticisms. A littlelater,perhaps on visit to Ephesus, he a composed his Dialogue with Trypho, similarlypresentingthe Christian case againstJewish objections.A second sojourn in Rome broughthim to a martyr'sdeath. Justin's Apology (often called two Apologies,though the second is only an appendix)is a manly, dignified, and effec tive defense. Christians, if condemned at all,should be pun ished for definite proved crimes,not for the mere without name of their real character. They are atheists only investigation in that they count the popular gods demons unworthy of worship,not in respect to the true God. They are anarchists only to those who do not understand the nature of the kingdom that they seek. Justin then argues the truth of Christianity, from the fulfilment of Old Testament especially prophecy,and "

"

Christian sacraments briefly explains 1

Dialogue,2-8.

and

worship.

As

theologian, Justin's

a

His

own

the the .

MARTYR

JUSTIN

52

.

.

convictions

central

the

were

belief

and

ham,

became

conviction

that

in

of

that

those

to

of

great

advance

Christ,

best

that

so

in

is less Justin

knowledge

"

ascetic

somewhat

divine His

and

agent,

definite, of Jesus

instance

on

vealed.

He

those

was,

who

Stoi

on

Logos is the

Him

in terms

heathen

common

law, teaching is

Father, the

really at

as

save

the

Son, in

rather

the

of

expense

identified, the

for Justin

the

on

His

yet

true, though

some

are

non-

emphasis

incarnation

believe

on

of

Him"

the

the

life

earthly

great

historic

and

;3 but

such

was

thoughts

faithful

of

Justin, theology essentially rationalizing, with

Hence

primary.

same

therefore the Logos, the which divine most fully re philosophy was Christ's of does, indeed, speak "cleansing by His

the

of

occasion

the

is

both

little interest

has

in

emphasis

Jesus, for though

historic

blood

This

sense.

Him

with

one

Justin's

God

to

the

phi hope of immortality,

life.

subordinate

Logos,

Abra

as

conceives

contemporary

God,

moral

cites

distinctly seen.

morality, the and future and rewards Like punishments. Pauline Christianity, he views the Gospel as a new

losophy

of

such

all-illuminating divine

message

the

he

obeyed

elsewhere

Christian

of the

similar

which

everywhere

as

whom

time

any

His

this

definitely incarnate

content

very

at

really Christians.2

full revelation The

all who

these, and

were

is his

cism

fashion,

teaching the Greeks, of Heraclitus, and the "barbarians,"

that

guidance

Stoic

true

work,

at

and

so

conceives, in

he

Logos always

Socrates

he

of his

experience. was Christianity was because of truest philosophies, taught by the prophets of and Old Teacher Testament, by the divine Logos "our * is both Son and who the Father." This Apostle of God

divine

a

result

that

in

martyr

little of

not

are

though the

pro

Johannine

the

Paul, conspicuous foundly religiouscontent so in It ^literature, or even marks, however, a conscious Ignatius. \union of Christian thought with the Gentile philosophy, and

Itherefore 1

Apology,

the 12.

beginnings 2

of

75^

a

"scientific" 46 ;

Ayer,

p.

theology. 72.

3

Ibid.,32.

PERIOD,

FROM

II.

SECTION

later New

in

Asia

had

He

conception It is

of

between than

ence,

was

glory,

problem

may

the

with

seemed

earthly life altogether. taught His disciples; but all of flesh and

one

160, though

It threatened

since the

height

Pauline

Gnostic

the

Christ

Docetic

teaching.

the

Christologicai

denial

of the

did, indeed,

Christ the

of experi

That

of the

time

as

a

reality appear.

heavenly being,

upon

battle

force

a

the the

something

was

its influence

of

overwhelm

doing brought

this

blood.

it continued

to

that

as

earthly life pre-existent and post-

His

some

properly speaking, The

regarded

early teachings were explain a seeming contra

solution

to

death.

ghost-like, Docetic

speculations.

simplest

century.

actual

these to

His

far-reaching.

so

that

in

of history and

contrasted

of the

one

second His

of much

that

Gnostic

so

and

is true

It

attempt

an

the

generally been

feature

a

Jesus

well have

Gnosticism,

to

on

purely

on

existent

not

was

the

of humiliation

He

have

Gnosticism.

of Christ

of

flesh," but

opinions

These

largely based

diction

the

probable, however,

more

more

of

"in

beginnings

been

least

at

conceptions of Christ widely prevalent, especially

opening years real humanity

His

come

appearance.1 the

the

denied

not

combat

have

must

in

Minor, views

These

literature, and

strongly

it is evident

which

GNOSTICISM

I.

Testament

Fathers,

Apostolic

CRISIS

CONSTANTINE

TO

THE

GNOSTIC

THE

long

historic

Christian

for freedom

from

was

the

after

Christian

Church from

much

more

about

latter date.

faith, and

its gravest

law.

135

by

crisis

Its

spread and relativelyweakly

made peril were possible by the of the church organized, and doctrinally .undefined state at its The church the danger ; but at the cost beginning. overcame

consequent

of

the

development

government 1

1 John

which I1-3,222,

of

a

rigidity of organization, creed, and

rendered 42-

the

condition

of

3; Ignatius, Trallians, 9-11; 53

the

church

Smyrn.,

1-6.

at

GNOSTICISM

54

the close of the second

century

to that of

contrast striking

a

its beginning.1 Gnosticism

professedto

be based

"knowledge" (yvwans)

on

,

is now

that word

Its knowl commonly understood. edge was always a mystical,supernaturalwisdom, by which the initiates were brought to a true understandingof the universe,

but not

and

as

saved

were

doctrine of salvation.

damental the

to

mystery

however, from

this evil world

from

Its religions.

its syncretism.

was

sources,

many

and

of matter.

In these respects it

was

a

fun

akin

prominent characteristic,

most

It took unto

assumed

It had

many

itselfmany

forms.

It

elements

is,therefore,

It was impossibleto speak of a singletype of Gnosticism. mystical,magical,or philosophicalaccordingto prevailingly

in its syncretism. Gnosticism was in its origin, and was in existence before Chris pre-Christian the

dominant

tianitycame types.

It is

admixture

into the world.

representedin

It had astral elements

which

There

were

the Hermetic may

Jewish

and

heathen

literature of Egypt.

be traced back

Babylonian the universe,Per to

religiousconceptions,a dualistic view of from God in the sian in origin,and a doctrine of emanations which was probably Egyptian. "pleroma" or realm of spirit, fundamental its most conception, the wholly evil Perhaps due to a combination character of the phenomenal world, was the real spiritual of the Platonic theory of the contrast between sphere of ideas," and this visible world of phenomena, inter the one good and that to preted in terms of Persian dualism which man strives to return, the other wholly bad and the place of his imprisonment. The world of matter is evil. Its creator and ruler is not, therefore,the high,good God, but an inferior and imperfectbeing,the demiurge. Man, to be saved, be freed from this bondage to the visible world, and its must of his freedom is the means rulers,the planetary spirits ; and a mystical, spiritual enlightenment for "knowledge" (7i"a"oY?), with the true the initiated which brings him into communion realities. realm of spiritual in Strongly syncretistic already, Gnosticism found much In particular, the figureof Christianitywhich it could use. Christ was adapted to givea definite and concrete cen especially the retre to its theory of a higher savingknowledge. He was "

"

1

Useful

76-102.

selections

regarding Gnosticism

may

be

found

in

Ayer,

pp.

MARCION

56

Gnosticism

to

be Simon More

little is known.

Antioch, who

of

labored

about

Alexandria

in Rome

active

garded

as

130 ; and, above from about 135 to

all,Valentinus, who 165, and

who

was

be

must

re

of the most

one

Gnosticism

giftedthinkers of the age. immense an perilfor the church. foundations of Christianity.Its God

was

out

the

historic

the

God

of the

ferior

Magus,1 but of his real relations to it clearlydefined leaders are Satornilus before 150; Basilides,who taught in

Old

Testament, which

is the

work

It cut is not

of

in

an

evil being. Its Christ had no real incarnation, resurrection. Its salvation is for the few capable of

or

even

death, or

spiritualenlightenment. The perilwas Gnosticism of was representedby some of the

the church

second

the

greater because

the keenest

The

minds

in

syncretistic, and in some respects Gnosticism was but the fullest accomplish of that amalgamation of Hellenic and Oriental philosophi ment cal speculationwith primitiveChristian beliefs which was in greater or less degree in process in all Christian thinking. century.

SECTION

specialinterest

A

first church

reformer.2

Born

was

MARCION

II.

attaches

age

to

Marcion

in

Sinope, in

as

who

one

Asia

the

was

Minor, where

about 139, and to Rome wealthy ship-owner,he came joinedthe Roman congregation, making it a giftfor its benevo lent work came equivalentto ten thousand dollars. He soon of under the to feel that Christianity was bondage legalism, the under of the Gnostic of and, light teaching Cerdo, he saw he

was

a

of this evil in acceptance of the Old Testament and than partially Never more Gnostic, his prime in a

the root its God. terest

in church

was

faith rather

than

only Apostle who fallen into the ment

is

tooth

for

a

ish law.

a

in the He

Christ, who

law 1 2

unknown

done

of "an

created was

a

good away,

God

Docetic God

the

was

of the Old for

eye

the world

by right

all the rest had

Gospel ;

The

sense

opposed Him; was

the

of Judaism.

errors

tooth."

Testament

the Jewish

had understood

just God,

the heretofore Old

Salvation,with him, was by knowledge. To Marcion, Paul reform.

and

an

eye,

gave

Testa and

a

the Jew

manifestation,revealed

of mercy. but in Christ

The the

God

of the

authorityof

and the "justGod"

Acts 89-24;Irenseus,Heresies,I23; Ayer, p. 79. See selections, Ayer, pp. 102-105.

became

un-

MARCION

MONTANISM

AND

57

to the revealer of the hostility justbecause of this unwarranted and its God are therefore to The Old Testament "good God." Christ proclaimeda Gospel of love be rejectedby Christians. and of righteousness by faith,though,curiouslyenough, Marcion was extremely ascetic in his conception of the Christian life. *

Marcion's

endeavor the

deemed

he

to

of Christ

Gospel

Church

call the Roman

of Paul

and

back

to

what in his

resulted

gathered followers he compiled a canon For their use into a separated church. of Paul (omittingthe of sacred books, composed of the epistles which and the Gospel of Luke, shorn of all passages "Pastorals), implied that Christ regarded the God of the Old Testament excommunication

own

His

Father, or is known, this was as

collection of New Marcion's those from

about

in any way As far as related to Him. the first attempt to form an authoritative Testament writings.

condemned

the

more

Gnosticism.

background

speculativeGnostic and

probably the

was

with

its historic

now

was

movement

associated

He

144.

He

theories.

He

denied

the Old Testament

and

done

plausible because

sundered

completely as

as

its

the

in

dangerous of Christianity

most

had

real

a

Crocf

the

more

incarnation, Atl this of

name

a

againstgrowing legalism. For such a protest there was His churches justification. spread extensively,in the and survived into the fifth century. His own especially, historyis wholly unknown.

was

protest much Orient later

\s^ SECTION

III.

MONTANISM

of Gnosticism, Montanism was a movement distinctly of the second cen Christian origin. In mostfof the churches

Unlike

tury the earlyhope of the speedy dim.

The

consciousness

return

of the

of Christ

constant

growing of the inspiration was

characteristic of the ApostolicChurches, had also largely Spirit, faded. of the immediacy of the Spirit's With this declining sense an increasingemphasis on His significance present work came the agent of revelation. Paul had identified the Spiritand as half a century later. Christ.1 That was not the generalfeeling The Spirithad been the inspiration of prophecy in the Old Testament.2 1

2 Cor. 317.

2

E. g., 1 Clem. 1 Clem., 47.

3

He

guided

the

8, 13, 16; "the

New

Testament

writers.3

propheticSpirit,"Justin,Apology,

To

13.

MONTANISM

58

Christian thought at the beginning of the second differentiated

Holy Spiritwas

This

with God.

like

Him, formula,1which

from

Christ, but

century the

appears

displacingthe

classed,

was

in the Trinitarian

baptismal

baptism in the name formula of Christ.2 Trinitarian were frequentlyin use by the close of the first and beginning of the second century.3 Johannine The Gospel represented Christ as promising the the Com "When coming of the Holy Spiritto the disciples: was

whom I will send forter is come, the Spiritof Truth, which even

shall bear

He

of

Witness

Me,"

older

unto

from

you

proceedeth from (1526).

The

the Father, the

second

Father, century

convinced, therefore,not only that the Holy Spiritwas

was

association with God the Father and Christ peculiar Christ had promised the Spirit's coming in more

;

in

but that

abundant

in the future.

measure

of the Holy this thought of the specialdispensation Spirit,combined with a fresh outburst of the earlyprophetic It

was

enthusiasm, and a belief that the end of the world-age was To close at hand, that were a representedin Montanism. considerable extent Montanism also,a reaction from the was, secular tendencies already at work in the church. Montanus, of Ardabau, near the movement from whom named, was was

long noted for A tradition, recorded by Jerome, its ecstatic type of religion.4 affirmed that, before conversion, he had been a priestof CyAbout bele. 156 Montanus proclaimed himself the passive the Holy Spiritspoke. In this new instrument through whom declared the promise of Christ fulfilled, revelation Montanus and the dispensationof the Holy Spiritbegun. To him were They soon joined two prophetesses,Prisca and Maximilla. that the end of the affirmed,as mouthpieces of the Spirit, now about world was at hand, and that the heavenly Jerusalem was believers should betake to be established in Phrygia, whither In preparationfor the fast-approaching consum themselves.

the

region of

mation

the

Minor

Asia

most

ness

won

response

abstinence

of the church

feature

at

as

a

as

Phrygia "

asceticism

strenuous

and celibacy,fastings, attitude

known

from

should meat.

be

practised,

This

vigorous

protest againstthe growing worldli-

large,and

to many

was

the most

attractive

of Montanism. 2

Acts

238.

1

Matt.

4

See selections, Ayer, pp.

2819.

3

E. g., 1 Clem.

106-109.

46, 58

;

Ignatius,Eph., 9.

MONTANISM The

bishopsof

ened, one

more

or

the distinction of

in which

considerable

speedilyattained

movement

the

By

59

Minor, who

Asia

held soon after 160, which have synods were and beingthe earliest synods of church history,

Montanism

condemned.

was

and for years the Roman by it. In Carthage it

Rome,

authoritythreat

felt their

Its progress not was of the last of its original

by the death easilycheckefl,even prophets,Maximilla, in 179. Soon after 17Q in

proportions.

it was

church

was

represented more

less

or

Tertullian,about 207, attracted chieflyby its ascetic demands, who thenceforth was

turmoiled

won

gradually driven out continued to be represented of the dominant church, Montanism in the Orient tilllong after the acceptance of Christianity by In Carthage the followers of Ter the imperialgovernment. tullian persistedtill the time of Augustine. In its ascetic de mands Montanism an a wide-spreadtendency,and represented asceticism as strict as anything Montanism taught was later to find a place in the great church in monasticism. the

eminent

most

Montanist.

SECTION

Neither ous,

IV.

Gnosticism

THE

remained

large church

by

CatHoTic^ChurcEI

the church technical

The

of

Church

Polycarp (156),where tive

or

word

church

tanist crises is

Christians.

The

is first used

"Catholic"

in the

employed it It is next

to

wholly

be found

it is difficultto decide whether

employment

graduallybecame adjective

consolidated

majorityof

of un-

in the

Smyrna, describingthe martyrdom

Its

not.

though extremelyperil

historic Christianity.By callingitselfthe century it was

of "universal."

letter of the

is technical

a

who by Ignatius,1

sense

CHURCH

faithful to

the latter third of the second "

CATHOLIC

Montanism,

nor

embraced

ever

were

Though

that

as

a

common, out

came

of the

the

of use

technically descrip that the so strongly Gnostic

and

Mon

usuallydescribed as the "Old Catholic." Church This Old Catholic char developed its distinguishing The acteristics between 160 and 190. hitherto relatively in knit into an effective union. now dependent congregationswere The power of the bishopswas a collection greatlystrengthened, of authoritative New Testament Scripturerecognized,and a creed formulated. Comparativelyloosely organizedChristianity now

1

Smyrn., 8

;

Ayer,

p. 42.

CATHOLIC

THE

60

rigidcorporate body, having recognizedofficial capable not merely of definingits faith,but of

became

now

a

and

leaders

its communion

from

shutting out creed

its officers. As

or

CHURCH

a

all who German

recent

did

accept its

not

writer has

epitomized

"

change : About 50, he was of the church who had received baptism and the Holy Spiritand called Jesus,Lord ; about 180, he who acknowledged the rule of faith (creed),the New Testa and the authorityof the bishops."1 ment canon, the beginnings of this great change may In a measure, be the

before the Gnostic

seen

and

Montanist

crises ; but

into being. that brought it effectively struggles istic answer

of the Catholic

in the argument

Church

it was

The

to the Gnostics

those

character be

may

seen

of Irenseus of

Lyons.2 Against Gnostic claims Irenseus,writing about 185, held that the Apostles did not preach before they had "perfect knowledge" of the Gospel. in the Gospels Matthew and That preaching they recorded written by Apostles themselves; while Mark re John, were of and of Paul. Luke that Peter produced the message Nothing "

But the Gnostic, Irenseus declares,is found in any of them. Gnostic may objectthat, besides this publicapostolicteaching in the Gospels, there was viva wee a instruction,a speaking "wisdom

heir.

This

perfect,"3

the

among

Irenseus

of which

Gnosticism

the

was

He

denied.

argued that, had there been have such private teaching,the Apostles would intrusted it all others, whom to those, above they selected as their suc in the government of the churches. In these churches of apostolicfoundation the apostolicteaching had been fully cessors

preserved,and its transmission had been guaranteed by the orderly succession of their bishops. Go therefore to Rome, is there taught,and to Smyrna, or Ephesus, and learn what or nothing Gnostic will be found. Every church must agree with that of Rome, for there apostolical tradition has been faithfully preservedas in other ApostolicChurches. It is difficult to could

advanced

have

fronted

him

; but

of significance

foundation, and further. 1 2

see

The

of

church

more

in the

it was

the

what

effective

argument

peculiarsituation

Irenseus

which

con

greatlyincreased the churches of real or reputed apostolical their heads, the bishops. Irenseus went itselfis the depositoryof Christian teachan

answer

which

der Kirchengeschichte,p. Heussi, Kompendium Heresies,3:1-4; Ayer, pp. 112-114.

44. 3

1 Cor. 2".

APOSTOLICAL

ing: "Since

the

like a Apostles,

CREED

AND

TRADITION rich

in

man

a

61

bank, lodged in

copiouslyall thingspertainingto the truth." those who, togetherwith This depositis especially intrusted to the succession of the episcopate, have received the certain gift her hands

most

"

To agree with of truth,"2 i.e. to the heads of the churches. the bishopsis therefore a necessity. This argument was not peculiarto Irenaeus,it was that of the leaders of Old Catholic

teachinggenerally. While

the

churches

of the

power

of the significance

episcopateand

foundation thus greatlyenhanced, was apostolical /the Gnostic crisis saw a correspondingdevelopment of creed, ^ Some form of instruction before baptism at least in the West. was common by the middle of the second century.3 At Rome this developed,apparently,between 150 and 175, and probably of in oppositionto Marcionite Gnosticism, into an explication form the baptismal formula of Matt. 2819 the earliest known of the so-called Apostles'Creed. in Asia antecedents What Minor, if any, it may have had is stilla question in scholarly dispute. Without symbolic authority in the Orient, all the of

"

churches

Western

received this creed

Rome, and it was least,as having apostolic from

regarded,by the time of Tertullian at of apostolic authority,that is as a summary teaching.4In its form it read : original I believe in God the Father Almighty ; and in Christ Jesus, His only begotten Son, our born of the Holy Lord, who was Spiritand the VirginMary, crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried ; the third day He rose into the from the dead, ascended heavens, being seated at the righthand of the Father, whence He shall come and the dead ; and in the Holy to judge the living Spirit,holy church, forgivenessof sins, resurrection of the "

flesh."

sj

The

development of

also,the work

ning the pels and they did Rome

of this

Old Testament

of

the

canon

of New

period. By the was

reckoned

books

Testament church

from

the

was,

begin

Scripture. The Gos Pdujrwere highly valued, but ha^e "Scriptural not, at first, authority. Clement of (93-97), though constantlyquoting the Old Testament the letters of

the utterance

as

a

as

doubtless

of the words God, was very free in his use divine. Testament, and nowhere styled them

New

1

Heresies,3

8

Justin,Apology,

:

of

41.

2

61.

4

7^., 4 26*. Prescription,13, 36. .

THE

62

The

earliest

designationof

"Scripture" was a quotation from time

of Justin

CANON

TESTAMENT

NEW

about

a

131, by

Paul

about

from

passage

the so-called

the

Gospels

Barnabas,1

and

as

of

110-117, by Polycarp.2 By the

(153),the Gospels were

read

services in

in the

Rome, togetherwith the Old Testament

prophets.3 The proc to Scriptural ess writingscame by which the New Testament of analogy. The Old Testa to have been one authorityseems ment was everywhere regarded as divinely authoritative. Christians could think

less of their

no

The

an questionwas open canonical writings. Works

read

An

in churches.

one,

fundamental

own

however,

like Hernias

which

to

as

and

authoritative list was

books. the

were

Barnabas

were

desirable.

for his followers.

Mar-

similar a canon prepared in was Rome, by the graduallyformed, probably the first to gain Catholic party. Apparently the Gospels were then the letters of Paul. complete recognition, By about 200, accordingto the witness of the Muratorian fragment,Western had a New Christendom Testament canon embracing Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, 1 and 2 Corinthians,Ephesians,Philippians,Colossians,Galatians,1 and 2 Thessalonians,Romans, Philemon, Titus,1 and 2 Timothy,Jude, 1 and 2 John, Revela tion,and the so-called Apocalypseof Peter.4 In the Orient the not quiteso rapid. Certain books, was development of a canon like Hebrews and Revelation were disputed. The whole process into its of canonical development precisepresent form was not later. completed in the West till400, and in the East tilleven portion of the By the year 200 the church of the western empire had, therefore, an authoritative collection of New Testament books, in the main like our own, to which to appeal. cion had

such

A

enumeration

The

East

was

a essentially

Christian

was

accepted were resent

Thus

The

formation

of selection from

process

by originally

opinion the "

no

criterion

the

of the whole

to

canon

of

mass

council,but by the the books

being that

of eitta^ie^work HStlejand thus discipleof^fl

believed

of the immediate

or

behind.

made literature,

force of Christian

be

an

apostolicteaching. of the strugglewith Gnosticism out

and

Apostle to

rep

Montanism

itsferong Church, episcopalorganAuthoritative It differed and ization^redal canon. standard, came

V

much

not

1 8

the Old

Catholic

Barn., 4. Apology, 66, 67.

with

Phil.

12.

4Ayer,

pp.

2

117-120.

THE

64

EASTER door

the wide-spread,

for

open

late in

Rather

authority.

was

CONTROVERSY

largerassertion of

a

developingthe

Roman

monarchical

episco

pate, since Anicetus

the first to have been (154-165) seems of the Roman Church, the prominence of its bishop

singlehead rapidly in grew

the

Gnostic

struggle,and with this growth the firstextensive assertion of the authorityof the Roman \Jcame bishop in the affairs of the church at large. thus gaining in strengthAsia Minor While Rome was was At the of the second relatively declining. beginning century and the adjacent portion of Syria had been the Asia Minor most extensivelyChristianized sections of the empire. That was probably,also,true at the century'sclose. Ephesus and had

Antioch

Asia Minor

had

Montanism

and

tanists had

been

that

still,great Christian resisted Gnosticism, but it had been

been, and

of controversy, though the Monsources to think, however, rejected. There is reason

disputeshad borne hard on its Christianity.The quarrelbetween is

the time

over

to

reason

of the observance

that Easter had

suppose

in Christian

the united Asia

with

a

visit of

to Anicetus, bishop of

strengthof

Minor

and

of Easter. been

fourteenth

with

of the

the month

Polycarp,bishop

of

Smyrna,

At that time

Supper

day

of the week

Roman

and

that of

custom,

the Easter

on

evening

the

Nisan, like the Jewish

gardlessof the feast

on

early

of its celebration

in 154

Lord's

there

from

155. Rome, or of Asia the Minor, probably more ancient,was practice Easter

Rome

While

honored

history,the first definite record

is in connection

serve

by

torn

other

these

arose

centres.

were

which

it

the

to ob

of the

Passover,

might

fall.

re

The

to hold some parts of the East, was Sunday. The questionwas, there

always on be the day of the week or that of the month norm. Polycarp and Anicetus could not agree, but parted with mutual good-will,each adhering to his own practice.1 The problem was further complicatedby a dispute,about 167, fore,should the

in

Laodicea, in Asia Minor

of the cele to the nature itself, as bration on the fourteenth of Nisan, some holding that Christ the fourteenth, as the fourth Gospel intimates, and died on others placingHis death, as do the other Gospels,on the fif

teenth. teenth

Hebrew

The of

latter treated

commemoration

the

Nisan, therefore, as

a

of the

Christian continuation

Passover. 1

Eusebius, Church

History, 5

:

2416-

17

;

Ayer,

p. 164.

four of the

EASTER

THE

About held in

the

190

Rome,

problem

CONTROVERSY became

65

that synods were elsewhere which decided in favor

Palestine,and

so

acute

practice. The churches of Asia Minor, led by Polycrates,bishop of Ephesus, refused conformity. There the Victor, bishop of Rome (189-198), excommunicated upon recalcitrant congregations. This high-handed action met with much a protest, notably from Irenseus of Lyons, but it was assertion of Roman marked authority.1 These embittered controversies were costly to Asia Minor, and any possiblerivalryon equal terms of Ephesus and Rome out of the question. The was collapseof Jewish Christian of the Roman

the apparent leadership,

lack at Antioch

of

men

of eminence

in the second

century, and the decline of the influence of Asia left Rome, by 200, the most and influential eminent

Minor

of

Christianity a positionof which the Roman bishops had the will and the abilityto make full use. The rise of and of Carthage to importance in the Christian Alexandria of thought and life of the third century could not rob Rome its leadership. Their attainment of Christian significance was of the empire. far younger than that of the capital centre

"

SECTION

VI.

IREN^US

The Old

earliest theologicalleader of distinction in the rising Catholic Church His argument in defense Irenseus. was

of traditional outlined.2 where

he

Christianity againstGnosticism has alreadybeen Born in Asia Minor, he was brought up in Smyrna,

saw

been

most

able

mission

and

heard

Polycarp.

The

date

of his birth has

scholars from about variouslyplaced by modern 115 to about 142, chieflyin the lightof its possiblebearing on traditions as to the authorship of the fourth Gospel. The later part of the periodindicated has more probabilitythan the earlier. From Asia Minor he removed is to Lyons in what now France, where he became a presbyter. The great perse cution of 177, at Lyons, found him, fortunately, honor on an

bishop

of

to

Rome;

and,

in

succession

Lyons,

That

post he continued

from

185

he

wrote

to hold

his return, he was chosen the martyred Pothinus. to

on

tillhis death

(c.200). Not far his chief work, Against Heresies,primarily

1

Eusebius, Church

2

Ante, p. 60.

History, 5

:

23,

24 ;

Ayer,

pp.

161-165.

IREN^EUS

66

refute the various Gnostic

to

ing his own Brought

reveal schools,but incidentally

theology. in the tradition of Asia Minor

and

spending his later life in Gaul, Irenseus was not merely a connecting-link distant the but between the older between portionsof empire, and theology of the Johannine Ignatian literature and the which the Apologistsand the "Catholic'' newer 'presentations of his own of deeply movement day were introducing. A man in salvation. his interest was In its explica spirit, religious tion he developed the Pauline and Ignatian conceptionsof of humanity, the second the renewer Christ as the new man, Adam. God created the first Adam, He made him good and lost by immortal; but both goodness and immortality were up

disobedience.

Adam's

What

Christ,the incarnate Logos, who "

work.

[i.e. at beginning; but man,

He

us, in

that what

so

the

image

Jesus."

l

we

and

The

acterizes in

a

that the Son

Jesus'

birth],being

with

when

He

a

He

now

became

the Father and

incarnate

brief,comprehensive manner, had

lost in Adam

likeness of God

"

Christ, thus

of

noble

phrase. We

through His transcendent might bring us to be even

of

God,

is also the full revelation of God.3

made

beings,and

with

salvation ;

described, Irenseus char

follow "the Lord

our

love become

what

the

namely to be accordingto in Christ we might recover

"

that

work

from was

afresh the long line of human

steadfast Teacher, the Word did

in

shown

commenced

furnished

is restored

completesthe interrupted of God did not then begin

I have

to exist

lost in Adam

man

He

only

and

Christ,who

Jesus what

true

we

is Himself."

are, 2

that

Christ

with Him, fol of Justin,Irenseus views

Our

union

lowing the teachingof Asia Minor and in some as sense physical,through the Supper.4 Irenseus's theory of Christ's new headship of humanity had added to it "The knot a suggestionof His mother as the second Eve. of Eve's disobedience was of Mary. loosened by the obedience For what the Virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the Virgin Mary set free through faith." 5 In this is one of the earliestevidences of that exalta curious ascription tion of the Virginwhich was to play so largea part in Christian for his time, Irenseus was an even history. In some ways, old-fashioned man. The belief in Christ's speedy second com1 3

Heresies,3

181 ; Ayer, pp. 137, 138. 4 4 207. Ibid.,4 : 185 ; Ayer, p. 138. : Ibid., :

2 5

Heresies,5 ; Preface. Ibid.,3 : 224.

ing had

WRITINGS

AND

LIFE

TERTULLIAN'S

67

the contest with Montanism entirely With Irenseus it still

growing faint,and

been

extinguishit almost and he looked eagerlyfor the time when the burned brightly, For Irenseus the New earth would be marvellouslyrenewed.1 is as fullysacred Scriptureas the Old. Testament to

was

1 VII.

SECTION

Tertullian

was

well-to-do

the

ancient

CYPRIAN

AND

individual and

of the most

one

of personalities

TERTULLIAN

church.

Born

remarkable

(c. 150-155) of

parentage in Carthage, he studied law and

heathen

He was exceedinglywell practisedhis professionin Rome. he had thoroughly read in philosophyand history. Greek

mastered.

About

190 to 195, he

converted

was

to

Christianity,

devoted himself with equaleager probably in Rome, and now orthodox and heretical. to the study of Christian literature, ness a Shortly after he returned to Carthage where he became presbyter,and remained till his death (c.222-225). At first of persecution in fellowship with the Roman Church, a wave North Africa in 202 under the Emperor Septhat broke over timius Severus (193-211), strengthenedhis native Puritanism and brought him into sympathy with Montanism. Its ascetic and unworldly aspects most About 207 he appealedto him.

Church, which he thenceforth bit died in continuing protest,apparently,as

with the "Catholic"

broke

and terlycriticised, the founder In

a

little sect of his

197 Tertullian

and

fense He

of

was

began

the first ecclesiasticalwriter of His

frequentlyunfair

sistent with himself.

to

But

an

advocate

opponents. he

prominence to

Church

wrote

use

Latin.

in Greek

was

of

a

in the court-room. He

de

lasted till 220.

readable. vivid, satirical,

stylewas

often that of

was

that makes

activityin literary

of Christianitywhich explication

after his time.

method

of

career

the leaders of the Roman

Even

was

a

own-

till HisHe

always con fieryearnestness of spirit was

not

what

he wrote always impressive.He well deserves the title of father of Latin theology. Tertullian own

to

and

was,

based

thoughtwas some

extent

quite as

no primarily,

on

that

speculativetheologian.His of the Apologists, and Irenseus,

other bearers of the tradition of Asia Minor, much Stoic teachingand legalconceptions. on on

*.,5: 33'; Ayer,

p. 26.

TERTULLIAN'S

68

had the Roman

He

THEOLOGY and

of order

sense

authority. All that he

touched, however, he formulated with the clearness of defini tion of a trained judicialmind, and hence he gave precision, had before him, to many as none theological conceptionsthat heretofore

had

been

vaguely apprehended. a Christianitywas great divine foolishness, wisdom wiser than the highestphilosophical of men, and in to be squared with no existingphilosophicalsystems.1 way it largelythrough Stoic spectacles. In realityhe looked upon It is based on Christianityis primarilyknowledge of God. soul by nature Christian" 2 and "the reason authority. That authorityis seated in the church, and only in the ortho dox church, which alone has the truth, expressedin the creed, and alone has a rightto use the Scriptures.3As with Irenseus, Tertullian

For

"

"

those that agree in faith with those founded by the Apostles,wherein the apostolictradition has been maintained by the succession of bishops.4 These are these

valid churches

of the still "Catholic"

utterances

and

are

Gentile

common

Christianityof

Christianityfor Tertullian is law and the preached the new heaven."5

Admission

previous sins are that by washing

Tertullian.

to

removed.

a

free into eternal life."

with Justin

second

"Jesus

century,

Christ .

.

.

promises of the kingdom of the church is by baptism, by which new

It is "our

Those

6

law.

new

the sins of

away

the

As

of water, in

earlyblindness

our

who

sacrament

we

have received it are

are

set

thence

forth "competitorsfor salvation in earning the favor of God."7 of sin than Tertullian had a deeper sense Christian any writer since Paul, and

his

teachingsgreatlyaided the developconceptionsof sin and grace. Though not

,/ment of the Latin clearlyworked out, and inconsistent sions,Tertullian possesseda doctrine is,then, besides the evil which

with of

supervenes

occasional expres

originalsin.

"There

the soul from

on

the

intervention of the evil spirit, an antecedent, and in a certain 8 But natural evil,which arises from its corrupt origin." sense "the

power

nature." It

9

of the grace of God The of grace nature

evidentlyincluded,however, not 1 4

7 10

Prescription,7. Ibid.,32. Repentance, 6.

Baptism,

10.

2

Apology, 17. 5Ibid., 13. 8 Anima, 41.

is he

more

potent indeed

than

nowhere

fully explains. of sins,"10 only "forgiveness 3 6 9

Prescription,13-19. Baptism, 1. Ibid.,21.

TERTULLIAN'S but also "the

of divine

grace

shown

has

this latter

that

origin.2But much

has

man

to

feeble,but

to

power

free,will.1

conception,of the

utmost

Christendom, is of theology though salvation is thus based on grace, do. Though God forgivesprevioussins at

baptism, satisfaction must

for those committed

be made

The

voluntary sacrifices, chieflyascetic.

after

which

of Western

for the significance

Stoic

69

by inspiration/'

give force to man's

do rightis infused to

Loofs

CHRISTOLOGY

by punisheshimself,the less God Tertullian's most

will

more

a

man

him.3

punish

influential work

there

the definition of the

was

Logos Christology,though he preferredto use the designa tion Son lit rather than Logos. If he advanced its content tle beyond what had already been presented by the theolo his legal gians of Asia Minor, and especially by the Apologists, mind gave a clearness to its explanationsuch as had not be fore existed. tanist

Here

his chief work

was

written in his Mon-

one

He defines the Godhead in period Against Praxeas. which almost anticipatethe Nicene result of more than terms of one, by unity of substance; a century later. "All are while the mystery of the dispensationis still guarded which distributes the unity into a Trinity,placing in their order the three, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; three, "

however .

.

not

in

in appearance,

but

and

essence

whom der

.

these the

one

for

they

degrees and

forms

in

of

are

inasmuch

power,

of the

name

but

substance

form

not

substance

one

is

He

as

;

in power and

God

one

one

from

and

Father, and

aspects are reckoned un of the Son, and of the Holy

Spirit."4 He describes these distinctions of the Godhead as the in word not the our "persons,"5meaning by sense usage of personalities, but forms of manifestation. This unity of ^ubstancein Tertullian's thought is material,for he was suffi for spirit has cientlya Stoic to hold that God is a body 6 of its own kind." With similar precision, a bodilysubstance a Tertullian and divine in distinguishedbetween the human "

...

Christ.

joinedin and 1 2 3 6

"We one

Spirit

are

see

His

person,

derived

Patience, 1. Studium Leitfaden zum Repentance, 2, 9. Ibid.,7.

double

Jesus, God from

der

state, not and

the Father

intermixed

man."

7

con

Since both Son

by emanation, both

Dogrnengeschichte,p. 164. * Praxeas, 2. Ibid.,27. '

but

5

are

Ibid.,12.

DOCTRINE

CYPRIAN'S

70

subordinate

to

Him.1

OF

This

far

the

more

work

CHURCH

doctrine of subordination,already

taught in the Apologists,was Logos Christologytillthe time were

THE

of

remain

to

characteristic

of the

of

Augustine. These definitions lawyer-like, judicialinterpreta

a

As the first, also, philosophicalconsideration. subto such expressionsas to give technical usage trinitas, meritum, Tertullian left his stantia,sacramentwn, satisfacere, permanent impress on Latin theology. the intellectual heir of Tertul Cyprian was, in many ways, he called master. Born lian, whom probably in Carthage, of wealth about 200, he spent all his life in that city. A man

tion, than

of

education, he

and

246 he

About

distinction

won

converted

was

later

of rhetoric.

teacher

a

Christian

to the

chosen

as

faith,and

two

or

the

bishopricof Carthage. and much Here he showed high executive ability, practical good without the touch of genius that and kindliness of spirit sense characterized Tertullian. The persecutionof 250 he escaped by flight ; but in that of 258 he stood boldly forth and suffered as a martyr by beheading. Few leaders of the ancient church have been more highlyregarded by subsequent ages. In Cyprian'steaching the tendencies illustrated in the de velopment of the "Catholic" Church received their full expres church is the one visible orthodox community of sion. The

three

years

Christians. is

by

not

who

a

has not

vation out of its

3

"

He

the

and

2

is not no

5

ye

the church

ought

there the

upon

he may be and in the church of Christ is

longerhave

The

and

"Whoever

for his mother."

the church

bishops,"whence

with

can

of the church."

in the church not

Christ is one, chair (episcopate) founded

be, he who

he may

Christian."

God, and

one

one

to

of the Lord."

the word

whatever

is

"There

church, and

one

rock

was

church to

in the

for his

God

4

"There

is based

know

bishop;

on

is

Father, sal

no

the unity

the bishop is

that and

if any

one 6

he is not in the church." part of which is held by each

bishop,that

be

"The

in one episcopateis one, each 7 its entirety." This last quotation has its bearing on a con troversy stillalive as to whether Cyprian regarded all bishops as equal sharers in a common episcopalauthority,the posses of the bishop sion of each and of all; or held to the superiority 1 4

7

2 Praxeas, 7, 9. Letters,39-435. 5 Unity of the Church, 6. Letters,72-7321. Unity of the Church,5 ; Ayer, p. 242.

3 6

Ibid.,51-5524. Ibid.,G8-668.

its

from and

MONARCHIANS

DYNAMIC

THE

72

teachings,went

its doctrine of the

far

so

rejectthe fourth Gospel these "Alogoi," as Epiph-

to

as

Of

Logos.

later,nicknamed them, little is (?-403), writing much but some of the criticsof the Logos Christology in detail,

anius known

into

prominence were apparentlyinfluenced by To these opponents in generalthe name Monarchians them. is usuallygiven a title coined by Tertullian1 since they as fell into two very The Monarchians serted the unity of God. who

came

now

"

unlike

"

classes,those who so-called

by adoption,the who

held that Christ

tion of the

was

that Jesus

held

Dynamic but

the Son

was

Monarchians;

temporary form

a

of God

and

those

of manifesta

the Modalistic Mo God, the party known as Thus, with the supporters of the Logos view, three

one

narchians.

contestingin

were Christologies

third century. The first Dynamic Monarchian

Rome of

at

the

beginningof

prominencewas

called the currier, or tanner, from and is said to have been learning,

the

Theodotus,

wa's a man of Byzantium. of the Alogoi,though, a disciple the fourth Gospel. unlike them, he accepted in some sense About there taught that Jesus was 190 he came to Rome, and born of the Virgin,of holy life, whom the divine a man, upon Christ (or the Holy Spirit)descended at His baptism. Some followers denied to Jesus any title to divinity of Theodotus's ; but

others held that He

resurrection.2

He

in

became

is reminded

One

some

divine at His

sense

of the

Christologyof Hermas excommunicated was (Ante, p. 39). Theodotus by Bishop Vic continued by tor of Rome (189-198) ; but his work there was like their Theodotus, "the money-changer," and Asclepiodorus, master, probably from the Orient ; but their effort to found a rival communion

little. The was

that

outside the "Catholic"

Church

amounted

to

last attempt to present a similar theology in Rome of a certain Artemon (230-40-270), but Dynamic

Monarchianism

in the

West

undoubtedly representeda

already moribund. type of Christologythat

Yet

was

was

it one

of the oldest in the Christian Church. The

Monarchian

Dynamic

in the East. persistent

tative in Paul

bishop of

of

Antioch

party

There

it had

was

its most

Samosata, the able from

c.

260

to

stronger and

272.

famous

and

more

represen

politically gifted He representedthe

1

Praxeas, 3,

2

Hippolytus, Refutation,723,1019; Ayer,

10. p. 172.

THE

MONARCHIANS

MODALISTIC

Logos, which

he also described

sonal attribute of the Father.

of

the Son

as

This

the prophets. Jesus was a man, of the Virgin,who was filled with and

73

God,

as

an

imper

Logos had inspiredMoses unique in that He was born of God, i. e., by the power

God's

united Jesus was Logos. By this indwelling inspiration in in will by lovte to God, but did not become substance one with God. That union is moral, but inseparable.By reason of it Christ was raised from the dead, and given a kind of dele gated divinity. Between 264 and 269 three synods considered Paul of Samosata's views, by the last of which he was excom municated ; but he kept his place tilldriven out by the Em peror Aurelian (p. 106). Much than the Dynamic Monarchians more numerous were the Modalistic Monarchians, who made an appeal to the many for the reason alreadyquoted from Tertullian (ante,p. 71), that in the presence of heathen polytheism,the unity of God seemed a prime article of the Christian faith,and any Logos concep tion or Dynamic Monarchianism seemed denial of to them a that unity. Cyprian coined for these Modalistic Monarchians the nickname Patripassians.1The leader of Modalistic Mo like that of Dynamic narchianism Monarchianism, an was, Oriental Christian,Noetus, probably of Smyrna. The same controversies in Asia Minor

may

called forth both in

well have

that he taught terpretations.Of N-oetus littleis known save in his native regionin the period-180 to 200, "that Christ was

the Father

Himself, and that the Father

suffered and about

190, by

opponent a

died."

said

"

:

a

always

did two

a

born and

follower of Noetus

defender

works

was

transplantedto Rome,

were

of the

and

an

Tertullian,then

Montanists, regardingwhom

and

Praxeas

views

certain Praxeas,

a

of the

Montanist

These

Himself

Logos Christology,

of the devil in Rome.

He drove

prophecy and introduced heresy. He put to flightthe Holy Spiritand crucified the Father." 3 A littlelater two other of Noetus, Epigonus and Cleomenes, came to Rome disciples and won, in largemeasure, the sympathy of Bishop Zephyrinus (198-217) for the Modalistic Monarchian position. out

The became

noted

most

leader of the Modalistic

permanently associated with 1 2

3

Letters,72-7S4. Hippolytus, Against Noetus, Praxeas, 1 ; Ayer, p. 179.

this

1 ;

Ay

school,whose was Christology,

or, p.

177.

name

Sa-

74

AND

SABELLIUS

HIPPOLYTUS

of whose bellius,

earlylifelittleis known, but who was teaching about 215. His theologywas that of Noein Rome essentially in that more carefullywrought out, especially tus, but much it gave a definite place to the Holy Spiritas well as to the Son. Father, Son, and Holy Spiritare all one and the same. is a prosopon Each TrpdswTrov(a word of largelater ortho "

"

use),that is a character or form of manifestation,of the God, who showed Himself in His character of creator as one the Father, in that of redeemer as the Son, and now the as at Rome, Holy Spirit. Sabellius, though soon excommunicated found for in the his views East, especiallyin largefollowing dox

and

Libya. Nor was the development of what

Egypt

he without

considerable influence

became

the orthodox

of the Logos

at Christology

Christology. His absolute identification of Father, Son, and Holy Spiritwas rejected;but it implied an equalitywhich ultimately,as in Augustine,triumphed over the subordination of Son and Spirit characteristic of the Logos Christologyboth of Tertullian and on

Athanasius. The

in Rome

great advocate

this

juncture

Hippolytus (160-170 c. 235), the most learned Christian writer then in the city,and the last considerable theologianthere to use Greek rather than Latin as his vehicle of expression. As a commentator, chronicler,calculator of Easter

was

"

and dates,Apologist,

opponent

of

heretics,he

was

held

in such

high repute that his followers erected after his death the earliest Christian portrait statue known. He opposed of both schools. The vigorously the Monarchians fight in waxed Rome hot. Bishop Zephyrinus (198-217) hardly knew side. what to do, though he leaned toward the Monarchian On his death he was succeeded 217-222), by Kallistos (Calixtus, had yet and that the most assertive Rome energetic bishop who had been born a slave,had engaged unsuc man seen a in banking, and had, for a time, been a sufferer for his cessfully Christian faith in the mines of Sardinia. Over Zephyrinus he of the attainment acquired great influence,and on his own issued in his own certain regulations to the as bishopric, name "

readmission

to the

church

of those

repentant of sins of licen

tiousness,which show higherecclesiasticalclaims than any here tofore advanced by a Roman bishop (seep. 101). Kallistos saw He there that these disputeswere Church. hurtingthe Roman Sabellius (c.217),and charged Hippolytus fore excommunicated

OF

VICTORY

LOGOS

THE

with

beinga worshipperof

with

Kallistos,on

and cipline,

this

became

g" ds.1

two

ground

the head

CHRISTOLOGY

and of

on a

75

Hippolytusnow broke questionsregardingdis

rival communion

in Rome

"counter-pope" a positionwhich he maintained tillhis banishment in the persecutionof 235. Kallistos tried to find a compromise formula in this Chrisconfusion. Father, Son and Logos, he held, are all tological ;of "one indivisible spirit."Yet Son is also the proper names Jesus ; while the Father designationof that which was visible, the spirit in Him. This presence of the Father in Jesus was is"the Logos. Kallistos was positivethat the Father did not suffer on the cross, but suffered with the sufferings of the Son, "the

first

"

Jesus; yet the Father "after He had taken unto Himself our flesh,raised it to the nature of deity,by bringingit into union with Himself, and made it one, so that Father and Son must be styledone This is,indeed, far from logical God."5 clear. or One

blame

Hippolytus or Sabellius for not likingit. Yet it was a compromise which recognizeda pre-existent Logos if it identified that Logos with the Father; in Christ, even it insisted on the identityof that which indwelt Jesus with God ; and it claimed a human Jesus, raised to divinity by the Father, and made one with Him, thus reallyshowing a distinc cannot

tion between that

the Father

and

the

Son, while denying in words exists. This compromise won the majority in Rome,

one

and

opened the door for the full victoryof the Logos Chris determined tology there. That victory was by the able ex positionof that Christologywhich came at the turning-point in this conflict

(213-218) from the pen of Tertullian of Car Against Praxeas (see ante, p. 69), with its clear defini

thage "

tions of

a

Trinityin three

the divine and

human

persons

and of

a

distinction between

in Christ.

How

its way in Western completely this Christologywon Christendom is shown by the treatise on the Trinity, written by the Roman presbyter,Novatian, between 240 and 250. That eminent to

scholar

Latin

was

the first in the local Roman

rather than Greek.

His

communion

quarrelwith the dominant party in the church will be described later (p. 102). Novatian did littlemore than reproduceand expand Tertullian's views. But it is important that he treated this exposition the only as normal and legitimate of the "rule of truth"" the interpretation use

1

Hippolytus,Refutation,96.

VICTORY

76

OF

THE

CHRISTOLOGY

/LOGOS

That syubol had been silent regardingthe "Apostles'Creed." the Logos Christologyis its Logos Christology. To No^atian Father and Son a "communion only proper meaning. Between of substance" exists.1 The Latin equivalentof the later famous

Homoousion

Nicene before

o^oovcriov

"

has

Novatian

250.

social

a

even

in Rome

therefore current

was

"

Trinity.

Comment

1030,"I and the Father are one," he declares that Christ "said one thing (unum). Let the heretics understand John

ing on

did not

that He

the

intimates

valuable

most

say

social

one

placed in the neuter the personalunity." The is that he emphasized what

For

person.

concord,

thing in

not

Novatian

one

in all this involved

the heart of the conviction of the church

was

and fully God Christological controversy, that Christ was bishop, Finally,about 262, the Roman equally fullyman.3 Dionysius (259-268), writingagainstthe Sabellians,expressed the Logos Christologyin terms more nearly approximatingto what

other third-

decision of 325 than any theologian.4Thus the West had reached to be the Nicene

was

century with the result readily harmonizable sixtyyears before that great council. such uniformity. no SECTION

Alexandria

was,

of the ancient

IX.

for

THE

Nicsea,

The

ALEXANDRIAN

had

East

than

more

attained

SCHOOL

six centuries,the second

than

more

at

conclusions

world, surpassedonly by Rome,

and

later

by

city Con

in importance. Founded by Alexander the Great stantinople, in B. C. 332, it was primarilya trading community, and as

such, attracted numbers life was

less remarkable.

no

and

of Greeks Its

Its intellectual

Jews.

librarywas

famous

the most

There Greek empire. In its streets East and West met. philosophy entered into association,or competed in rivalry, in the

with Judaism

and

many

cults,while the influence

other Oriental

Egyptian thought persisted. It There cosmopolitancityof the ancient world. ancient

of

ment

was

Judaism to

was

translated in terms

into

Greek, and

of Hellenic

our

1

Trinity,31. Ibid.,11, 24.

2 4

era.

into

Ibid.,27. Athanasius,

In

most

Testa

reinterpreted

Neo-Platonism

philosophy. There

arise in the third century of

the

the Old

there Philo

tion of Christianity into Alexandria, or 3

was

Of the introduc

Egypt generally, De

Decretis,26.

ALEXANDRIAN

THE

nothing is known, veil of silence rooted there.

77

early,since when the lifted Christianity was evidentlystrongly Gnostic, Basilides,taught in Alexandria in

hut

was

The

reignof Hadrian

the

SCHOOL

it must

have

been

(117-138). There

the various

philosoph

ical systems had their "schools/'where instruction could be and it was but natural that Christian obtained by all inquirers, teachers

imitate this

should

good example, though

appear that the beginningsof this work authorities. the Alexandrian Church

By about

185

andria, then

a

famous

under

the

independentof

were

catechetical school of leadership

existed in Alex

converted

a

it would

Stoic

phi

Whether it originatedwith him, or what losopher,Pantsenus. his own have been, it is impossible theologicalpositionmay to

determine.

With

Clement

of Alexandria

it pupil and successor, of religious development

tsenus's course

differed from

regions the

that in Asia Minor with

contest

philosophysuch

(?-c. 215), Pan-

into the

comes

in Alexandria and

Gnosticism

light. The had evidently

the West. had

In the latter

bred

distrust of

a

that Tertullian could declare that there

was

it and Christianity.That possibleconnection between contest had, also,immensely strengthenedthe appeal to apos tolical tradition and consolidated organization. In Alexandria no

these characteristics of the "Old

while [developed, jfully

philosophywas

"/sistent but with Christianity, of what

was

best in ancient

as

of Alexandria

Church

had

regarded not

its handmaid.

not

incon-

as

Here

so

a

union

philosophy,chieflyPlatonism and else realized in degree nowhere

effected to a Stoicism, was orthodox circles,and the result Clement

Catholic"

was

a

Christian

Gnosticism.

At the typicalof this movement. time he was same a presbyterin the Alexandrian Church, thus between the church and the school. servingas a connecting-link The more important of the works of Clement which have survived are three : his Exhortation to the Heathen, an apologetic treatise,giving incidentallyno little information as to the mystery religions;his Instructor,the first treatise on Chris tian

conduct, and

customs

tion of

an

was

invaluable mine

of the age ; and

his

of information

as

to

the

Stromata, or Miscellanies, a collec

profound thoughts on religionand theology,arranged without much regard to system. Throughout he shows the mind of a highly trained and widely read thinker. Clement would interpretChristianityas Philo did Judaism, by phi-

losophy,into

ALEXANDRIA

OF

CLEMENT

78

scientificdogmatics. To

him, as

Justin,whom

to

surpassed in clearness of intellectual grasp, the divine and of all the intelligence Logos has always been the source the teacher of mankind race morality of the human every who where. Our instructor is the holy God, Jesus, the Word l of all true He was the source is the guide of all humanity." of all good things; but of some philosophy. God is the cause he

far

"

"

"

of the Old

as primarily,

and

the New

Testament

of others

; and

of

philosophy. Perchance, too, philosophy directlyand primarily,tillthe Lord was given For this was should call the Greeks. schoolmaster to bring a by

as

consequence,

to the

Greeks

the Hellenic mind, as the law the Hebrews, to Christ." This trainingof humanity by the Logos has been, therefore, education. So it is,also,in the church. Faith," a progressive "

is enough simple,traditional Christianity,

that is the

but

who

man

possession.3He hath and

shall be to

for salvation ;

his faith "knowledge," has a higher is the true, Christian Gnostic. him that "To adds

given ;

to

to

love, the inheritance."

knowledge leads a good it necessarilyinvolves "

knowledge, love highest good to which

faith,knowledge ; 4

The

to

;

greater than the salvation which

even

"Could knowledge of God. then suppose proposing to the Gnostic whether he we any one would choose the knowledge of God or everlasting salvation; and if these, which are entirelyidentical,were separable,he would without the least hesitation choose the knowledge of God." 5 That highest good brings with it an almost Stoic absence of feeling, either of pleasureor of pain a condition of "

is the

"

in which

blessedness

believes

Clement

Christ

stood, and

to

Apostles attained through His teaching.6 One can readilycomprehend that Clement, like Justin, had no real The interest in the earthlylifeof Jesus. Logos then became

which

the

incarnate,indeed, but Clement's view of Christ's life is almost than that of any teacher of orthodox Docetic, certainly more so

standing in the church of Clement wrought out That and

to

was successor

school

"

be

the

task

in the

Origen.

no

own

day. complete theologicalsystem.

of his

headship of

Born

Alexandria, between

his

of

1

Instructor,I7.

2

4

Ibid.,710.

5

celebrated

the Alexandrian

Christian

182 and

more

even

parentage,

185, Origen grew

Stromata, I5; Ayer, Ibid.,422.

p. 190.

up

pupil

catechetical

probably

in

there into 3

6

Ibid.,I6. Ibid.,69.

a

ORIGEN'S

80

THEOLOGY

Tyre, probably in 251 (254?) as a consequence of purer spirit of the cruelties he had undergone. No man or the historyof the ancient church. nobler aims ornaments of many-sided scholarship.The field to man a Origen was in Csesarea

which

or

devoted

he

most

attention

that

was

of Biblical text-

his exegesis. Here his chief productions were and four parallel monumental Hexapla, giving the Hebrew Greek translations of the Old Testament; and a long series of and briefer notes commentaries treating nearly the entire the most valuable work that had of Scripture. It was range yet been done by any Christian scholar. In the field of thewritten before 231, was not merely the \/)logyhis De Principiis, but its first great systematic presentationof Christianity, thenceforth controlled Greek dogmatic thoughts and methods 246 and development. His Against Celsus, written between that heathen 248, in replyto the ablest criticism of Christianity ism had produced that of the Platonist Celsus (c.177) was the keenest and most convincingdefense of the Christian faith that the ancient world brought forth,and one fullyworthy of

criticism and

"

"

the

v

greatness of the controversy.

Besides

these

monumental

undertakings he found time for the discussion of practical Christian themes, such as prayer and martyrdom, and for the His was indeed a life of un sermons. preparationof many wearied industry. In Origen the process was complete which had long been of Hellenic thinking. interpretingChristian truths in terms He gave to the Christian system the fullest scientific standing, almost entirely tested by the science of that age, which was as comprised in philosophy and ethics. His philosophicstand Platonic and Stoic,with a decided leaning pointwas essentially toward positionssimilar to those of the risingNeo-Platonism, the lectures of whose founder, Ammonius Saccas, he is said to he sought to bring have heard.1 These philosophicprinciples fellow into harmony with the Scriptures, his great Hebrew as of Philo, had done, by allegorical interpretation townsman, All normal the Bible. Scripture,he held, has a threefold be edified by the 'flesh' as meaning. "The simple man may of the Scriptures, the obvious sense it were for so we name' ; edified while he who be has ascended certain way a by may the soul as it were receive edifithe man perfect ; may '

'

.

iEusebius, Church

.

.

History, 6: 196.

THEOLOGY

OUIGEX'S

the spiritual law, which

cation from

things to so spirit,

For

come.

in the

same

way

system enabled

Origen to Scriptures.

the

As

a

"which

posited that

for his

differs in

tradition." apostolical

and

tional

of

Lord

our

ecclesiastical

respect from

no

These

"in

tradi

of

fundamentals

the

God

one

.

Christ, [who] Himself

Jesus

good

soul and

and

theological system, Origen

Christianityinclude belief (1)

Father

of

shadow

a

body does Scripture."1 This allegorical read practically what he wished into

foundation

necessary

has

consists of

man

as

81

.

.

the

gave

law

of the the prophets and the Gospels,being also the God Apostlesand of the Old and New Testaments" ; (2) "that Jesus and

Christ Himself .

.

became .

a

.

while made born of

a

.

a

.

wards and

and and

incarnate

was

remained

man

.

Father

and

man,

Virgin did trulydie the Holy Spiritwas .

born of the Father

was

.

.

.

.

.

which

truly born and did trulyrise from

associated in honor

the Son"

although God, and He

did

was

.

.

the God

before all creatures

was

.

.

truly suffer

the dead"

and

.

;

was

and

(3) "that

dignitywith the

(4) in the resurrection and in future re punishments ; (5) in free will ; (6) in the existence

of opposition

;

angels; (7) that the world in time and will "be destroyed on made of its account was wickedness" written by the Spirit were ; (8) "that the Scriptures of God that there are certain angels of God, and cer ; (9) tain good influences which are His servants in accomplishingthe "

the devil and

his

"

salvation

of men."

tians,learned

3

These

essential beliefs for all Chris

are

unlearned, as taught by the church; and

and

on

them

Origen proceeded to erect his mighty fabric of systematic for him who would theology that explanationof Christianity add to his faith knowledge. Origen'sconception of the universe was strongly Platonic. The real world is the spiritual realitybehind this temporary, In that world great transactions phenomenal, visible world. have had their place. There, as with Plato, our existed. spirits "

There

sin firstentered.

will return. all. From

Him

the sun."

1

De

3

All ibid.

we

and thither the redeemed fell,

is the God, the uncreated,perfectSpirit,

the Son is eternally generated.

is as eternal and from

There

as everlasting 4

Principiis,4 4

Yet

Christ

the

111 ;

His

which brilliancy

is "a

Ayer, pp. 200, 201. De Principiis,1 : 24.

:

"

second

God."

2

De

5

Celsus,539.

source

of

generation is

produced

5

a

"crea-

Principiis,Preface.

ORIGEN'S

82

ture."

Christ's

Loofs has

as position,

the

by Origen as

THEOLOGY

same

the Neo-Platonic

that of the

as

"

"

is the "mediator''

He

system.

pointed out, was viewed nous mind, thought in between

God

His world

and

of creatures, the being through whom they were of these is the creatures Highest Holy Spirit,whom

made.

reckons

Origen

the

to

tion,but for whom

Godhead, by

he has

of

reason

churchly tradi

necessityin his system. All spiritual of men, made beings,includingthe spirits were world. "He by God, through the Son, in the true spiritual than had no other reason for creatingthem of account on 1 Himself, i. e. His own goodness." All were good,though their "an accidental and perisha goodness,unlike that of God, was ble quality."2 All had free will. Hence fell by sin in some the invisible spiritual It was world. as a placeof punishment and of reform that God created this visible universe,placing fallen spirits therein in proportionto the heinousness of their sins. The least sinful are angelsand have as bodies the stars. of greater sinfulness

Those

animal

souls,also,and

kind.

The

worst

Salvation

unitingwith existence and

a

at the

was

given

the

but

divine.3

resurrection and

glory of His

sinned in

here

Christ

divinity,and

there

Him

not

by its previous man,

God

was

and

ascension Christ's

transformation

That

"From

3. disciple

Logos-Son becoming

While

body.

pure

; but

man

the

soul that had

human

a

on

demons, led by the devil himself.

wrought by

was

the face of the earth, with bodies. They constitute man

are

mortal the

are

real

no

Christ

began the

is

no

humanity longer human

effects for all His union

of the divine

with the human

nature, in order that the human, by commu nion with the divine,might rise to be divine,not in Jesus alone, but in all those who which since

very

good ple.5 He a

4

6

with

of the human was

He

sacrificialcharacter

it in interpreted

consistent

ransom

demons.7 1

only believe but enter upon the life than Origen, more theologian any

taught." Paul, emphasized the

the

was

4

Jesus

death ; but he not

not

many

ways,

of which

Christ suffered what

others.

were "

was

for

and an exam representative in some He to God. sense a propitiatory offering paid to the powers of evil.6 He conquered the frustrated their expectation that they could hold race"

as

a

2 Ibid.,1 : 62. Principtis,2 : 96. 5 Ibid,,717 ; Ayer, Ibid.,32". Com. on Matt., 1228,168; Ayer, p. 197,

De

some

Christ's

of

3

Celsus, 341.

p. 197. 7

Com.

on

John,

637.

THEOLOGY

ORIGEN'S

by the bonds

Him end.1

Those

death

into

and

of death

of mankind

who

with

brought their kingdom His

are

to

an

received

are disciples

at

Paradise; the evil find their place in hell. Yet,

not only all men, ultimately,

him

83

will be

saved.2

but

the devil and

even

all

spirits

will be the restoration of all

This

will be all in all.

things,when God r structure Origen's theological of the

achievement

ante-Nicene

Church.

in the Orient. foundly all after-thinking how he could be quoted on either side in and controversies,

thodoxy, how

he

to came

greatest intellectual

is the

It influenced

pro

it is easy to see the later Christological Yet

understand, in the lightof a later rigid or whose views to be regarded as a heretic,

by a synod in his native Alexandria in 399 or 400, by the Emperor Justinian in 443, and by the Fifth General His work was Council in 553. professedlyfor the learned,not condemned

were

for the

it

ence

Christian.

common

strange to

seems

scientific

Clement

its science is not

Because

it gave

But

us.

as

Christianityfull the particular,

In standingin that age. and Origen greatlyadvanced

as

sci

to

the

in the Orient, though Sabell Logos Christology there,and an adoptionistChristoload wide-spread in the bishopof Antioch,Paul nent representative

late

our

an

of

emi

Samosata,

272.

Yet

Origen was

which

he lived.

without

not

Of

serious criticsin the century in

these the

important, theologically, in Lycia, who died about

most

Methodius, bishop of CMfcws, 311. of Asia Minor, Metho Taking his stand on t^padition dius denied Origen'sdoctrines of the soul's pre-existence and imprisonment in this world, and affirmed the resurrection of

was

the

body.

In

SECTION

The

X.

the death

back

much

1

AND

STATE

army

and

empire,and Com.

on

180

FROM

Empire

with

TO

Origen.

260

is usuallyreckoned

Aurelius (180),though its causes Population was diminishing. Trade

fettered

was

compared

of Marcus

further.

industry were passed more the

CHURCH

to be

not

was

visible decline of the Roman

from

The

he ability

more

by heavy

from the hands

largelyrecruited even

Matt., 139.

taxation.

from

The

De

classes.

outlyingprovincesof

from tribes beyond its borders. 2

leadership

of the cultivated the

go

and

Principiis,1

:

From

6l-";Ayer,

p.

the 198.

DECLINE

84

death

OF

GROWTH

OF

CHURCH

(192),it dictated the choice of Emperors,

of Commodus

who, in general,were type of Grseco-Roman whole

EMPIRE,

administrative

very

far from

had

culture,as

machinery

representingthe higher the

Antonines.

The

of the

empire was increasingly and the defense of its borders inadequate. From inefficient, tillthe a military point of view, conditions grew steadilyworse time of Aurelian (270-275), and were hardly securelybettered

tillthat of Diocletian erable pause

(284-305). In other respects no

achieved

in the decline.

Yet

consid

this

periodwas of increasingfeelingof popular unity in the empire. also one the races The lines of distinction between were breakingdown. extended In 212 the Roman was citizenship by Caracalla,not wholly from disinterested motives, to all free inhabitants of the all,from a religious point of view, the close empire. Above of the second

was

and

the whole

of the third centuries

were

an

age

in which syncretism,a period of deepening religious feeling, of the Orient and the mystery religions Christianityalso of their adrapid increase in the number ma^^^xceedingly of

"

the church ^(PPgro^Mpf To

near

beyond

the^KTseof those whose

was

"

extensive

as

well

as

intensive.

the second

century it had penetrated little ordinarytongue was Greek. By the dawn

of the third century the church was rapidlyadvancing in Latinslowly,in Spain and speaking North Africa and, though more

reaching toward, if it had not already arrived in, Britain. In Egypt Christiai^k was now penetrating the while by 19(JBBas well represented native population, in SyriacThe church also reaching more exten was speaking Edessa. into the higher classes of society. It was sivelythan earlier being better understood ; and though Tertullian shows that and gross immorality the old popular slanders of cannibalism stillprevalentin 197,1as the third century went on were they much doubtless have to decreased, seem through growing ac with the real of significance Christianity. quaintance The relations of the state to the church during the period most from 180 to 260 were various,depending on the will of the several Emperors, but, on the whole, such as to aid rather hinder its growth till the last decade of this period. condemned. It had no Christianitywas right to it enjoyed a considerable degree of toleraexiM2 Practically, Gaul, and

Apology,7.

2

Tertullian, Apology, 4.

THE

tion

OF

ATTITUDE

during most

of this

THE

epoch. The

EMPERORS

persecutionwhich

85 had

into the reignof Aurelius continued begun under Marcus Commodus, but he soon neglectedthe church as he did afoul ev pleasures. This rest erythingelse not connected with his own continued tillwell into the reignof SeptimiusSeverus (193-211); of considerable severity, broken in 202 by a persecution but was in Carthage and Egypt. Under Caracalla (211-217), especially persecutionagain raged in North Africa. Elagabalus (218222), though an ardent supporter of sun-worship,was disposed not to a syncretismwhich was openly hostile to Christianity. Alexander favorable. A synSeverus (222-235) was distinctly cretist who would unite many he placed a bust of religions, Christ in his privatechapel along with images of leaders of other faiths; while his mother, Julia Mamsea, under whose in fluence he stood, heard lectures by Origen. He even decided should a dispute as to whether a piece of property in Rome be used by its Christian claimants, doubtless as a place of worship, or by their opponents as a cook-shop, in favor of the Christians. A change of policy came under Maximinus edict against the Christians was is an (235-238), by whom sued, which, though not extensivelyenforced, thrust both the "Catholic" bishop, Pontianus, and his schismatic rival Hipinto the cruel slaveryof the mines, where polytus from Rome they soon lost their lives. In eastern Asia Minor and Palestine this persecutionmade Gordian itself felt. Under (238-244) and till near the end of the reign of Philipthe Arabian (244outbreak 249) the church had rest. For that new Philipwas in no declared rumor responsible.Indeed, an erroneous way him to be secretlya Christian. The number of martyrs in these persecutionswas not large,as Origen testified, writing between and and 246 these outbreaks 248,1 local,if at were times of considerably extent. Though Christians were deprived of all legalprotecting, the average believer must have thought that the conditioi^^f the church was approaching practical safety. This growing feelingof securitywas rudely dispelled.The the celebration of the^thousandth / anniversaryof year 248 saw the founding of Rome. It was time of revival of ancient ^ a traditions and of the memories of former splendors. The em attack or torn threatened by barbarian never pire was more been

1

Celsus,38.

THE

86

PERSECUTION

DECIAN

by internal disputes. The populace attributed these troubles attack broke to the cessation of persecution.1A fierce mob before the death of Philipthe Arabian. To out in Alexandria observant the more heathens the growth of a rigidly organized within the church well that of a state seem might state, the more dangerous that Christians stilllargelyrefused army ser vice or the duties of publicoffice.2 Nearer at hand lay the had grown plausible, though fallacious, argument that as Rome their worshipped by all,so now great when the old gods were their rejectionby a portion of the populationhad cost Rome aid, and This

had

caused

calamities evident

apparently the feelingof the

was

(249-251), and of Decius

whom

the

a

conservative

new

Decius

Emperor, The

result

initiated the first universal and

edict of 250, which

hand.

every

noble,Valerian, with

Roman

intimatelyassociated.

was

on

was

the

systematic

persecutionof Christianity. Decian The persecutionwas by far the worst trial that the because it church as a whole had undergone the more severe had principle and determination behind it. The aim was not and cruel numerous primarilyto take life,though there were martyrdoms, but rather to compel Christians by torture, im prisonment,or fear to sacrifice to the old gods. Bishops Fa and Babylas of Antioch died as martyrs. bian of Rome Origen "

and

hosts of others

tortured.

were

The

number

of these "con

of the the number So, also, was "lapsed" that is,of those who, through fear or torture, sac rificed,burned incense,or procured certificates from friendly

fessors"

was

very

great.

"

they had prescribedby the state.3 Many venal

or

secution mission a

officialsthat

was

over,

returned

to the church.

The

long,enduring schism

(see p. 101). Fierce Valerian

and

what

milder

was

form

as

soon

to

duly worshippedin the form of these lapsed,when the per seek in bitter penitence read-

questionof

caused

their treatment

trouble elsewhere in Rome, and much under Decius it was, the persecution over;

but

only to be renewed

in

some

Gallus

(251-253). In 253 Decius's old associate in persecution, Valerian,obtained possessionof the empire (253-260). Though he at first left the Christians undisturbed, in 257 and 258 he renewed the at tack 1 3

with greater

by

Decius's

successor,

ferocity.Christian assemblies

Origen, Celsus, 316 ; Ayer, p. 206, Ayer, p. 210, for specimens,

2

were

forbid-

Origen, Celsus,873- 76.

a

rather

tradition

Montanism,

which

and

apostolicages, now

POWER

GROWING

88

than

other

among

might a

BISHOPS

THE

OF

possessedby vital reality.The be

causes,

led such

had

any

one,

contest

claims

to

were

with be

re

tradition,however, remained, suspicion. The but it was rapidlychanging into a theory of officialendowment. the official possessionof the clergy, These now "gifts" were the divinelyap of the bishops. The bishops were especially pointed guardians of the deposit of the faith,and therefore the could determine what those who was heresy. They were of constantlyincreasingimpor leaders of worship a matter with the growing conviction,wide-spreadby the beginning tance of the third century, that the ministry is a priesthood. They officers of the congregation though their the disciplinary were authorityin this respect was not firmlyfixed able to say when

garded

with

"

"

"

excommunication

the sinner needed

cient repentance for restoration. Cyprian of Carthage, about 250 of the church

and As

when

given

he showed full

suffi

expressionby

(ante,p. 70), the foundation

is the

unity of the bishops. Christians of a particular The city had been regarded,cer tainlyfrom the beginningof the second century, as constituting a singlecommunity, whether meeting in one congregationor As such they were under the guidance of a single bishop. many. consti civilization was Ancient stronglyurban in its political The tution. adjacent country district looked to its neighbor ing city. Christianityhad been planted in the cities. By in the formed efforts going out from them, congregationswere which came at first into the cityfor their surroundingvillages, have met worship j1but as they grew largermust increasingly Planted by Christians from the cities,they by themselves. immediate under the oversightof the citybishop,whose were thus growing,by the third century, field of superintendence was rural portionsof the East, notably into a diocese. In some weak, Syria and Asia Minor, where cityinfluence was relatively of congregationsdeveloped before the end of country groups the third century, headed by a rural bishop,a chorepiskopos but this system was not of largegrowth,nor XwpeTrio-KOTros the equalsin dignityof their these country bishopsdeemed were The system did not spread to the West at this citybrethren. time, though introduced there in the Middle Ages,only to prove unsatisfactory. "

"

1

Justin,Apology, 67

;

Ayer,

p.

35.

LAITY

AND

CLERGY

89

Cyprian, the episcopatewas a unit, and each bishop a of all its powers, an on equalitywith all other representative in his time this theory was becoming im bishops. Yet even influential practicable.The bishops of the great, politically in dignityover citiesof the epipire were attaininga superiority To

others,which

those of Rome

than

more

even

the rest

were

striv

superiorityof jurisdiction.Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and Ephesus, with Jerusalem of religious sentiment, had an outstandingeminence, by reason ing

to

translate into

a

Besides these greater posts, the bishop of the capitalcityof each province was beginningto be looked Rome

and

most

of all.

in certain superiority to those of lesser towns his region; but the full development of the metropolitandig tillthe fourth century, and earlier in the nity was not to come upon

as

having a

East than in the West.

sharply By the beginning of the third century clergy were the of words Imikis from laity.The technical use distinguished and Ider^s "X%""9 X**/ct5 a gradual development,as was the distinction which they implied. The earliest Christian was employment of the former was by Clement of Rome.1 The lat But /c\i)pos in 1 Peter 53,in wholly untechnical usage. ter occurs for the common and its Latin equivalent, expressions ordo,were of the Roman Em the "orders" of magistratesand dignitaries pire. It is probably from such popular usage that they come letter of the churches of into Christian employment. The Lyons and Vienne, giving a descriptionof the persecutionof Tertullian tc\r)pov.2 177, spoke of the "order" of the martyrs and of "clerical order" "ecclesiastical orders." 3 wrote By if fixed ; even his time the distinction had become practically "

"

"

"

"

Tertullian

himself could

recall,for

earlydoctrine of the priesthoodof laics priests ? 5 we

purposes

all

of argument,

"are believers,4

not

the even

"

by ordination,a rite which certainlygoes back to the earliest days of the church, at least of charismatic gifts, as or a sign of the bestowal separationfor a specialduty.6 The ordinary process of the choice of a nomination a bishop by the middle of the third century was Admission

1

93-97

to

; in 1

3

Monogamy,

5

Compare

6

Acts

clerical office was

Clem., 40. 12.

1 Peter

66, 133; also

25; Rev. 1 Tim.

2

Eusebius, Church

4

Chastity,7.

lfi.

414,522;

2 Tim.

I6.

History, 5

:

I10.

AND

MAJOR

90

MINOR

ORDERS

the presbyters,of the city; by the other clergy,especially the approval of neighboringbishops,and ratification or elec followed at the hands tion by the congregation.1Ordination of episcopalordainof at least one alreadya bishop a number fixed at a normal minimum which had become of three by ers "

of the third century. The control of the choice of the deacons, and lower clergylay in the hand of their presbyters, the end

local

bishop,by

whom

ordained.2

The

Bishop

Fabian

presbyters the bishop'sadvisers. With his consent were they adminis tered the sacraments.3 They preached. As congregations in a city,a presbyterwould be placed in more numerous grew immediate charge of each, and their importance thereby en hanced, from its relative depression, immediately after the rise of the monarchical fixed limit to no episcopate. There was their number. The deacons were immediately responsibleto the bishop,and were of the poor and his assistants in the care other financial concerns, in aidingin the worshipand discipline. They often stood in closer practicalrelations to him than the presbyters. At Rome, the number of the deacons was seven, in remembrance

adopted

the

they

of Acts

65.

were

When

civil division of the

city as

he appointed seven sub-deacons districts, deacons, that the primitivenumber seven Sub-deacons

also existed in

passed. Cyprian, and quitegenerallyat parts of the church there

was

a

no

its fourteen

charity

in addition

might

Carthage

littlelater fixed rule

(236-250)

sur

in the time

period.

as

be

not

the

to

of

In many

to the number

of

deacons.

Bishops, presbyters,and orders.

Below

them

century, the minor

deacons

there stood

constituted

the

major

in the first half of the third

generalabsence of all sta tistical information as to the early church, a letter of Bishop Cornelius of Rome, written about 251, is of high value as Under the single showingconditions in that important church. there were bishop in Rome forty-sixpresbyters and seven deacons. Below to be were soon them, constitutingwhat known the minor orders,were as sub-deacons, forty-two seven and More acolytes, exorcists, readers,and janitors.4 fifty-two orders.

In the

1

Cyprian, Letters,51-558, 66-6S2, 67*.

2

Ibid.,23-29, 33-S95, 34-40, Tertullian,Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Eusebius, Church History, 6 : 4311.

3 4

5.

THE

LESSER

CLERGY

91

than fifteenhundred dependentswere supportedby the church, have included thirtythousand which adherents. Some may of these offices

continued

Exorcists

be

to

so

viewed

officers. By prc/perly

there

er's office was

byter.*

ancient

origin. Those of readers originallybeen regarded as charismatic.

exorcists had

and not

of very

were

The

thought

a

in the

the time

of

Orient, and

were

Cyprian the

read

preparatory step toward

exorcist's task

to

was

that of pres evil spirits, in

drive out firmly believed.

Of the prevalent working the age duties of acolyteslittleis known that they were assistants save in service and aid. They were not to be found in the Orient. The janitorswere the important when it became especially but the baptized to the more sacred custom to admit none parts of the service. In the East, though not in the West,

whose

deaconesses sense

and

as was

women,

to be found

were

of the

reckoned

were

clergy. Their originwas

in

certain

a

probably charismatic

those of care high antiquity.2 Their tasks were the ill. Besides these deaconesses there especially of

to be found

in the

churches, both East and West,

"widows," whose

as

who

and

originwas

likewise ancient.3

a

for were

class known Their duties

aid to the

of their own sick,especially sex. held in high honor, though hardly to be reckoned They were properlyas of the clergy." All these were supported,in whole in part, by the gifts of the congregation, which were of large or both of eatables and of money.4 These amount, giftswere looked upon, by the time of Cyprian, as "tithes,"and were all of the bishop.5By the middle of the third cen at the disposal expected to give their whole time tury the higher clergywere of the ministry;6 to the work bishopssometimes shared yet even in secular business,not always of a commendable character. in trades. It is evident, The lower clergy could still engage however, that though the ancient doctrine of the priesthood of all believers might stilloccasionally be remembered, it had a Christian lifethe clergy, purely theoretical value. In practical a distinct,close-knit by the middle of the third century were the laitywere rank, on whom spiritual religiously dependent, and who were in turn supported by laymen's gifts. were

prayer

"

1 4

2 Romans 3 161. 1 Tim. 59- 10. Letters,335. 13 67 Justin,Apology, Teaching, Apology, 39 ; Tertullian, ;

;

Ayer,

35, 41. 6

Letters,65-11.

6

Cyprian, Lapsed,

6.

pp.

WORSHIP

PUBLIC

92

PUBLIC

XII.

SECTION

WORSHIP

AND

SACRED

SEASONS

Already,by the time of Justin (153),the primitivedivision for prayer and instruction of worship into two assemblies,one and the other for the Lord's Supper in connection with a com The Lord's Supper was meal had ceased. the crown now mon ing act of the service of worship and edification.1 Its separa meal was tion from the common of now complete. The course determined development during the succeeding century was by the prevalenceof ideas drawn from the mystery religions. is no There adequate ground to believe that there was inten Christians

tional imitation.

lived in

the third centuries influences

they

this direction church

atmosphere highlycharged with

an

these

and

faiths.

It

but

was

natural

that

look upon their own It is probable that

should

of view.

the

from

sprung

of the last half of the second

were

by

worship from the same point already existingtendencies in stronglyreinforced by the great growth of

conversion

the third century. The church came

to be

from

heathenism

and

in the first half of

regarded as possessed of life-giving mysteries,under the superintendenceand dis prepared for initiation pensationof the clergy. Inquirerswere Such preparation,in some by instruction the catechumens. now degree,had existed from the apostolicdays. It was sys in school in tematized. celebrated an Origen taught already in 203. Alexandria Cyprian shows that in Carthage,by about in charge of an officer designatedby 250, such instruction was followed by the great initiatory the bishop.2 Instruction was rite of baptism (seeSection XIII), which granted admission to sacrifice of the life-giving the propitiatory mystery of the Lord's Supper (seeSection XIV). As in the time of Justin,the other of worship consisted of Scripturereading,preaching, elements and hymns. These to all honest were inquirers. open prayers, all of the barred but those The analogy mystery religions initiate or about to be initiate from presence at baptism or the Lord's augmentation of the Supper, and led to a constant sacred elements of valuation placed on these rites as the most the custom had arisen by the third century worship. Whether in which of regardingthese sacraments secret as a discipline, more

more

"

the exact 1

words

of the Creed

Justin,Apology, 67

;

Ay

and

or, p. 35.

of the Lord's

Prayer 2

were

Letters,23-29.

for

93

SEASONS

SACRED

of which

the first time imparted to the baptized,and tion were

was

to

be made

wide-spread in

the third

the forces

the fourth and were

work

at

fifth centuries. which

were

no

Such

to the profane,is uncertain.

men

usages

Already

in

lead to the

to

practices. Sunday was the chief occasion of worship,yet services were beginning to be held on week-days as well. Wednesday and Friday,as earlier (ante,p. 43), were days of fasting. The great the Easter season. The period immedi of the year was event of Christ's of fastingin commemoration one ately before was differed in various parts of the empire. sufferings.Customs held in remembrance fast and vigilwas In Rome a fortyhours' This was of Christ's rest in the grave. extended, by the time All fasting of the Council of Nicsea (325) to a fortydays Lent. of Easter morning, and the Pentecostal ended with the dawn no period of rejoicingthen began. In that time there was fasting,or kneelingin prayer in public worship.1 Easter eve for baptism, that the newly initiate the favorite season was in the Easter joy. Beside these fixed seasons, might participate the martyrs

were

with

commemorated

celebration

of the Lord's

Prayers for the Supper annually on the days of their deaths.2 in general,and their remembrance dead by offeringson the in use anniversaries of their decease, were by the earlypart of the third century.3 Relics of martyrs had been held in high full of the second century.4 The since the middle veneration but the development of saint-worshiphad not yet come; of church was honoring with peculiardevotion the memory the

athletes of the Christian

lives dear unto

race

who

had

not

counted

their

themselves.

SECTION

XIII.

BAPTISM

Christianity.The rite gave to John, He the "Forerunner," his name. baptized Jesus. His dis ciplesand those of Jesus baptized,though Jesus Himself did not.5 The originof the rite is uncertain ; but it was probably Baptism is older

than

1

Tertullian,Corona, 3. Letter of the Church of Smyrna on Martyrdom Letters,33-393; 36-122. 3 10. Tertullian,Corona, 3 ; Monogamy, 4 Letter of Smyrna, as cited,18. 5 John 322,41- 2. -

of Polycarp,

18 ;

"

Cyprian,

REGARDING

DOCTRINE

94 .

BAPTISM

washings. Jewish teaching, traceable probably to a period as early as the time of Christ, faith not merely to be cir requiredproselytesto the Hebrew cumcised, but to be baptized.1It seems probable that John did not invent the rite, and simply used contemporary practice. It was that fol a fittingsymbol of the spiritual purification lowed the repentance that he preached. The mystery religions had equivalentrites (ante,p. 10) ; but so purely Jewish was that primitiveChristianity to which baptism belongs,that it is inconceivable that they should have had any effect on the originof the practice, though they were profoundlyto influence its development on Gentile soil. Peter represents baptism as the rite of admission to the church, and to the receptionof the of admission Holy Spirit.2 As the sacrament baptism al stood till the religiousdivisions of post-Reformation ways days. It so stands for the vast majority of Christians at a

of the spiritualization

old Levitical

present. With

Paul, baptism from sin,3it involved a tion in His did not that

death

think

of the

and

was

not

merely the symbol of cleansing

relation to Christ,4and resurrection.5 Though Paul new

baptism essential

to

a

participa apparently

salvation6 his view

approached

and his con religions almost magical conception

initiations of the mystery

in

Corinth, at least,held an of the rite,being baptized in behalf of their dead friends, that the departed might be benefited thereby.7 Baptism soon be regarded as to came indispensable.The writer of the fourth Gospel representedChrist as declaring : Verily,I say he and the Spirit, unto be born of water thee, except a man 8 The appendix to Mark cannot enter the Kingdom of God." picturedthe risen Christ as saying: He that believeth and is baptizedshall be saved."9 This conviction but deepened. To of the Hernias the very foundation (115-140), baptism was church, which "is builded upon waters." 10 Even to the phil osophicalJustin (153) baptism effected "regeneration" and verts

"

"

"illumination."

n

In Tertullian's estimate it conveyed eternal

lifeitself.12 1 2

See Schiirer,Geschichte des Judischen Acts 23" ; see also 2" ; 1 Cor. 1213.

6

Romans

8

John

11

64 ; Col. 212. 35.

Apology,

61 ;

Ayer,

p. 33.

Volkes,2569-573. 3

1 Cor. 611.

4

Gal

6

1 Cor. I14-17.

7

1 Cor. 1529.

9

Mark

12

1616.

Baptism,

1.

10

32". 27.

Vis., 33.

OF

MODE

96 ents

would

not

BAPTISM

their children fail of

have

enteringthe Kingdom

universal baptism did not, however, become tillthe sixth century, largelythrough the feeling alreadynoted should be in Tertullian,that so cleansinga sacrament not lightlyused. of baptism, it is probable that the original As to the method form was by immersion, complete or partial. That is implied Infant

of God.

in Romans would

seem

64 and to

The

Colossians

indicate fullest

that

212.

Pictures submersion

the

early evidence

"

in

cold, then

pour

water

of the Son

of the

recognizedform

a

Immersion

warm.

the head

upon

and

in

of

continued

But

always Teaching:

not

was

of the Son

and

; and

if thou

hast

of the

hast not

if thou

But

if thou

thrice in the

catacombs

is that of the

complete. of the Father and Baptize in the name Holy Spiritin living[running]water. livingwater, then baptize in other water able

in the

art

neither,then

of the Father

name

not

and

Holy Spirit."1 Affusion was, therefore, baptism. Cyprian cordiallyupheld it.2 late the prevailingpractice till the

The Ages in the West; in the East it so remains. Teaching and Justin show that fastingand an expressionof belief,together with an agreement to live the Christian life prerequisites.By the time of Tertullian an were necessary elaborate ritual had developed. The ceremony began with the formal renunciation by the candidate of the devil and all his On followed the threefold immersion. works. Then coming mixture of milk from the fount the newly baptized tasted a babe and honey, in symbolism of his condition as a new-born succeeded that in Christ. To anointing with oil and the layingon of the hands of the baptizerin token of the reception later known of the Holy Spirit.3Baptism and what as was Middle

confirmation earliest

now

were

thus

known

Tertullian

combined.

existence of Christian of

also shows

the

i. e.,

god

sponsors,

charac

fastingand

customs parents.4 The same sponsors terized the worship of Isis. administered doubtless In the apostolicage baptism was, not only by Apostles and other leaders,but widely by those eminent in the church. By 110-117 Ignatius, charismatically in the interest of unity, was urging, "it is not lawful apart /

1 3

2

7 ;

Ayer, p. 38. Tertullian,Baptism,

6-8

;

Corona,

3.

4

Letters,75-6912. Baptism, 18.

VALID from

the

bishop either

BAPTISM

97

baptize or to hold a love-feast."1 In Tertullian's time, of giving it,the chief priest, who is the bishop, has the right; in the next place the presbytersand deacons besides these even laymen have the right,for what is equallyreceived can be equallygiven."2 In the Greek and Roman Cfeurches baptism stillcontinues the only sacrament which any Christian,or indeed intendingperson, any seriously in administer of can case necessity. to

"

.

The

.

.

middle

of the third century saw discussion over a heated the validityof heretical baptism. Tertullian had regarded it

worthless;3and

as

of his time.

his

was

undoubtedlythe prevalentopinion

After the Novatian

schism

(see p. 102) Bishop Stephen of Rome (254-257) advanced the claim that baptism, effectual if done in even by heretics, was form. His proper motives seem to have been partly the growing feelingthat of value in themselves,irrespective sacraments are of the char of the administrant, and partly a desire to facilitatethe acter of the followers of Novatian.

return

resisted by Cyprian energetically

Stephen

Cappadocia,4and led authorityof the Roman

and

Cyprian

was interpretation Carthage,and Firmilian

of

of Caesarea in

tions of the

This

to

certain

important asser

bishop.

The

deaths

of

the dispute; but the Roman view grew into generalacceptance in the West. The East reached no such unanimity of judgment.

SECTION

Some the

XIV.

has been

account

doctrine of the Lord's

been mon

gave

seen

a

THE

to

pause

LORD'S

SUPPER

given of the early development of Supper (ante,pp. 23, 40). It has

that "breaking of bread," in connection

meal,

was

a

Christian

practicefrom

the

with

a

beginning.

com

From

the time of Paul, certainly, it was believed to be by command of Christ Himself, and in peculiarremembrance of Him and of His death. Outside the New Testament three writers refer to the Lord's Supper before the Of these the age of Irenseus. account

in the

conditions.

It

"didst bestow 1 3 5

Teaching? reflectsthe most primitiveChristian provides a simple liturgyof gratitude. Thou

upon

Smyrna,,8 ; Ayer, Baptism, 15. 9-11; Ayer,

p. 38.

us

food spiritual

p. 42.

and 2

"

drink

and

eternal life

Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Cyprian, Letters,09-76.

CHRIST'S

98

PRESENCE

IN

THE

SUPPER

From "life and knowledge." Christ come through Thy Son." A more mystical explanationof the Supper, however, began early. John 647'58teaches the necessityof eatingthe flesh and drinkingthe blood of Christ to have "life." To Ignatiusthe Supper "is the medicine of immortality,and the antidote that we

should

not

as

not

die but bread

common

l

live forever."

and

common

Christ

Justin

drink do

affirmed, "for

receive these ; Saviour, having been we

but

in like

made

of God, had both flesh and blood for flesh by the Word salvation,so likewise have we been taught that the food

our

which

manner

as

Jesus

our

is blessed

by the prayer of His Word, and from which blood and flesh by transmutation nourished, is the flesh our are made and blood of that Jesus who was flesh." 2 By Justin's time (153) the Lord's Supper was already separated from the meal. Irenseus continued and developed the thought common of the fourth Gospel and of Ignatiusthat the Supper confers "life." "For as the bread, which is produced from the earth, when it receives the invocation of God, is no longer common bread but the Eucharist,consisting of two realities, earthlyand heavenly ; so also our bodies,when they receive the Eucharist, are no longer corruptible, having the hope of the resurrec 3 tion to eternity." In how far these conceptions were due with their teaching that sharing a to the mystery religions, meal with the god is to become a partakerof the divine nature, is difficultto decide; but they undoubtedly grew of the out habit of thought. It may be said that, by the middle same of the second century, the conception of a real presence of Christ in the Supper was wide-spread. It was stronger in the West also there. than in the East, but ultimatelyit won its way In early Christian thought not only were believers them selves "a livingsacrifice, holy, acceptableto God," 4 but all sacrificial. The leaders of the church actions of worship were "offered the giftsof the bishop'soffice."5 All its membership could

good and communicate," "for with such sacrifices God is well pleased."6 In particular, the Lord's Supper was 7 and this feelingwas doubtless strengthenedby a sacrifice," the circumstance that it was the occasion of the giftsof the "do

"

1 3 5 7

Eph., 20. Heresies,4 : 185 ; Ayer, pp. 138, 139. 1 Clem., 44; Ayer, p. 37. Teaching, 14 ; Ayer, p. 41.

2

Apology,

4

Romans

6

Heb.

66 ; 121.

1316.

Ayer,

p. 34.

THE

A

SUPPER

congregation for those in need.1 while viewing the Lord's Supper all Christian

that

still held

SACRIFICE As

late

99

writer

a

Irenseus, "sacrifice,"

as

pre-eminently a

as

actions

also

are

of

a

sacrificial

in a world where sacri Christianity,however, was familiar definite nature ficialconceptions of a much were more hand. in the religionson Sacrifice demands a priest. every character.2

the

Tertullian

With

sacerdos

term

first

into full use.3

comes

developed doctrine of the Lord's Supper sacrifice offered to God by a priesthas been fullyreached. a as Lord and God, is Himself if Jesus Christ, our "For the chief priestof God the Father, and has first offered Himself a sacri this to be done in com fice to the Father, and has commanded of Himself, certainlythat priesttruly discharges memoration imitates that which Christ did ; and the office of Christ, who With

he then

offers

proceeds "to

a

offer it

to

4

the

serve

full sacrifice in the

and

true

offered."

have

to

the

Cyprian

according and

Already by

Tertullian's

commemoration

of

the

to

he the

Christian

celebrate

the

divine

the

time dead.6

Lord's

Supper shows

Cyprian

when

Christ

sees

of

business

The

altar

what

to

church

he

Himself

priest is

sacrifices."5 held

was

such

"sacri

of the life-giving martyrs.7 The sense quality the infant of the Supper led, also,to custom communion, in the doctrine which Cyprian is a witness.8 Here, as the conception of the Supper as Christ's physical presence,

fices"

for

sacrifice did

(a) that

a

God

was

earlier in the

West

than

in the

East.

of of of a

It

before 300. With general in the Orient much "Catholic" evident as conception of the Supper was in which Christ is reallypresent (the how of sacrament

not

it the

to

in

become

presence

was

not

to

be

much

discussed

till the

Middle

the believer partakes of Christ, being Ages), and in which and built up to the im thereby brought into union with Him life ; and mortal (b) a sacrifice offered to God by a priestand Much incliningGod to be gracious to the livingand the dead. stillleft obscure, but the essentials of the "Catholic" view was already at hand by 253. were 1 3 6 7

Justin, Apology, 67; Ayer, Baptism, 17 ; Ayer, p. 167. Ibid., 671.

Letters,33-S93.

p. 35.

2 * 6 8

Heresies, 4 : 175, Letters,62-6314. Chastity, 11.

Lapsed,

25.

IS3.

SECTION

fess

sins,He

our

sins."

l

there

But

BE

FORGIVEN

FORGIVENESS

XV.

generalview

The

CAN

SINS

WHAT

100

OF

SINS

"

of

if we earlyChristianitywas that is faithful and righteousto forgiveus sins so bad that they could not be were

con our

for

death."2 Just what "unto this "sin unto given,they were It was uncertain. death" one opinion that it might be, was was rejectionof the Holy Spirit. Mark represents Christ as shall blaspheme againstthe Holy Spirit Whosoever saying: but is guiltyof an eternal sin" (329). hath never forgiveness, The Teaching held that "any prophet speaking in the Spirit, "

given,but this sin ing was, however, denial

first-named

in the New

be found

can

of Hebrews

writer

sins"

were

No

severer

denunciations

those directed

than

of Hermas

tism.5

was

This

was

modification

some

world, one

tice

was

re

as

toward

the

the

after it, cleansingall previoussins,those committed class just described,were "deadly." But the tendency

garded was

by

as

fornication,false-witness and fraud." 4 While, by the time of Hermas (115-140), baptism of the

The

the "crucify to themselves (64'8,1026'31).To Tertullian the "deadly "idolatry,blasphemy, murder, adultery,

seven,

such

licentiousness.

gross

Testament

toward

afresh"

of God

Son

that

be

speciallyhopeless.

was

for

forgiven."3 The generalfeel the unforgivablesins were idolatryor

shall not

faith, murder, and

the

of

sin shall be

try neither discern; for every

shall not

ye

of this

The strictffc^s.

that, by exception,in view further

extended

elsewhere

repentance had to

even

been

end

near

of

granted after bap

adultery.6 Yet

milder, in the second

church

century, than

prac

church

of the

reclaiming of an whole time in the exercise of public adulteress,who confession." 7 In Tertullian's time the feelingwas that there was one repentance possiblefor deadly sins after baptism of aid against hell""now for all, "a second reserve once theory.

Irenaeus

of the

burden

gives an "spent her

account

"

-

because tion

was

sion,an to weep 1 4

6

1 John

now

to

for the second

time, but

be, if at all,only after

"exomologesis,""to and

make

I9.

Against Marcion, Ibid.,41.

feed

outcries unto 2

7

Heresies,1

:

135.

8

Restora

humiliatingpublicconfes to groan, on fastings, prayers

the Lord

5

49.

more."

a

3

Ibid.,516.

never

8

your

God

;

to

bow

Ayer, p. 40. Man., 43 ; Ayer, pp. 43, 44. Repentance, 7, 12. 11 ;

PEXAXCE

RESTORATION

AND

101

presbyters,and kneel to God's dear ones." l Yet practicewas far from universally as rigorousas would Tertullian imply. The questioninevitablyarose sinner had done to when as a enough to be restored. The feelingappeared early that the divinely lodged in the congregation.2 absolving pdwer was also regarded as directlycommitted This authority was to when such devel to church and, by implication, Peter,; officers, a double practiceprevailed. About to oped.3 But, curiously, the

before

be

feet of the

and

confessors,i. e,, those who deemed imprisonment for their faith,were martyrs

or

solve

because

filled with

the

Spirit.4This

endured

tortures

also able to ab twofold

authority were Many Cyprian, in had trouble on this score.5 Naturallybishopstried particular, to repress this rightof confessors ; but it remained a popular till cessation of Absolution the persecution. opinion ultimately the of scale of standard raised to when a as question a penance, but that develop enough had been done to justifyforgiveness, of is beyond the limits the present period. It is not to ment of the confessors

led to abuse.

be found

till about

These

lax.

300.

which restorations,

of the licentious,6 particularly

were

deemed

it came however common as exceptional, ; and ascetic like Tertullian, shock, at least to a rigidMontanist a when the aggressiveRoman bishop,Kallistos (217-222), (ante, were

75), who

p.

in his

own

had

himself been which

name,

is

papal authority,that he repentance.7 This proper list of "sins unto

tice may In

have

a

confessor,issued

a

landmark

would was

absolve

development

sins of the

breach official

an

death," whatever

actual

flesh

in the

breach

of

on

a

popular

earlier prac

made.

judgment, denial

common

in the

declaration

a

these offenses, and

of the faith

Kallistos

the worst

was

of

had

promised pardon raised on a tremendous scale by question was the Decian persecution. Thousands lapsed and sought res toration after the storm In Rome, was over. Bishop Fabian for that.

died

a

not

even

The

martyr

in 250.

The

Roman

Church

rent

was

on

the

A disputebeginning in personal questionof their treatment. not at first involvingthe lapsed,resulted in the antipathies, 1 4

6

Repentance, 9. Tertullian,Modesty, Tertullian,Modesty,

2

22. 22.

6 '

Matt. 1815-1S.

3

Ibid.,1G1*. Letters,17-20, 20-21, 21-22, 22-27. Tertullian,Modesty, 1.

19.

SINS

ALL

102

MAY

BE

FORGIVEN

by the majority of Cornelius,a comparative nobody, as Novatian, the most distinguishedtheologianin bishop over Rome The (ante,p. 75). The minoritysupported Novatian. of the lapsed, advocated the milder treatment majority soon advanced while Novatian to the rigorist position. Novatian that lasted till the seventh began a schism century, and founded protestingchurches wide-spread in the empire. He renewed the older practiceand denied restoration to all guilty of "sins unto death." His was a lost cause. Synods in Rome and Carthage in 251 and 253, representative of the majority, permitted the restoration of the lapsed,under strict conditions of penance. to arise again in the Though the questionwas persecutionunder Diocletian,which began in 303,1 and though varied practicelong continued in different parts of the church, in 251 was the decision in Rome ultimatelyregulative.All sins were therebyforgivable.The old distinction continued in name, but it was henceforth only between great sins and small. choice

SECTION

XVI.

THE

COMPOSITION

THE

HIGHER

AND

LOWER

the church

THE

AND

CHURCH

MORALITY

undoubtedly conceived composed exclusivelyof experientialChristians.2 There as who needed discipline in it,3 but Paul could paint bad men were ideal pictureof the church as "not having spot or wrinkle an such thing."4 It was natural that this should be so. or any faith. Those who embraced it as a new Christianitycame did so as a result of personalconviction,and at the cost of no little sacrifice. It was long the feelingthat the church is a and women. Even true then, it was community of saved men that many were unworthy. This is Hermas's complaint. The In

oldest "

apostolictimes

OF

outside the New

sermon

was

Testament

has

a

modern

sound.

they hear from our mouth the oracles of God, marvel at them for their beauty and greatness ; then, when they discover that our works are not worthy of the words which we speak,forthwith they betake themselves to blasphemy, saying that it is an idle story and a delusion." 5 Yet, in spite of the recognition But the of these facts the theory continued. For

the Gentiles

1

The

2

Romans

Melitian

3

E. g., I Cor. 51-13.

I7;

when

schism, Donatists. 1*; 2 Cor. I1; Col.

1 Cor.

4

Eph.

I2.

527.

6

2

Clem., 13.

MORALITY

LOWER

AND

HIGHER

104

kingdom of heaven's sake," and that, "in the resurrection they neither nor are given in marriage, but are as angels."1 Paul marry and to widows, it is good for them said "to the unmarried I." if they abide even as Voluntary poverty and voluntary advice impossibleof fulfil celibacywere, therefore,deemed ment by all Christians,indeed, but conferringspecialmerit About these two those who conceptions practisedthem. on to be the all earlyChristian asceticism centred, and they were that

also declared

He

foundation

some

"eunuchs

are

of monasticism

stones

when

for the

that system

arose

at

clergy should set a second marriage discour specially good example, not only was age;3but, by the beginning of the aged from the sub-apostolic deemed office was third century, marriage after entering on life of celibacy,poverty, and contempla The unallowable.4 third century.

close of the

the

tive retirement

from

As

the

the activities of the world

admired

was

though as yet widely practised, without separationfrom society. The road to full monasticism had been fairlyentered. as Probably the most unfortunate the that it tended to discourage pect of this double ideal was efforts of the ordinary Christian. the Christian

as

ideal,and

XVII.

SECTION

was

REST

AND

GROWTH,

260-303

affected by the edict of end of the period of persecution than forty years of followed by more Gallienus,in 260, was The

protection Legally,the church had no more than before,and the able Emperor Aurelian (270-275) is said renewal of persecutionwhen intended prevented by to have a it apparently did not to the death. Even with him come

practical peace.

proclamationof

a

new

hostile edict.

The

chief feature

of this

rapid growth of Christianity.By 300 Christirepresentedin all parts of the empire. effectively influential in the Its distribution was very unequal,but it was central provincesof political importance,in Asia Minor, Mace donia, Syria,Egypt, northern Africa, central Italy,southern in the social its upward progress Gaul and Spain. Nor was

epoch was anity was

1 3

Matt., 1912,2230. 1 Tim. 32, see also Hermas, in general. Hippolytus, Refutation,97.

Christians 4

the

2

Man.,

44, against second

1 Cor. 78.

marriage of

scale less significant. During this of

government and

^it began As

late

as

now

periodit won

246-248

the best that

on

Origen

a

105 many

considerable

could

thingby prayingfor the

success

of the

scale.

in

reply to their duty to the say

Celsus's criticism that Christians failed of that Christians state service,was by refusal of army better

officers

important of all,

Most

imperialservants.

penetrate the army

to

CHURCH

THE

OE

GROWTH

RAPID

did

a

Emperor.1 Origen

and defends Christian unwillingness also expresses to assume then Christians had the burdens of governmentaloffice.2 P"en

armies;3 but Origen undoubt long been found in the Roman edly voiced prevalent Christian feelingin the middle of the third century. By its end both Christian feelingand practice had largelychanged. of greatlyincreasing This period of rapid growth was one conformityto worldly influences also. How far this sometimes The Council of Elvira, show. went a singleillustration may Granada, in Spain (c.313), provided that Christians who now the garments of heathen priesthoodcould as magistrateswore be restored after two provided they had not years'penance, actuallysacrificed or paid for sacrifice.4 As compared with the first half of the third century, its latter portion was a period of little literaryproductivityor in Christian of the circles. No names theologicoriginality eminent was that of Dionysius, firstrank appeared. The most who held the bishopric of Alexandria (247-264),a pupilof Origen like him

and

for

a

time

head of the famous

catechetical

school.

extended, Through his writingsthe influence of Origen was in generaldominant and the great theologian's thoughts were the wide in that period in the East. Dionysius combated spread Eastern Sabellianism. He also began the practiceof sending letters to his clergy,notifyingthem of the date of Easter custom a soon largelydeveloped by the greater bish oprics,and made the vehicle of admonition, doctrinal defini "

tion, and controversy. Beside the Sabellianism,which Dio was vigorouslyrep nysius combated, Dynamic Monarchianism of Samosata resented in Antioch till272 (ante,p. 72). by Paul

administratively giftedbishop held a high executive posi Antioch be tion under Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to whom by the Emperor longed for a period before her overthrow

This

1

Celsus, S73.

3

E.g., Tertullian,Corona,

2

1.

7"4/.,875.

v/ NEO-PLATONISM

106

Paul's opponents, being unable

Aurelian.

to

deprive him

of

the church

building, appealed to Aurelian,who those to whom decided that it rightfully the belonged to should adjudge it." 1 bishopsof Italyand of the cityof Rome moved Doubtless Aurelian was considerations in by political but this Christian reference to imperialau this adjudication, and the Emperor's deference to the judgment of Rome thority, were significant. With Antioch of this periodis to be associated the foundation littleis known of of a school of theologyby Lucian, of whom that he was detail,save a biographical presbyter,held aloof Paul from the party in Antioch which opposed and overcame of Samosata, taught there from c. 275 to c. 303, and died a martyr'sdeath in 312. Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia were his pupils, and the supposition is probablethat his views were Like Origen,he busied himself largelyreproduced in them. with textual and exegetical labors on the Scriptures, but had little likingfor the allegorizing of the great Alexan methods drian. A simpler,more grammatical and historical method possessionof

"

of treatment

both of text and doctrine characterized his teach

ing. SECTION

XVIII.

RELIGIOUS

KIVAL

FORCES

latter half of the third century was the periodof the in the empire. As the Sol greatest influence of Mithraism Inoictus,Mithras was widely worshipped,and this cult was popular in the army and favored by the Emperors who rose The

its ranks.

from

other forces of

Two

world. The religious exandria by Ammonius

first was

in the

importance arose Founded

Neo-Platonism.

in Al

(?-c. 245),its real developerwas settled in Rome about 244. From him, Porphyry (233-304). Neo-Platonism

Saccas

/Plotinus (205-270),who the leadership passed to

of Platonic thoughts. pantheistic, mysticalinterpretation all perfect, from whom the God is simple,absolute existence, Him From lower existences come. the Nous (wO?) emanates like the Logos in the theologyof Origen. From the Nous the world-soul derives being,and from that individual souls. From was

a

the world-soul

inferiorin the

the realm amount 1

of

of matter

Yet

comes.

being it possesses

Eusebius,Church History,7

:

to 3019.

the

each one

stage is above

"

MANICH^EISM less of reality reaching in

has

"

to all-perfect,

morals

The

tive.

matter

107

gradations from God, who compared with Him, is nega

which, as of Neo-Platonism,

like those

ascetic, and philosophy generally,were that of a risingof the soul vation was

templation,the

end

Platonism

much

was

of which to

influence

to

with

that ;of

Far

otherwise Its

chseism.

began

his

276

277.

or

chseism

it with

was

second

a

founder, Mani,

born

was

in

not way

war.

the divine.

Neo-

theology, notably conspicuously or of thinking for the

association

of the many. that of Mani-

movement, in Persia in 215

in 242, and

or

216,

Babylon was preaching old based the Persian on Strongly dualism, Manialso exceedingly syncretistic. It received ele was

from

Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, tianity. Light and darkness, good and ments

conception of sal in mystic con God

Christian

Augustine. Its founders were a ganizers,however, and it remained relativelyfew rather than an inclusive

of later Greek

its

union

was

is

Its conception of the relations of

crucified in

and

Judaism, evil

are

spiritand

Chris

eternally at matter,

and

those of Gnosticism. resembled salvation,in many ways Man material prison house of the realm of evil, is essentially a in which Hence some portion of the realm of lightis confined. of this salvation is based on rightknowledge as to the nature bondage, and desire to return to the realm of light,coupled of all that belongs to the sphere with extreme ascetic rejection Its the physical appetites and desires. of darkness, especially strict. Its member worship was as simple as its asceticism was in two classes,the perfect,always relativelyfew, who ship was practised its full austerities ; and the hearers, who accepted its less strictness of practice a distinc teachings,but with much monks and tion not unlike that between ordinary Christians in the church. Its organizationwas fairlycentralized and rigid. In Manichseism Christianityhad a real rival. It^^rfead was in and the it the absorbed not empire, rapid ""nly^fl|w fol of

"

lowers

of Mithraism,

but

the

remnants

of 1

Ktian-Gnostic

gr^o^Hfwas

Its great to be in sects, and other early heresies. the fourth and fifth centuries, and its influencejwas to be felt till the

late Middle

Ages through

teachings,like the Cathari.

sects

which

were

heirs of its

V

STRENGTHENS

DIOCLETIAN

108

XIX.

SECTION

THE

In 284 Diocletian became

THE

FINAL

Roman

EMPIRE

STRUGGLE

A

Emperor.

of the

man

origin,probably of slave parentage, he had a dis in the army, and was raised to the imperial tinguishedcareer he dignityby his fellow soldiers. Though a soldier-emperor, was possessedof great abilitiesas a civil administrator,and to reorganizethe empire so to provide more determined as aiming at adequate militarydefense,prevent army conspiracies internal the of and render administration a change Emperors, efficient. To these ends he appointedan old companionmore humblest

in-arms,Maximian,

regent of the West, in 285, with

Augustus,which Diocletian himself bore. in 293, two he designated, militaryefficiency of

Constantius

Chlorus,

Galerius,on

that

Rhine

the

on

of the

Danube.

In further aid of

"Csesars"

frontier,and Each

the title

"

to succeed

was

one,

the other, ulti

mately to the higherpost of "Augustus." All was held in har monious working by the firm hand of Diocletian. less In internal affairs the changes of Diocletian were no sweeping. The survivingrelics of the old republicanempire, and of senatorial influence, set aside. The now were Emperor A new in the later Byzantine sense. divi became autocrat an aban sion of provinceswas effected;and Rome was practically Diocletian making the more doned as the capital, conveniently situated Nicomedia, in Asia In character Diocletian was of the cruder

heathenism such

To

a

man

ordered archically have

It must

Minor, his customary

camp

rude

a

but

firm

residence.

supporter of

type.

the closely knit,hier organizingabilities, church presenteda serious political problem.

of

seemed

state

a

within

the state

which

over

he

been a Christian up Though there had never had held aloof from risingagainstthe empire,and Christianity to a remarkable politics degree,the church was rapidlygrowing in numbers Two courses lay open for a vigorous anxLs.trength. had

control.

no

it into submission and break its power, ruler,either tjfforce to

enter

of the

into alliance with

growing organism.

Constantine course

The

could Eastern

it and The

thus

latter

secure

was

to

or

control political be the method

of

the attempt of Diocletian. No other be expected from a man outlook. of his religious

; the former

Caesar,Galerius,was

and had tianity,

much

influence

even over

more

hostile to Chris

Diocletian.

To

him

the

PERSECUTION

DIOCLETIAN

UNDER

of persecutionmay suggestions

been clue.

have

109 The

growth

of

was unitingall the forces of threatened Christianity, moreover, heathenism against it; while Diocletian and Galerius were disposedto emphasize emperor-worship and the service of the old gods. A cautious effort to rid Diocletian 'moved slowly,however. and the imperialpalace service of Christians was the army followed,beginning in February, 303, by three great edicts of de ordered Churches were persecutionin rapid succession. stroyed,sacred books confiscated,clergyimprisoned and forced In 304 sacrifice by torture. fourth edict requiredall to a

It

Christians to offer sacrifices. tion.

As

many

who

in the days of Decius

with

there

were

however,

far less

Christians had

be

severityof the persecutionvaried its penalties the magistratesby whom were Italy,North Africa,and the Orient, the

the attitude of Cruel

martyrs, and

many

The

better known.

enforced.

time of fearful persecu

a

"lapsed." Popular feelingwas, in previouspersecutions.The

hostile than come

was

in

friendly"Csesar," Constantius Chlorus, made apparent com pliance in Gaul and Britain by destroying church edifices, He but left the Christians themselves unharmed. thereby with those that redound thus to was gained a popularity spared of the his to son. advantage A The voluntary retirement of Diocletian,and the enforced abdication of his colleague,Maximian, in 305, removed the able to master the complex gov strong hand of the only man ernmental

Chlorus

Constantius situation.)?

and

Galerius

now

became, "Augusti," but in the appointment of "Caesars," the of the

claims

Daia.

Maximinus West.

Constantius claimed

his

this army

of Constantius

in favor

passed over the

sons

of two

Chlorus

and

Maximian

were

proteges of Galerius,Severus

Persecution

had

and

ceased in practically in increased severityin the East. It continued Chlorus died in 306, and the garrisonin York ac the On Constantine as Emperor. son strengthof

support, Constantine

now

forced

from

Galerius his

own

and Britain. "Caesar,"with charge of Gaul,_Spain, as recognition Soon after Maximian's "defeated Severus and son, Maxentiusr, of Italy and North himself master made Africa. The next trial of strengthin the strugglefor the empireTtcTvhich Con

stantine had come

would

set

himself must

determine

be with

the mastery oHhe

Maxentius. whole

West.

Its out Licin-

CHRISTIAN

A

CONSTANTINE

110

succeeded ius,a protege of Galerius,

possessionsof Before

to

a

portionof

the former

Severus.

the decisive contest

for the West

Galerius,in conjunctionwith Constantine

took

place,however,

and

Licinius,issued

April,311, an edict of toleration to Christians "on condi 1 tion that nothing is done by them contrary to discipline." This was, at best, a grudging concession,though why it was its main granted at all by the persecutingGalerius,who was is not wholly evident. con Perhaps he had become source, vinced of the futility of persecution. Perhaps the long and illness which to cost him his life a few days later severe was have led him to believe that some from help might come may the Christians' God. The latter suppositionis given added probabilitybecause the edict exhorts Christians to pray for in

its authors.

death of Galerius in May, 311, left four contestants the empire. Constantine and Licinius drew togetherby The

for mu

tual

Daia and Maxentius were interest;while Maximinus united by similar bonds. Daia promptly renewed persecution in Asia and Egypt. Maxentius, while not a persecutor, was a of Christian heathenism. pronounced partisan sympathy naturallyflowed toward Constantine and Licinius. Constan tine availed himself to the full of its advantages. To what to say. extent he was now a personalChristian it is impossible He had inherited a kindly feelingtoward Christians. He had joinedin the edict of 311. His forces seemed scarcelyadequate for the great strugglewith Maxentius. He doubtless desired the aid of the Christians' God

in the

none

equalcgpflict

too

"

though it is quiteprobable that he may not then have thought of Him Constan tine's later affirmation that the only God. as he saw "in this sign with the inscription, a vision of the cross conquer,"was a conscious or unconscious legend. But that he is a fact. A brilliant invaded Italy, as in some sense a Christian, march and several successful battles in northern Italybrought him

face to face with Maxentius at Saxa Rubra, a little to the north of Rome, with the Mulvian the Tiber be bridgeacross tween one

his foes and the city. There, on of the decisive

the battle and Christian

of history, in struggles

his life. The

West

God, he believed,had 1

October 28, 312, occurred

Eusebius, Church

was

given

History, 8

:

179 ;

which

Maxentius

Constantine's. him

the

Ayer, p.

lost The

victory,and

262.

III.

PERIOD

SECTION

^[thecompletion and

the

in the

ligion. Constantine Christians

were

the

one

It

men.

which

had

long

Emperor,

one

law,

should

slowly, however. unequally distributed

The

in the

than

East

the

when

population

equal rights.

them

unification

It had

all free

Christianity was

have

moved

in the

of

fraction

CHURCH

SITUATION

of

empire.

very

numerous

more

CHANGED

process

citizenship for

one

STATE

essentiallypoliticalmind

of

in progress

been

THE

I.

Constantine's

To

IMPERIAL

THE

church

had

and

the much

were

they of

but

were

a

Milan

granted great rapidity

with

grown

re

Though

West,

Edict

one

tinder in the last half of the third century, during the peace bounds. That by leaps and imperial favor its increase was showed. favor Constantine promptly By a law of 319 the exempted from the public obligations that weighed clergy were the well-to-do portion of the population.1 In heavily on so 321 the right to receive legacies was granted, and thereby the The corporation acknowledged.2 as a privilegesof the church same

In

cities.3 Gifts

made

but

which

was

of

t

the

sacrifices

were

elsewhere

and

world

Byzantium, has

formal which

named

motives,

its

its official

the

left the

its

in

the

erected

under

called

in

imperial

New

of the

Rome,

honor, Constantinople,

politicaland defensive far-reaching. were

religiousconsequences

foundation,

of

prohibited.4

transference he

in his

people

churches

great

high significance. Undoubtedly

empire in

rebuilt

the

and

clergy,

to

all,Constantine's

Above the

heathen

Bethlehem,

Jerusalem,

auspices. capital to

From

to

forbidden

was

private

319

were

Rome,

in

work

Sunday

year

330, it established

the

seat

of

traditions or influences, situated city of few heathen It most portion of the world. strongly Christianized the most conspicuous man bishop of Rome, moreover,

in

1

a

Codex

*Ibid.,

Theodosianus,

16

16

8

Codex

:24; Ayer, Justinianus,

4

Codex

Theodosianus,

p.

3

:

9

:

22 ;

Ayer, Source

283. 123 ; :

Ayer,

162 ; 112

p.

Ayer,

284. p.

286.

Book,

p.

283.

POLICY

CONSTANTINE'S in the ancient

with

looked

reverence

possibleof future

only for they were ized portion that "

be

threatened. had

led to

called

to

itself the

more

be

schism, somewhat

causes,

but resemblingthat of

earlier

(ante,p. 102). The

The

"Catholic." could

unitingfactor

a

Africa

than

stillmany,

were

Constantine

one.

In North a

was

political.Great which Constantine showed to the church, that strong, close-knit, hierarchically organ

was Christianity

must

still

the

wholly unintended

it was

rather spiritual

was

sects, and they boijntyfrom his hands..

church

West Latin-speaking

conspicuitywhich

a

heretical"

If

the

importance because

the favors

were

in

"

by Constantine, and as

which

to capital,

113

found

various

look for

no

in the

that

empire, the unity seriously

persecutionunder Diocletian complicated and personalin its Novatian in Rome, half a century the

church

there

was

divided.

The

strict

had re bishop of Carthage,Caecilian, party charged that the new ceived ordination in 311, from the hands of one in mortal sin, who

had

surrendered

secution.

That

copiesof

ordination

bishop,Majorinus. the Great, from whom atists.

In

313

the

Scripturesin the invalid,and chose

it held

recent a

per

counter-

His successor, in 316, was the able Donatus the schismatics received the name, Don

Constantine

made

grants of money

to

the

"Catholic"

v

clergyof North Africa.1 In these the Donatists did not share,and appealed to the Emperor. A synod held in Rome the same only year decided againstthem, but the quarrelwas the more Constantine embittered. what out thereupon mapped the imperialpolicyin ecclesiasticalquesto be henceforth was /tions. He summoned a synod of his portion of the empire to The church meet, at publicexpense, in Aries,in southern Gaul. itself should decide the controversy, but under imperialcon trol. Here a large council assembled in 314. The Donatist

I

contentions

condemned.

were

at the hands

of

Ordination

was

declared

valid

personallyunworthy cleric. Heretical date of Easter baptism was recognized,and the Roman ap proved.2 The Donatists appealed to the Emperor, who once decided againstthem, in 316; and as they refused to yield, more now proceeded to close their churches and banish their bishops. The unenviable spectacleof the persecutionof Christians by

even

Christians

was

a

exhibited.

North

Africa

was

^usebius, Church History, 10: 6; Ayer, 2 See Ay or, p. 291.

in turmoil. p. 281.

Con-

_,

ARIANISM

114

and in 321 however, dissatisfied with the results,

stantine was,

againstthese schismatics. They claimingto be the only true church possessedof grew rapidly, a clergyfree from "deadly sins" and of the only valid sacra abandoned

the

of force

tillthe Mohammedan

Not

ments.

use

conquest did the Donatists

disappear. SECTION

II.

THE

OF

A much

great Arian

TO

THE

DEATH

CONSTANTINE

serious danger to the unity of the church than which the Constantine encountered was

more

the Donatist

CONTROVERSY

ARIAN

schism

It has

controversy.

that while the

West, thanks

already been

pointed

of Tertullian

to the work

and

out

No-

^vatian,had

reached

practicalunanimity regardingthe unity

of substance

between

Christ and

the Father

(ante,pp. 69-76),

Origen,stillits most dominating the If he ologicalinfluence,could be quoted in opposing senses. had taught the eternal generationof the Son, he had also held Him God and a creature to be a second (ante,p. 81). Adoptionist tendencies persisted, also,about Antioch; while Sabellianism was in Egypt. The East, moreover, to be found was interested in speculative vastlymore theologythan the West,

the East

and

was

therefore

doubt

divided.

more

prone

discussion ; century, much

to

that, in the fourth

nor

can

more

there be any of intellectual

in the Greek-speaking than in the to be found abilitywas Latin-speakingportionof the empire. The real cause of the struggle these varyinginterpreta was tions;but the actual controversy began in Alexandria, about Arius and his bishop, Alexander 320, in a dispute between (312?-328). Arius,a pupilof Lucian of Antioch (ante,p. 106), Baucalis. was as presbyter in charge of the church known He was advanced in years and held in high repute as a preacher of learning,ability, and influences impiety. Monarchian in Antioch ^bibed led him selfto emphasize the unity and

contained existence of God.

In

so

far

as

he

was

a

follower of

Origen,he representedthe great Alexandrian's teachingthat created being. As such He was Christ was not of the sub a of God, but was of "nothing." stance made like other creatures Though the first-born of creatures, and the agent in fashion ingthe world,He was not eternal. "The Son has a beginning,

ARIANISM

115

indeed, beginning."x Christ was, God in a certain sense to Arius, but a lower God, in no way in Father In the with the essence or one incarnation, eternity. human the of entered this Logos a body, taking place the human reasoningspirit.To Arius's thinking,Christ was neither fully This is what God nor fullyman, but a tertium quid between. his view wholly unsatisfactory. makes Bishop Alexander was influenced by the other side of Origen's to the eternal,like in essence teaching.'To him the Son was His view was, perhaps, not Father, and wholly uncreated.2 perfectlyclear,but its unlikeness to that of Arius is apparent. between Arius and Alexander, apparently Controversy arose Arius's initiative. It soon bitter,and about 320 or on grew 321 Alexander held a synod in Alexandria by which Arius and of his sympathizerswere condemned. Arius appealed a number for help to his fellow pupil of the school of Lucian, the powerful bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and soon found a refuge with him. Alexander wrote widely to fellow bishops,and Arius defended his own aided by Eusebius. The Eastern position, ecclesiasticalworld was widely turmoiled. Such the situation when Constantine's was victory over but

.

.

.

God

is without

,

"

Licinius made The

him

master

quarrel threatened

deemed

essential.

of the East the

unity

Constantine

of

as

well

the

as

of the West.

church

which

he

therefore sent his chief ecclesi

astical

adviser,Bishop Hosius of Cordova, in Spain, to Alex andria with an imperialletter, counselling peace and describing the issue involved

"an

unprofitablequestion."3 The wellvain. meant, but bungling effort was Constantine,therefore, the device he had already made same proceeded to employ of at Aries in the Donatist use dispute. He called a council of the entire church. That of Aries had been representative of all the portion of the empire then ruled by Constantine. of all the empire, and therefore Constantine was master now summoned. The principle bishops of all the empire were was the same, but the extent of Constantine's enlargedjurisdiction made the gatheringin Nicsea the First General Council of the as

church. The

council,which

assembled

in Nicsea in May,

325, has

V 1 2

3

Arius to Eusebius, Theodoret, Church History,I4; Ayer, p. 302. Letter of Alexander, in Socrates, Church History, I6. Letter

in Eusebius,

264-72. Life of Constantine,

NIC/EA

OF

COUNCIL

THE

116

always lived in Christian tradition as the most importantin Tii it the bishopswere^-summo"ed the historyof the church. at government expense, accompanied by lower clerg}^who did not, however, have

nnly

sfy

from

wprp

in its decisions.

It included

theJWest.

small section, led by EusebTus Another

going Arians.

small

East

had

the

bishops present three

of Nicomedja.

parlies. A

werej:horough-

equally strenuous the large majority, of whpm

group

supporters of Alexander.^ The

were

church

historian t^Eusebius^Cgesarea,was

deeply

versed

in the

The

OLalxaiLthlgcJiundred

preponderance

vast

'*

votes

question at

a^eader, were Indeed, the majority,

issue.

by an unsympathetic writer as "simpletons."1 As far as they had any opinion,they stood the generalbasis of the teachingsof Origen. Conspicuous on in jJTp_a.sspTnhly the .EiDj^Tcu'_JiiiTisplfJ who, though not was of the baptized,and therefore not technicallya full member as

a

whole,

church,

described

were

far too

was

eminent

a

not

personage

to

be welcomed

enthusiastically. Almost

at.

of the thf^beginnijig

council

Fjispbiij^of tlia.Aj:iajnji_wa^rejected. of his

indefinite rean

of

the

offered

the

own

to

as

creed

prpqpnfpdby

Cflpsarea, then

cKufch. dating fromnBeTore the controversy, and creed

s\. crppH

was

the now

was,

therefore,wholly

particularproblems involved. amended most significantly by

not made," expressions, ""hfigoltfin,

"

of

This the one

Csesa-

insertion essence

"

(homoousion,opoovaLov)with^ JheJFather ; and by the specific He when was rejectionof Arian formulae such as "there was not." The later made of thingsthat were not" and "He was and hyposunlike words essence, substance (oiKr/a), technically here used tasis (uTToo-rao-t?) as were equivalent expressions. Loofs has shown that the influences which secured conclusively2 these changes were Western, doubtless above all that of Hosius the test of Cordova, supportedby the Emperor. In particular, word, homoousion, had long been orthodox in its Latin equiva lent,and had been in philosophicusage in the second century, in the proceedings though rejectedby a synod in Antioch used against Paul of Samosata (ante,p. 73). Indeed, it was himself in his earlier defense of sparinglyby Athanasius very the Nicene 1

2

faith.

Tj i^ ^asy

to

understand Constantine's

Socrates,Church

History, I8. Realencyklopcidiv fur prot. Theol

u.

Kirche, 214- 15.

atti-

OF

COUNCIL

THE

NIC.EA

117

t^ight .tilde. Essentially a politi44fHvJ^-Tmtwft41y

a.

forrrjuja,

oppositionin theJWestern half of the empirc,and would receive the support of a portion of the 44*^t, more acceptablethan one which, while having only a part of the East in its favb7"woulor be rejected by that would Jind _no

'

influence To. Cons_taaitin".'s tion is more faith he

thp

n^Qpfinn nf

the

Nirene

its shades

defini-

of

meaning of the than doubtful ; but he wanted a united expression of the church on the questionin dispute,and believed that

was

That

due.

found

had

it.

he

understood

ever

all but UiideF-his-supervisieft,

two

of the

bishopspresent signed4t. These, and Arius. Constantine sent 'Flic imperial politicshad into banishment. apparently se.-. had gtven-4twhat it had cured-tEe unity-ef^fee-eht^ebj^aRd before possessed,a^sJiatppient. whirh might,be assumed never to be a universally recognizedcreed. Besides this action in thus formulatingthe creed, the Coun issued a pnmh^r of important ran on s rpgmlfl.t.jn cilj)f_Nicgea church discipline^ paved the way for the return of thosejn Egypt who

had

joinedthe

lapsed,made a

uniform

date

the readmission

in the observation

strange, in view

It is not creed

easy

adopted, that

was

its

pppositiojn to

schism

Melitian

of

Novatians, and

it

were

in which

manner

after the

fewr. To

of the ordered

the Nicene

council ended

manifested was testjvojT[1Jtmy^7/.9?!onf if, w"-"j

They

the treatment

of Easter.

of the soon

over

the largemiddle

nf

party of

,great in the

ftbnoxnns. of Ongen disciples

coufs^f

for to them it seemed Sabelscarcelyless satisfactory, lian. Though Eusebius of Nicomedia and his Arian sympa thizer,Theognis of Nicsea, had signed,their evident hostility such that Constantine both bishops into exile. By sent was home 328, however, they were again, possiblythrough the favor of the Emperor's sister, Constantia. Eusebius. soon ac influence than other Constantine quired a greater over any was

ecclesiasticof the East, and used it to favor the cause of Arius. With such elements of oppositionto the Nicene result,the real battle was than half a cen not in the council but in the more

tury which followed its conclusion. Meanwhile the great defend^ nf thn Nirenp fa^^ had come born in Alexandria about Athanasiiis was fullyon the scene. 295.

In

the

deacon, and

the Arian rnntrnvprsy: hft wns n early stafgs^of served asfmTvjLte Alexander. secretaryto Bishop

ATHANASIUS

118

As such he

accompaniedhis bishop to Nicsea,and

death, in 328,

chosen

was

to hold, in

he was a post which ishments, till his own "

demise

theologian,Athanasius when

court

in turn

favor counted

for

Not

a

great speculative In

great character.

a

he stood

much,

like

a

an

age

rock for his

theologyultimatelyconquered Nicene West to him, possessedno of one theologian. Tp_Jiiiii"_JJie.._questioij._ at_jssuewas for the

primarilydue

was

five ban

and

that the Nicene

convictions,and able

bishopric

spiteof attack

in 373.

was

Alexander's

on

to the Alexandrian

salvation,and source

been,

that he made

main feel it to be so was a conception of salvation had

men

of his power. The Greek since the beginningsof the tradition

of Asia

Minor, the

mortalityinto divine and blessed im mortality the impartation of "life" (ante,p. 40). Only by in Christ real Godhead coming into union with full manhood transformation

of sinful

"

could the transformation

complishedin

Him

mediated

be

ac

to His

disciples. by made that we : man [Christ]was of might be made divine."1 Tojiis thinkingthe__gi"at. error, mTbasis for a real salvation. Well Ariam'.sm was that-Jt-gaYe. it for the Nicene party that~so ^ moderately eTttetefmined, was a champion stood for it, since the two other prominent de fenders of the Nicene faith,Bishops Marcellus of Ancyra and Eustathius of Antioch, were certainlyfar from theologically of opinions accused, not wholly rightly, impeccable,and were decidedlySabellian. Athanasius

As

/

Him,

into the divine be

of the human

Eusebius

"

He

of Nicomedia

soon

Constahtine would

emy.

the

by

or

said

same

strikingits defenders. cleverlyused

were

330.

to

Eusebians

The

Athanasius returned

not

practicalresult could

and

from

secure

in Athanasius

saw

desert be

the

secure

of Eustathius the discomfiture

in of

latter,who had before Eusebius, now presented

the restoration of Arius. even

thought,

differences and'theological

the condemnation to

en

decision,but

achieved, Eusebius

Political

determined

banishment

Nicene

the real

The

indefinite on the questionat is carefully mind this seemed sue.2 To Constantine's untheological a satis his and an expressionof willingness to make factoryretraction, He directed Athanasius to restore Arius to his place peace. in Alexandria. Athanasius refused. Charges of overbearing to

Constantine

a

creed

1

Incarnation, 543.

2

Socrates,Church

History,I26 ; Ayer, p. 307.

REACTION

ARIAN

THE

120

questionsthan their father had partisanin religious A joint edict of 346 ordered temples closed, and for been. law was, however, but The bade sacrifice on pain of death.1 Donatist The Africa slightlyenforced. controversy in North had greatlyextended, and that land, in consequence, the was of much scene agrarian and social agitation. The Donatists therefore,attacked in force by Constans, and though were, not wholly crushed, were largelyrooted out. of the sons The most of Constantine important relationship to the continuing to the religious questions of the age was first,more

Nicene

controversy.

Under

their

rule it extended

from

a

involvingonly the East, as under Constan-i disputepractically At the beginning of their1' tine, to an empire-wide contest. jointreignsthe Emperors permitted the exiled bishops to re Athanasius

turn.

was,

fore the close of 337.

therefore,once Eusebius

more

in Alexandria

however, still the

was,

be most

influential party leader in the East, and his authoritywas but strengthenedwhen he was promoted, in 339, from the bishopric where he died about of Nicomedia to that of Constantinople,

Through

341.

the influence of Eusebius

bly driven from bishop,Gregory

Athanasius

power. soon

was

forci

in the

springof 339, and an Arian Cappadocia, put in his place by military fled to Rome, where Marcellus of Ancyra

Alexandria of

Athanasius

joined him.

East

and

West

were

now

under

different

held to the Nicene

Emperors, and subjects. Not

sympathies of his the empire divided, but Bishop Julius of Rome merely was interfere from could now beyond the reach of Constantius. the fugitives and summoned their opponents to He welcomed in 340, though tfyeEusebians did not appear. a synod in Rome, The synod declared Athanasius and Marcellus unjustlydeposed. leaders repliednot merely with protests against The Eastern Constans

with the action,but with an attempt to do away Nicene formula in wrhich they had the support of Con itself, stantius. Two synods in Antioch, in 341, adopted creeds, Arian in \expression, but from which far,indeed,from positively

the Roman

all that

Nicene (knitted. In some was definitely respects death of Eu The they representeda pre-Nicene orthoooxy. of Constantinople, at thi^ sebius,now juncturecost the oppo decision his able leadership.The of the Nicene two nents was

1

Codex

Theodosianus,

16

:

104 ;

Ayer,

p. 323.

COUNCIL

THE

SARDICA

OF'

121

Emperors thought that the bitter quarrelcould best General Council, and accordinglysuch a be adjustedby a new of Sofia,in the autumn body gatheredin Sardica, the modern 343.'General Council it was not to be. The Eastern bishops, by those of the West, and findingthemselves outnumbered with them, with seeingAthanasius and Marcellus in company Athanasius and Marcellus drew. were By the Westerners once more approved,though the latter was a considerable bur of his dubious orthodoxy. East den to their cause by reason brother

and

Council

The of

pointof ecclesiasticalseparation.^ of Sardica had completelyfailed in its object there assembled quarrel,but the Westerners

seemed

West

healing the

on

the

leadershipof Hosius of Cor dova, that are of great importance in the development of the What they did was authorityof the bishop of Rome. judicial

passedseveral

to

Athanasius that in

actual

the

enact

under

canons,

proceedingsregarding decided rule. It was a general deposed,as these had been, he might

recent

Marcellus

and

the

into

bishop was appealto Bishop Julius of Rome, be retried by new judges,and no case

a

till the

decision of Rome

Western

rules and

in

Rome, The

to

seem

time, but

at the

who

could

successor

was

known.1

have

aroused

cause

were

the

should be

They

to

case

appointed,/

were

purely

little attention,even

important for

were

imperialbrothers

two

of

course

convinced

the future.

that the contro

serious aspects. At all events, Constans favored Athanasius, and the rival bishop,Gregory, having died,Constantius permittedAthanasius to return to Alexandria versy

was

assuming

too

in October, 347, where

he

was

most

welcomed cordially

by the always

which had overwhelming majority of the population, The situation seemed favorable for heartilysupported him. events than Athanasius, but political suddenly made it worse been. A rival Emperor arose it had ever in the West in the of Magnentius, and in 350 Constans murdered. was person Three the usurper to years of strugglebrought victoryover Constantius, and left him sole ruler of the empire (353).

Constantius,

at

last in full

control,determined

to

end

the

thinkingAthanasius was the chief enemy. The in the hands of leadershipagainst Athanasius was now At Bishops Ursacius of Singidunum, and Valens of Mursa. synods held in Aries in 353, and in Milan in 355, Constantius controversy.

To

his

1

See Ayer, pp.

364-366.

bishops to abandon

forced the Western

Athanasius, and For

opponents.

to

resis

Liberius,bishop of Rome, Hilary of Poi learned bishop of Gaul, and the aged Hosius of sent into banishment. Athanasius, driven from

these demands

to

tance

his Eastern

with

communion

resume

FORMULA

HOMOION

THE

122

the tiers, Cordova

most were

by militaryforce in February, 356, began his third the exile,findingrefugefor the next six years largelyamong At a synod held in Sirmium, the Emperor's Egyptian monks. Alexandria

residence,in 357, ousia (substance)in any of its combinations forbidden as unscriptural.1 This, so far as the influence of was

synod went, was an abolition of the Nicene formula. Hosius Athanasius. signedit,though he absolutelyrefused to condemn The declaration of Sirmium was strengthenedby an agreement of Nice, in secured by Constantius at the little Thracian town the

359, in which

it

call the Son

"we

affirmed

was

the holy scripturescall Him

as

and

teach."

like the Father, 2

The

Emperor

episcopalfavorites,notably Valens of Mursa,

and

his

cured

its acceptance by synods purporting to represent East West, held in Rimini, Seleucia,and Constantinople.The

and

Old-Nicene

formula

set

was

accepted the theoretically, only

new

result.

the whole The

"

as

church

proper

se

had,

term, the is like the

in court circles, "the Son was hence those who homoios supported its use were the Homoion ("like")party. Apparently colorless,

allowed

one

Father" known

aside,and

now

"

historyof its adoption made it a rejectionof the Nicene faith,and opened the door to Arian assertions. The Arians had was largelyaided triumphed for the time being,and that success who formula appealedto many by the fact that its Homoion were heartilytired of the long controversy. Really, however, the Arian victory had prepared the way immedi not for the ruin of Arianism,though that result was ately apparent. The oppositionto the Nicene formula had always been composed of two elements: a small Arian sec tion,arid a much largerconservative body, which stood mainly ob was on positionsreached by Origen, to which Arianism noxious,but which looked upon homoousios,the Nicene phrase, in Antioch, unwarranted as an expressionalready condemned Both elements had worked and of Sabellian ill-repute. together

the

resist the

to

further. 1

Nicene

Extreme

their agreement went no their heads in Alexandria raising

formula, but

Arians

were

De Synodis, Hilary of Poitiers,

11 ;

Ayer, p. 317.

2

Ayer, p. 319.

A

than

them "

"

of

ning "

of

were

party. They would

to "

and

not

say

to

homoousios

"

sense

draw

hostile

more

even

be, but of equalityof attributes.

would

sence

123

but they were willingto say homoiousios of like substance, as the natural translation

substance

in the

not

the Nicene

to

one

conservatives

The

elsewhere.

and

PARTY

MIDDLE

They

distinction between

a

hypostasis now "

subsistence/'instead of

ousia

using the making them

were

also

begin

substance,

"

latter in the

es

sense

in the as equivalent,

symbol. This enabled them to preserve the Origenistic teaching of "three hypostases," while insisting the on middle party community of attributes. The newly formed first into evidence with a synod at Ancyra, in 358, and came its chief early leaders were Bishops Basil of Ancyra, and They have usuallybeen called the SemiGeorge of Laodicea. Arians, but the term is a misnomer. They rejectedArianism He to Athanasius. They reallystood near energetically. recognized this approach, and Hilary of Poitiers furthered union by urgingthat the conservatives meant by homoiousios what the Nicene party understood by homoousios.1 The ulti about through the fusion of to come Nicene victorywas mate Nicene

the Nicene

and

"Semi-Arian"

the

parties.In that union the of Origenwere interpretations

tradition of Asia Minor, and the with those of Alexandria. to combine

slow process, however, and in its development the earlier Nicene views were modified into the New-Nicene to be considerably theology.

SECTION

THE

IV.

Constantius died in 361

cousin,Julian,whom

LATER

It

NICENE

he

was

a

STRUGGLE

preparing to

resist his

the soldiers in Paris had declared

Emperor.

as

was

world to Julian. Spared on account of his youth at the massacre of his father and other relatives the death of Constantine,he looked upon Constantius as on His

death left the Roman

his father's murderer.

Brought up in perilof his life,and forced to strict outward to hate churchly observance, he came which Constantius and was filled with everything represented, admiration Hellenism.

for the He

literature, life,and

philosophyof

"

the older

apostate,"in the sense of a turn concealed from the public, coat. his heath Though necessarily enism had long been real,when his campaign againstConstannot

was

1

De

an

Synodis,88

;

Ayer, p.

319.

ATHANASIUS'S

124

GROWING

STRENGTH

him

publiclyto declare it. It was heathenism of character. On his accession he at mystical,philosophical a revival. Christianitywas tempted a heathen everywhere and Christians removed from office. Bishops discouraged, under Constantius banished recalled,that the quarrelsof were tius enabled

Christians thus

was

in

the

heathen

in Alexandria

more

once

out

was

aid

might

exiled for the fourth

was

reaction.

in 362, but

time

before the year

by Julian, who

in

his

Athanasius

was

heathenism. success making converts angered by In he lost his life in a cam 363 Julian's reignwas soon over. had its last heathen paign againstthe Persians. In him Rome Emperor. The reign of Julian showed the real weakness of the Arianelements which Constantius had izing supported. Athanasians drew Semi-Arians and together. Furthermore, the Nicene debate

from

broadeningout

was

of the v/lations

Holy

to

include

discussion

a

Spiritto the Godhead.

of the

re-

Since the time of

Tertullian,in the

West, Father, Son, and Holy Spirithad been three "persons," of one substance (ante,p. 69).

regarded as The

reached

"a

of God

son

or

sion of the theme.

such

no

uncertain whether

been or

had

East

the

not."

Now

unanimity. Even Origen had created or uncreated," Spiritwas "

l

had

There

that it had

not

been

much

discus

forward, the homoousia

come

Holy Spiritwith the Father, seemed to Athanasius and of the Son. At a his friends a corollaryfrom the homoousia synod held in Alexandria in 362, by the just returned Athana drawn sius,terms of union were up for rival partiesin Antioch. the Arian heresy and It would be sufficient "to anathematize confess the faith confessed by the holy Fathers at Nicsea,and also those who say that the Holy Ghost is a to anathematize of the

and

creature

ployment tasis" the not

was

that

of the terms in the

himself

not

Trinity,but

head

The

in

the

"three

synod regarded

used

of Sabellian

nasius the

separate from

one

essence

death

of

sense

as

and

2

The

"one

hypostases" indifferent,provided in

of "alien

unity. The only for the

of Christ."

essence

door

was

essence," and thus

em

hypos"three"

"one"

opened by

in

Atha

full definition of the doctrine of

orthodoxy, with its God (substance) and three hypostases. Julian was succeeded by the brief reign of

for the New-Nicene

1

De

2

Tomus

Principiis,Preface. 3 admAntiochenos,

;

Ayer,

p. 350.

THE

Jovian.

The

empire who

happily, one Athanasius rule ended

375), who,

CAPPADOCIANS

GREAT had

once

more

promptly returned

ecclesiastical

his fourth

from

in 364, and he was succeeded findingthe imperialdefense

of the

his

giving to

ruler, and

Christian

a

little in

interfered

125

I

(364task, took (364-378)

Valentinian

by too

politics.

exile. Jovian's

great

a

brother, Valens

West, charge Valentian interfered littlewith sovereigntyof the East. under the influence of the churchly affairs. Valens came both and Homoousian Arian clergy of Constantinople,and Homoiousian sympathizersshared his dislike a situation which together. He condemned helped to bring these partiesnearer the

"

Athanasius the

and

Valens as

to

aged bishop however,

was,

had

Constantius

373, full of years At

Basil

the

about

of

to

; but

it

go

brief,

was

far from

the

city.

vigorous supporter of Arianism

Athanasius

died in

Alexandria,in

honors.

of

hands

leadershipin the struggle

the new

the

were

of the

men,

three

New-Nicene

great Cappadocians,

Cappadocia,Gregory of Nazianzus, and Nyssa. Born of a prominent Cappadocian family in

of CaBsarea

Gregory

not

such

no

of these

Chief

party.

have

of Athanasius

the death

passinginto

was

did

been.

and

exile,in 365

final

fifth and

a

received

330, Basil

the

best

trainingthat Constanti

nople and Athens could yield,in student association with his friend Gregory of Nazianzus. About 357 he yielded life-long to

the ascetic Christian tendencies

idea of monk.

a

gave

up

any

as worldly advancement, livingpractically of the risingmonas visited Egypt, then the home

of

career

He

of the age, and

and tic movement, cism in Asia Minor.

became

He

was,

the great propagator

however, made

a

of monasti-

for affairs and

not

in

Origen, and in sympathy with the Homoiousian party, he belonged to the section which into fellowship with Athanasius, and like Athgraduallycame Jknasius of the Holy he supported the full consubstantiality Spirit. To the wing of the Homoiousian party which refused the so-called Macedonians to regard the Spiritas fullyGod he offered strenuous vic a opposition. It was far-reaching when Basil became bishop of the Cappa tory for his cause for the

cloister.

Deeply versed

"

"

docian

Csesarea,in 37(L. The

post gave

him

ecclesiasticalau

large section of eastern Asia Minor, which he used to the full till his early death, in 379, to advance the He sought also to promote a good underNew-Nicene cause. thorityover

a

CAPPADOCIANS

GREAT

THE

126

in the East

the opponents of Arianism

standing between

and

the leaders of the West. An

brother.

Basil's younger

Gregory of Nyssa was and a writer of ability,

orator

greater skill and

theological clearness than not organizingand ad derived from the littleCappaministrative gifts. His title was docian town bishop in 371 or Nyssa of which he became of

Basil, he

"

He

372. Fathers

"

of Nazianzus

of his

friended

Basil's

had

lived till after 394, and of the Oriental Church.

Gregory town

even

birth,where

with Basil from

the monastic

attraction.

ranks

the

bishop. Warmly be student days,like Basil he felt strongly His ability as a preacherwas greater was

but that of either of his associates,

than

his title from

(329?-389?) had his father

the four great

among

in most

exercised

was

priesthe aided his father,from about made was bishop of the villageof Sasima. the Arianism About 378 he went to Constantinopleto oppose the faith of the vast which was majority of its inhabitants. The accession of the zealouslyNicene Emperor, Theodosius, him the needed in 379, gave support, and he preached with such success that he gained the repute of having turned the made he was bishop city to the Nicene faith. By Theodosius But the frictions of party strife of Constantinople in 381. varying stations. 361. By Basil he

and

the

inclination

times before to

he one

As

a

to

driven him

ascetic retirement from

the

which

had him

world, caused

this most exalted ecclesiastical post. relinquish ranked with Gregory of Nyssa. Like him he of the Eastern

than

intellectual victoryof the New-Nicene of that

formula.

age

What

expressedby

a

speedily

As

a

writer

is reckoned

Fathers, and the later Orient has given him

the "Theologian." the title, To the three Cappadocians,more

men

several

faith

to was

any

others,the

due.

To

the

triumph of the Nicene modifications they reallymade have been well their work

recent

German

seemed

the

writer i1

God, leading a (and Marcellus) taught the one The Cappathreefold personallife, who reveals Himself such. as docians think of three divine hypostases,which, as they manifest the same are activity, recognizedas possessingone nature and the for same dignity. The mystery for the former lay in the trinity; Athanasius

1

Seeberg, Text-Book

of the History of Doctrines,Eng. tr.,1

:

232.

TRIUMPH

NEW-NICENE

THE

128

empire, in spiteof a in northern brief toleration of Arianism Italyby Gratian's suc Valentinian II, influenced by his mother, against which cessor, had of Milan Ambrose to strive. Here, too, the authority of Arians

Theodosius in the

several

the

decided

potent

was

empire

was

a

centuries

in the

fate of Arianism

after her

lost cause, the

among

death, about

though

Germanic

it

was

388. to

Arianism

continue

invaders,thanks

to

for the

(see Section V). the synod of 381 met, the Nicene when Yet creed, as even adopted in 325, failed to satisfythe requirements of theologic development in the victorious party. It said nothing regard A instance. of the Holy Spirit,\for ing the[consubstantiality creed more desirable, fullymeeting the state of discussion was into use, and and actually such a creed came by 451 was re It ulti of 381. garded as adopted by the General Council mately took the place of the genuine Nicene creed, and is that Its exact the "Nicene" known to this day. origin is un as certain, but it is closely related to the baptismal creed of from the reconstructible teaching of Cyril, Jerusalem, as afterward bishop of that city,about 348 ; and also to that of missionary

of Ulfila

work

Epiphanius

of Salami

s, about

374.1

be said that it long controversy, it may that a less disputed phrase was misfortune not adopted was a that imperial interference at Nicsea, and doubly a misfortune In the strugplayed so large a part"in the ensuing discussions. into existence,and a policy of im gle the imperial church came perialinterference was fullydeveloped. Departure from official crime. a orthodoxy had become On

this

reviewing

Theodosius's

attitude

was

no

less strenuous

toward

remain

parties. regard to heretical Christian heathen In 392 he forbade worship under penalties similar to the old weapon those for lese-majesty and sacrilege.2It was used of heathenism by Christian against Christianity now toleration had fully Constantine's hands against heathenism. worship persisted,and disappeared. Nevertheless, heathen only slowly died out.

ing

heathenism

than

in

1

Ayer, Source

2

Codex

Book, pp. 354-356. Theodosianus, 16l". 12 ; Ayer,

p. 347.

V.

SECTION

TRIBES

GERMANIC

THE

MISSIONS

A1UAN

THE

AND

129

INVASIONS

GERMANIC

history of the empire the defense of the and the Danube frontiers of the Rhine against the Teutonic important military problem. peoples beyond had been an Under Marcu^ Aurelius a desperate,but ultimatelysuccessful Danube had been waged by the Romans the upper on war (167-180). Considerable shiftingof tribes and formations of fron of the Roman confederacies took place behind the screen tier; but by the beginning of the third century the group the upper had formed across known the Alemans as Rhine, the

Throughout

and

half

century later,that of the Franks

a

side of that

230-240, southern

the Goths Russia.

these

Between

river.

two

on

In 250

251

right

developments, about

completed their settlement and

the lower

the Roman

in what

is

now

hold in the Bal

seriouslythreatened by a Gothic invasion,in which Goths the persecutingEmperor, Decius, lost his life. The effected a settlement in the regionnorth of the lower Danube. They invaded the empire,and the perilwas not stayed tillthe kans

was

(269), from

victories of Claudius

"Gothicus."

The

which

his title,

he derived

stronger Emperors, Aurelian, Diocletian,

Constantine, held the frontiers of the Rhine

and

the danger of invasion effectively ; but present. By the fourth century the Goths north of Danube

who

were

the Germanic

kinsmen

in

most

contact

always

was

the

Danube,

civilization of any of while their the Visigoths,

as

Ostrogoths. The exact is uncertain,though they are generally

Russia

called

were

meaning of these names West and East Goths. regarded as signifying There was, indeed,much interchangebetween Romans from the time of Aurelian onward. Germans, especially numbers, in the Roman served, in increasing

mans

Roman

traders

penetratedfar beyond the borders settled in the

pire. Germans Roman

ways.

the

Roman

known

tribes,were

in southern

with

and

Prisoners of

taken

probably

Ger

armies. of the

border provincesand

war,

and

em

adopted

in the

raid

Cappadocia, had introduced the germs of Chris the Visigothsbefore the close of the third cen tianityamong a tury, and even rudimentarychurch organizationin certain places. The Visigoths,as a nation, had not been converted. of 264, from

4 To

that

work

Ulfila

parentage sprung,

was

to

in part at

contribute.

Born

about

310, of

least,from the captivesjustmen-

WORK

THE

130

tioned,he

of Christian

was

ULFILA

OF

origin,and

became

the services of the littleChristian Gothic

companied

a

Gothic

Eusebius

Arian

of

embassy, Nicomedia,

and

circle.

bishop

of

in Antioch

in the latter

In 341

after the formation

and

reckoned

one

of the Homoiousian

of its adherents.

For

the

ac

bishop by Constantinople, the synod (ante, theology,which anti-Nicene,

party he next

in the

where city,or is uncertain. His then sitting, p. 120) was thenceforth been very simple,was to have seems whether

he

ordained

was

then

"reader"

a

seven

was

to be

years

he

land, tillpersecution compelled him and his fellow Christians to seek refuge on Roman soil,livingand the modern Plevna, in Bulgaria. laboringfor many years near labored

in his native

His great work was the translation of the Scriptures, at least or of the New Testament, into the Gothic tongue. In 383 he died

Constantinople. Unfortunately,the complete oblivion into which these Arian labors fell, owing to their un orthodox character in the view of the followingage, allows no knowledge of Ulfila's associates,nor a judgment as to how far the credit of turning the Visigothsto Christianity belongedto about 370. him, or to the Gothic chieftain Fritigern, in spiteof heathen But, however brought about, the Visigoths, persecution,rapidly accepted Arian Christianity.Not only 'they,but their neighbors the Ostrogoths,the Vandals in part, Germanic and remoter such as the Burgundians and tribes,, on

a

visit to

the Arian faith before invadingthe Lombards, had embraced empire. Indeed, so widely had Christianitypenetrated that

improbablethat,had the invasions been a coupleof generationsdelayed, all might have entered the empire as As it was, the far Christians. those tribes only which were thest removed from the influences going out from the Visigoths those of northwestern the chief were Germany, of whom the Franks and the Saxons remained overwhelmingly heathen Such rapid extension of Chris at the time x"f the invasions. tianityshows that the hold of native paganism must have been and that many, whose have utterlyperished, names slight, shared in the work of conversion. of the utmost It was sig it seems

not

"

"

nificance that when Germans

came,

tianity. Had

the walls of the

empire were

broken

the

for the most part, not as enemies of Chris the Western empire fallen,as well it might, a

might have been vastly century before,the story of Christianity different.

GERMAN

THE

INVASIONS

131

Central Asia, by an invasion of Huns from western the Visigothssought shelter across the frontier of the lower Danube in 376. offi Angered by ill-treatment from Roman cials, they crossed the Balkans and annihilated the Roman army in in in battle which the Emperor Valens a near Adrianople, 378, Pressed

strong hand

lost his life,f The

of Theodosius

(379-395)

re

strained their further attacks; but on his death the empire, divide^ between his son of eighteen,Arcadius, in the East, and his

eleven-year-old son, Honorius,

able

resist the

to

dered

attack.

almost to the walls of

into Greece,

penetratingas

Under

in the

West, was no longer the Alaric, Visigothsplun

and Constantinople, far

as

thence

moved

Sparta. By 401 the Visi resisted for Italy,but were able Vandal Stilicho, general,

pressinginto northern the next few years by Theodosius's he had left as guardian for the young Honorius. whom Stilicho's murder, in 408, opened the road to Rome, and Alaric not till 410, however, that promptly marched thither. It was the Visigothicchieftain actuallycaptured the city. The poppular impressionof this event was profound. The old mistress of the world had fallen before the barbarians. Alaric,desirous of establishing a kingdom for himself and of securingRoman of Italy,marched for southern at once Africa, the granary Italy,and there died before the close of 410. Under Ataulf the Visigothichost marched northward, invading southern in 412. Gaul Here the Goths settled by 419, developing ultimatelya kingdom that included half of modern France, of Spain by conquest during the to which they added most goths were

course

of the century.

The

Roman

inhabitants

were

not

driven

out, but

they were subjected to their Germanic conquerors, who appropriatedmuch of the land, and placed its older occu inferior position. Commerce ham was pants in a distinctly pered,the life of the cities largelybroken down, and civilization

crippled. in progress, the tribes across these events the were their opportunity. The Rhine had seen Arian Vandals and heathen Alans and Suevi invaded Gaul at the close of 406, ultimatelypushing their way into Spain, where they arrived While

before Gaul

the Visigoths. The and

burg, and still bears

Franks

pressed into northern the Burgundians conquered the regionaround Strassthence graduallythe territory of eastern Gaul which their

name.

had

Britain, involved

in this

collapseof

GERMAN

THE

132

increasinglyinvaded by the Saxons, had been attackingits coasts since the

authority,was

Roman

INVASIONS

Angles,and Jutes, who

Roman of the fourth century. There weaker grasp than on the continent, and

civilization had

middle a

quest slowly advanced, it drove

westward, and Vandals

much

made

Spain, having

from

the

con

largely

heathen

The

a

Africa

in full force in 429, under Gaiseric. They of the Germanic the most early powerful

ratical ships speedilydominated the in 455. A Vandal raid sacked Rome

Germanic

Celtic element

of Britain entered

as

land.

by 425, invaded established

soon

it

there

kingdoms, whose pi

western

A

Mediterranean.

fearful

invasion

of

in 451,

checked in battle by the Huns under Attila,was and Visi near Troyes by the combined forces of the Romans goths. The next year Attila carried his devastations into Italy, and was which barely preventedfrom taking Rome by causes

Gaul

are

obscure, but

now

Leo

I, were

Though

believed

which

among to

have

the rule of the

been

the

efforts of its

bishop,

determinative.

Emperors

was

nominally maintained

who established the Germanic West, and even conquerors, professedlytheir de kingdoms in Gaul, Spain,and Africa were in the

pendents, the Emperors army. to

On

the

Valentinian

death III.

became

the tools of the chiefs of the

of Honorius, in 423, the empire passed

His

long reign,till455,

was

marked

by

the

of Africa, and Aetius, the count quarrels of Boniface, count of Italy,which permitted the Vandal conquest of North Africa. Aetius won, indeed, about the last victoryof the empire when, he defeated Attila in 451. Between with the Visigoths, 455 and set up and deposed in the 476 no less than nine Emperors were the head of the army. The real ruler of Italywas From West. held by Ricimer, of Suevic and Visi456 to 472 this post was taken by After his death the command was gothic descent. certain Orestes,who conferred the imperialtitle on his son, a in Italy was Romulus, nicknamed Augustulus. The army them the recruited chiefly from smaller Germanic tribes,among third of the land. demanded a Rugii and Heruli. It now in mutiny in 476 under the Orestes refused,and the army rose Germanic it made King. This date generalOdovakar, whom Em has usuallybeen taken as that of the close of the Roman pire. In realityit was without specialsignificance.Romulus further Emperor in no Augustulus was deposed. There was and his contemthe West till Charlemagne. But Odovakar

INVASIONS

GERMAN

THE

133

at an thought that the Roman Empire was in ruled southern ruled in Italy as' the Visigoths end. He France and Spain, a nominal subjectof the Roman Emperor, in who the throne sat on Constantinople. ended in 493 in the Odovakar's sovereignty in Italy was Germanic invaders of Italy,the Ostro struggleagainst new that successful conqueror Under a goths, led by Theodoric. and Germanic of Remarkable in Roman amalgamation really stitutions was Ravenna, whence attempted. His capitalwas The he ruled till his death in 526. Ostrogothickingdom in under the Em Italywas brought to an end by the long wars fought,from 535 to 555, by Beliperor Justinian,which were sarius and Narses, who restored a ravaged Italyto the empire. Contemporaneously (534) the imperialauthoritywras re-estab lished in North Africa and the Vandal kingdom brought to Between end. 568 and 572 not long at peace. an Italy was

porarieshad

a

no

invasion, that of the Lombards,

Germanic

new

that

kingdom ern Italy,to did

was

to last for two

which

regionthey

not, however, win

Rome

centuries.

gave

and

founded

Masters

a

of north

their name, the Lombards the southern part of the

did

they gain Ravenna, the seat of the imperial remained, therefore, exarch, till the eighth century. Rome connected had its seat in Constanti with the empire which frontier nople, but so distant and so close to the Lombard that effective control from impossible Constantinople was condition extremely favorable for the growth of the political a peninsula,nor

"

of its bishop.

power

Contemporaneously with the earlier of the scribed,changes of the utmost were significance Gaul.

The

Franks, of whom

long been pressinginto inces.

Divided

jFranks,

from

^energy,he He

and

church

into about

his

he

an

Arian.

declared

thousand year.

His

After for

of was

most a

has

just de

in process

been

made,

part of the ancient

tribes, the Clovis.

King

of

the

in had

prov

Salic

A

chieftain of great his sovereigntyas far as the Loire. still heathen, though he treated the

481,

was

respect. In 493

dian, but, unlike not

several

people were

with

the northern

extended

soon

mention

events

he

married

Clotilda,a Burgunof her fellow countrymen, a "Catholic," the Alemans, in 496, great victoryover

Christianity,and

his followers in

was

baptized

with

three

Rheims, on Christmas of that to be contribe,therefore,

the first Germanic

CONVERSION

THE

134 verted

Burgundians, and belief

Lombards

for Clovis

won

but, added

death, in 511,

his

to

take

to

of the

sions north

Visigoths,Ostrogoths,Vandals, Arians.

bishops whom

enabled abilities,

own

from

the

Pyrenees and

to become

stretchingeven

J

was

connections

between

them

and

him

before his

France, his territories

That

beyond ultimately,though

"Catholic"

so

of

Rhine.

the

he, in turn,

of their posses extensive a ruler

Visigothsmost

well be called the founder

that he may

This

in agreement the good-willof the old Roman

were

only

not

FRANKS

THE

the support of the

population and favored

faith.

the orthodox

to

OF

the

Franks

were

immediately,to

not

of

the papacy

most

bring far-reaching

consequences.

conversion

The

of the Franks

the other Germanic

had

also much

influence

on

invaders,though the example of the native

population among powerfully. The

whom

settled worked even more they were Arianism in 517, Burgundians abandoned and in 532 became of Frankish im the The kingdom. part perialconquests of Justinian ended the Arian kingdoms of the Vandals and Ostrogoths. The ter rivalryof the creeds was minated in Spain by the renunciation of Arianism by the VisigothicKing, Recared, in 587, and confirmed at the Third Coun cil of Toledo, in 589. About of 590 the gradual conversion the Lombards to Catholicism began a process not completed tillabout 660. Thus all Arianism ultimatelydisappeared. "

SECTION

THE

VI.

GROWTH

OF

THE

PAPACY

the distinction

To

Church already attachingto the Roman and its bishop the period of the invasions brought new emi Believed to be founded by Peter, situated in the an nence. cient capital, the guardian of apostolical tradition,the largest and

of the West, it had stood orthodox in controversy, and in the ruin of the Germanic vasions it seemed the great survivinginstitution of the ancient most

church

generous

in the Arian world the

which

they

bishops

of Rome

several abilities,

~

\ "

\

unable

were

in this

to

While

overthrow.

period

were

men

most

of

of moderate

the strongest leaders of the West, and to them great advancement in the authorityof the Roman bishop the development of a real papacy" Such a leader due. was were

"

of force

C,Church

was

not

Innocent

I

(402-417). He

claimed

tradition onlycustodyof apostolical

for the Roman and the founda-

136

THE

Italyby the

Eastern

MONASTICISM

OF

RISE

empire, diminished the independenceof the papacy. Outside of Italy the growth of a new Catholic the Franks, and the gradual conversion of Arian Ger power, manic rulers,brought about a harmony between the new sover their in latter and that the extensive to bishops eigns gave claims, though accompanied by great dependence of Roman sovereigns. The full realization dependence on the Germanic of the papal ideal,thus early established,was to be a task of and was vicissitudes. to encounter centuries, many SECTION

*,

MONASTICISM

VII.

?

It has standard

of

before the time of Constantine

church

by the

aided

was

progress

(ante,pp. 103, 104). Their inherent

ascetic tendencies

philosophiesof the ancient

better who

pointed out that ascetic ideals and a double Christian morality had long been growing in the

been

world.

in the

Origen,for

with the Hellenistic

instance, distinguished

spirit, Long before the close of the third century the holy virginswere a conspicuous element in the church, and men and women, without leavingtheir homes, were pracis asceticism. Nor asceticism, or even monasticism, ) tising be found in Its to to are peculiar Christianity. representatives the religions of India and among Jews, Greeks, and Egyptians. led to its increased development contem Certain causes with the recognition of Christianity by the state. The porary low condition of the church, (emphasized by the influx of vast permeated

was

was

for his asceticism.

;

in the peace

numbers sion

of

from

Constantine,\led

life

by serious-minded

doms

left asceticism

The

world

morality,from /

V ble and

A

than

was

practiceof

:~:~

a

to

a

all,the

lavman"s

Christian movement.

a

soon a

ascetic

attain-

breach

worship and

to

more

an-

formalism the

close of

individual

become with

of

estima-

more

extreme

freer and

was was

as

developed by

desire for

Monasticism

conver

Christian

mind

The

contemplation

Above

in its initiation it

tions of conventional

of the

cessation of martyr-

well to flee.

of public worship, as rigidity

approach to enough ; but :

The

Christians.

the active virtues.

God.

after the

enlarged valuation

it seemed

/ the third century, led L

303, and

highestChristian achievement filled with sightsthat offended

which

tiquityregarded the

to

the

.

\1 able.

to

260

the

service.

formal limita-

It_wasW

:,

monasticism,was born in Egypt, about 250, of native (Coptic)stock. of Christian

the founder

in central

Koma,

137

MONASTICISM

EARLY

Impressed with Christ's words and about v/up his possessions,

into the fifteen years later he went lived have is Here he said to solitude,becoming a hermit. till356 (?). He believed himself tormented by demons in every Some vijlage.

his native

practisedthe strictest self-

He

fasted.

He

imaginableform.

prayed constantly. He by overcoming the flesh. Anthony were largest

singlyor their

soon

as

as

) / V

imitators,

many

of which

/

Whether

possiblehermit-

largelyof

their self-denialswere

and

worship

were

far

l

devising.

own

first great improver of monasticism The Born about 292, he became soldier,and was a

heathenism

when Christianity

to

first he

At

near

L

God

to

alone,others absolutely

these monks

in groups,

like. Their

had

in groups, in the deserts of Nitria and Scetis.

lived

of whom

the

draw

would

He

denial.

some

; *

to the rich young man,1 he gave 270 took up the ascetic life in/

adopted

the

hermit

Pachomius.

was

from

converted

perhaps twenty

old.

years

dissatisfiedwith its

life,but

in he established the first Christian monastery irregularities, all the Here Tabennisi,in southern Egypt, about 315-320. into knit inmates were a singlebody, having assigned work, of

regularhours another

in

"

a

worship, similar dress,and

word,

a

life in

under

common

cells close to an

abbot.

one

This

also It was healthful type of monasticism. a vastlymore was for whom established a Pachomius one possiblefor women, At his death,in 346, there were ten of his monasteries convent. in

^/

\/

Egypt. The

types, the hermit form of Anthony and the cenobite

two

side by side in Egypt, that land to the rest of the em considerable developmentearlyin the fourth I

organizationof Pachomius, continued and

both

carried from

were

pire. Syria saw century.

There

sion,of which Simeon

a

an

the

hermit

example, a

who gtvlitgs.

form for

dwelt

took

extravagant

expres-

is that of the famous littlelater,

thirtyyears, till his death

in

situated east of ^ntioph. Mo the top of a pillar, in Asia nasticism Minor, on the other hand, continued the tradition of Pachomius, chieflyowing to the efforts of its great

459,

on

JBasjL(ante,p. 125), who ^l popularizer, from

about

360

to

his death 1

in 379.

Matt.

1921.

labored for its spread The

Rule

which

bears

^

his name, that I more \

his actual

life in

a

emphasized work, should

monks T

whether of

is,in

a

MONASTICISM

compositionor than

common

Bible

and

prayer,

aid those

similar good deeds. / Rule

OF

SPREAD

THE

138

that

reading.

by the discouragedextreme

It

outside

generalway,

/ and Russian Churches weight laid than (^less

a

not,

was

even

of Pachomius. It

of

care

It

taught that orphans, and

asceticism.

basis of the monasticism

Basil's

of the Greek

the present day, though with much and by him on work helpfulnessto to

others. The

/

work

introduction

of monasticism

of Athanasius. the

/tury

By

exhortations and

into the

the

was

closingyears of the fourth cenexamples of Jerome, Ambrose, and favor, though it also encountered

the

) Augustine brought it much its great / no little opposition. In France Tpurs, who established a monastery Soon

West

monasticism, both

advocate

Poitiers

near

in its cenobite

Martin

was

and

about

in its hermit

The earliest throughout the West. but Eusebius, bishop of monks, as East, were laymen ; Vercelli in Italy,who died in 371, began the practiceof requir ingthe clergyof his cathedral to live the monastic life. Through the custom the influence of this example it graduallybecame for monks ordination. Such clerical consecrato receive priestly ;ion became, also,the rule ultimatelyin the East. Western monasticism was long in a chaotic condition. Indi vidual monasteries had their separate rules. Asceticism,always characteristic in high degree of Eastern monasticism, found monasteries were disciples.On the other hand, many many orms,

was

to

be

found

in the

lax. ^of

The

Nursia.

of Western

great reformer Born

about

monasticism

480, he studied for

a

was

Benedict

brief time in

Rome,

hermit but, oppressed by the evils of the city,he became a of the mountains at Subiaco, east of Rome. (c.500) in a cave The fame of his sanctitygathered disciples about him, and led to

the offer of the

he acceptedonly to

unwillingto submit 529, traditionally

neighboringmonastery, which monks leave when he found its ill-regulated At uncertain date, to his discipline. some

headship of

he

a

founded

now

the

mother

monastery

of

Cassino, about and Naples. To it he gave his Rule, half-way between Rome of his life,his meet and in it he died; the last certain event

the

Benedictine

order,

on

the

hill of Monte

ing with the OstrogothicKing, Totila,having taken place in 542.

BENEDICT'S Benedict's of

human

Rule1

famous

exhibited

his

and

nature

RULE

Roman

139

his

profound knowledge genius for organization.

contained At

yet who

was

to consult

in

bound

was

monks:

Christ's_soldiers. self-supporting garri"Dii_,,QL he implicitly abbot, who must, an obeyed,

and

Tts head

in minor

monk wasjto~beconie__

None

a.

common

concern

questionsthe elder without having fried

but, ocuce^admitted,, his, To~Benedict's thinking,wjorshipwas

year; mona^teryfor^a

irrevocable^

vowlPwere

of

matters

grave

all the brethren, and

life of the

self-

nr|"ai

pe

Its daily common undouBtediy the prime dutyLJiL^-Jnojik. ;

observance

least four

occupied at

periods. Almost

much

as

hours, divided laid

was emphasis,

into

work.

on.

seven "

Idle

Hence of the spuTT' Benedict prescribed is the enemy fixed time must manual labor in the fields.and_ceadio".Some ^

ness

"spentin reading eachday, varying with

be

books

seasons

of the

assigned,with provisionto These insure their being read. made injunctions every_Jienedictine monastery, at all true to the founder s ideal,a_centre of a library. The value of these, of lnxlul"^,Iancl "he_possesspr nations and the\ provisionsin the trainingof the Germanic of literature was inestimable. Yet they were but' preservation that of worship. In secondary to Benedict's main purpose, characterized by great modera general,Benedict's Rule was in its requirementsas to food, labor, and tion and good sense year;

and

in Lent

the

It discipline.

was

a

must

be

strict life,but

not

one

at

all

impossible

for the average earnest man. In the Benedictine system early Western monasticism is to be seen at its best. His_Rule spread slowly. Itjwas carried .

by

missionaries

Roman

England

and

It did not Germany. penetrate France till the seventh century; but by the time,of well-nighuniversal. With__the Charlemagne it had become ilule of Benedict the adjustment between monasticism and the missionrc1rwas~TX5mplete.The services of its monks as

afies~anct pioneers

to

were

inestimable

of

value.

In

troubled

times the monastery afforded the_ojily__re"uge for ^peace-loving vSpuls.The highestproof of its adaption to the later Roman

Empire and the Middle Ages was supported the institution;they 1

Extracts

Historical

in Ayer, pp.

Documents

of

631-641 the Middle

;

that were

not to

be

only

the best

found

in it.

men

Its

practicallyin full in Henderson, Select Ages, pp. 274-314.

AMBROSE

140

great faults,from

discredit of the life of the

its emphasis pointof view, were higher and lower morality,and its Christian family; but both were in

heritances

conditions

on

distinction

a

Empire

from

between Christian

antecedent

nasticism

ideals in the Roman

and

the

development of monasticism. their product,not their cause.

was

to

SECTION j

modern

a

VIII.

AMBROSE

AND

Mo-

CHRYSOSTOM

V

"K

The

contrast

trated

by

Ambrose.

and

between

the unlike

East

is in many experiencesof

and

West

and qualities

Ambrose

in

born

was

illus

ways

Chrysostom in western

Trier, now

Germany, where his father held the high civil office of prae Educated in Rome torian prefectof Gaul, about 337-340. for and likableness led to his " civil career, his talents,integrity, / appointment,about 374, as governor of a considerable part of ^ northern Italy,with his residence in Milan, then practically an imperialcapital. The death of the Arian bishop,Auxen'

tius,in 374, left the Milanese were

in bitter

soon

of his

struggleas

The

successor.

young

quietthe throng,when and

he

found

Milan.

To

became to

a

the

church

to

raised,"Ambrose

was

call of God.

a

was

He

the church.

and

talent for

He

gave

up

his

studied

acceptablepreacher. Above

the full the Roman

Vbecame

factions

two

theological complexion entered

governor

the cry

Ambrose, this

most

the

to

The

Bishop I" himself, though unbaptized,elected bishop of

to the poor

wealth

vacant.

see

theology. He all,he possessed

administration,and

he

soon

Strongly attached to the Nicene faith,Ambrose would make no compromise with the Arians, and resisted all their attempts to secure placesof aided by the effort in which they were an worship in Milan Empress Justina,mother of the youthful Valentinian II. In the efforts of the hea the same spirithe opposed successfully the

first ecclesiastic of the

West.

"

then

party in Rome

to

obtain

from

Valentinian

II the

res

Victory in the Senate chamber, and other privileges for the older worship. His greatest triumph That in the case of the Emperor Theodosius. was quick the of of murder the tempered ruler, angered by governor of its inhabThessalonica,in 390, caused a punitivemassacre

J

toration

of the Altar

itants.

Ambrose,

Emperor

to

of

with

his

manifest 1

moral

rare

courage,

called

public repentance.1 It

Ayer,

pp.

390, 391.

on

throws

the a

141

CHRYSOSTOM

AND

AMBROSE

he

that

the character of Theodosius

lighton pleasing

obeyed

the admonition. Ambrose

was

theologicalwriter of such reputationthat

a

Church

the Roman

him

reckons

of its

one

"

Doctors

^

" "

or

work, however, in this field was

His

authoritative teachers.

as

largelya reproductionof the thoughts of Greek theologians, though with a deeper sense of sin and grace than they. "I but I will glory because will not glory because I am righteous, free from sin, I will not glory because I am I #m redeemed. l sins are bent was .but because forgiven." Ambrose's my J practical.He wrote on Christian ethics,in full sympathy with of the time.

the ascetic movement the

development

ful and

sometimes

personalcharacter Such

church.

contributed

He

of Christian

hymnology a overbearing,he was zeal and of indefatigable were

men

needed

much

in the West. man "

a

in the shock

to

Force

of the

highest true princeof the* of the collapsing

He died in 397. empire if the church was to survive in power. the life of Chrysostom. John, to whom Very different was the name was givenlong after Chrysostom, "golden-mouthed,"

his death, tioch about

born

was

of noble

and

^

well-to-do parents in An-

Losing his father shortlyafter his birth, j he was mother, Anthusa, / brought up by his religious-minded and early distinguished himself in scholarshipand eloquence. / About 370, he was baptized and probablyordained a "reader." He now extreme asceticism,and pursued theological \ practised 345-347.

*-

studies

under

Diodorus

later Antiochian became

a

pelledhis

hermit return

of Tarsus,

Antioch, where

to

was

and exegetical

he

was

ordained

a

deacon

the priesthood. Then useful period of his life. For

advanced

the Oriental Church were

of the

Not

followed the happiestand most the great twelve years he was mons

leaders

he satisfiedwith his austerities, (c. 375), and so remained till ill-health com

school.

(c.381). In 386 he

Jthat

of the

one

to

the ablest preacherof Antioch probably ever possessed. His ser eminently practical.The simple, "

/

,

always preferred grammatical understandingof the Scriptures, beloved in Alexan in Antioch to the allegorical interpretation His themes were dria,appealedto him. eminently social the of life. He soon Christian conduct had an enormous following. fame the of Constanti Such was see that, on Chrysostom's he f orced was by Eutropius, v acant, practically noplefalling "

1

De Jacob

et vita

beata,1

:

621.

CHRYSOSTOM

142

the favorite of the Emperor Arcadius, Jof the capitalin 398. Here he soon like that of Antioch. beset

From

the

with

foes.

to won

accept the bishopric a

popular hearing

first, however, his

way

in Con

The

unscrupulous patriarch to bring Constantinople into practicalsubjection. Himself the opponent of Origen's for teaching,he charged Chrysostom with too great partiality that master. for which there Chrysostom's strict discipline, ( was disliked by the loose-living was ample justification, clergy of Worst of he the o all, won / Constantinople. hostilityf the J vigorousEmpress Eudoxia, by reasons of denunciations of femi nine extravagance in dress,which she thought aimed at herself. fearless in de Chrysostom was certainlyas tactlessas he was nouncing offenses in high places. All the forces againsthim In his arose. gathered together. A pretext for attack soon certain monks oppositionto Origen,Theophilus had disciplined of Egypt. Four of these, known the "tall brothers," fled as well received. Theophilus to Chrysostom, by whom they were and Chrysostom's other enemies now secured a synod, at an "The Oak," as imperial estate near Constantinople known and which, under the leadershipof Theophilus, condemned C deposed Chrysostom in 403. The as Empress was supersti/ tious as she was enraged,and an accident in the palace later tradition picturedit probablymistakenlyas an earthquake led left the capital. to Chrysostom's recall shortly after he had of brief duration. A silver statue of the Empress, Peace was erected hard by his cathedral,led to denunciations by Chrys of the ceremonies of its dedication. The ostom Empress saw in him more than ever This time, in spite a personalenemy. of warm the miserable banished to popular support, he was of Cucusus, on the edge of Armenia. town Pope Innocent I protested,but in vain. Yet from this exile Chrysostom con tinued so to influence his friends by letter that his opponents determined to place him in deeper obscurity. In 407 he was ordered reached there, dying on the to Pityus,but he never journey. The fate of this most deserving, ifnot most judicious, preacher side of imperial inter.of righteousnessillustrates the seamy I ference in ecclesiastical affairs,and the risingjealousiesof the I great sees of the East, from whose mutual hostility the church / and the empire were greatlyto suffer. stantinoplewas

of Alexandria, Theophilus, desired

"

"

APOLLINARIS

144

with Athanasius,Apolprimarilyreligious.To both, Christ's

his opponents.

from

even

linaris's interest work

for

same

time

was

the

Moreover,

as

transformation

of

sinful

mortality into divine and blessed immortality. This salvation,Apollinaris thought with Athanasius, could be achieved only if Christ was completely and perfectlydivine. But how, Apollinaris united with argued, could Christ be made up of a perfectman complete God ? Was that not to assert two Sons, one eternal, Nor could Apollinarisexplain and the other by adoption? 1 Christ's sinlessness or the harmony of His wills,if Christ was To him, the best solujoined with full God.2 complete man akin that of seemed he otherwise opposed, to Arius, whom r,tion of the soul in the taken by the Logos, Jesus that was place / That view having been conf and only the body was human. Jdemned,though without mention of his name, by a synod in in 362,3 Apollinaris apparently altered his theory jAlexandria /so as to hold that Jesus had the body and animal soul of a man, in Him the Logos.4 At the but that the reasoningspirit was it

with

was

he

held

sorrows."

our

that it

absorbed

so

"

fered

men

"

5

the

divine

that

"God

These

our

made

so

has

the

in His

opinions seemed

human

own

to

one

flesh suf do

special

and were destined to be widely and Christ's divinity, permanentlyinfluentialin Oriental Christian thinking,but they really^denied Christ's true humanity, and as such speedily honor

i

to

called down

condemnation

against him

in 377

so-called Second

"J pin381. by

their

author.

382, Antioch

Ecumenical

Council

in "

378,

that

of

decided

Rome and

finallythe

Constantinople

6

was Apollinaris

and

on

and

the

school

stronglyoppposed by Gregory of of Antioch.

The

Nazianzus

founoTef of the

latter,in

its later stage, was Diodorus (?-394), long a presbyterof An Its roots, tioch,and from 378 to his death bishop of Tarsus.

indeed, ran back into the earlier teachingof Paul of Samosata posi (ante,p. 72) and Lucian (ante,p. 106) ; but the extreme tions

which

they represented,and

their

were leadership,

re

jected,and the school stood on the basis of the Nicene ortho marked by a degree of literalism in its exegesis doxy. It was of allegory of Scripturequite in contrast to the excessive use 1 8 4

Ayer, p. 495. Athanasius, Tomus Ayer, p. 495.

2

Ibid.

6

Canon, 1.

ad Antiochenos, 7. 8

Ibid.,p.

496.

THE

SCHOOL

influenced

more

and

Adam,"

philosophyshowed the influence of of Plato. Its thought of Christ was

theirs that

as

by

the tradition of Asia

the

by

145

Its

by the Alexandrians. Aristotle

ANTIOCH

OF

ancient

Christ

Minor, of the "second

distinction

between

the

Jesus

of

Alexandria. experiencethan was laid more Antioch, therefore, weight of teachingon the earthly life and'human of Jesus than was the tendency in Alex nature andria. In this attempt to give true value to Christ's human two per ity,Diodorus approached the view that in Christ were in union. moral rather than essential Since the sons Logos is eternal and like can only bear like,that which was born of Mary the human the indwellingof j was only. The incarnation was the Logos in a perfectman, of God in a temple. These views as ; of which reminiscent had the are adoptionistChristology,

the

history and

of

t

'

found

of its latest avowed

one

in Antioch

defenders

century earlier. They

a

in Paul out

were

of Samosata

of touch

with

the

conceptionof salvation the making divine of the human. of Diodorus were Chrysostom (ante,p. Among the disciples of and Theodore Nestorius. Theodore, a 141), Mopsuestia, held the bishopricfor which he is native of Antioch, who named for thirty-six the ablest years, tillhis death in 428, was exegete and theologianof the Antiochian school. Though he

v/ Greek

"

maintained son

"

that

prosopon,

God

and

irpocrwrrov

man

in Christ

he had

"

constituted

one

per

in making that difficulty

con

identical with those real,and held theories practically

tention

of Diodorus.1

of Antioch, held in high Nestorius. a presbyter and monk made patriarchof Constanti repute th*ereas a preacher,was

nople in

428.

of his discoveries, especially

Recent

auto

own

of Heraclides of Damascus, have immensely broadened knowledge of his real theological well as of the facts of his later life. His dogmatic as position, that of the school of Antioch; yet essentially standpointwas work, biographical

he would

not

admit

The

that

the doctrine with which Christ

we

Treatise

designateat

he the

there was same

essential characteristics in the

\vere

in Christ two

charged. time two nature

"With

persons

the

natures.

of the

.

one

"

name

The .

.

divinityand

in

humanity are from all eternitydistinguished." Perhaps his furthest departure from the current Greek conception of in such an expression salvation is to be seen God the Word as : the

2

"

1

Ayer, pp. 498-501.

2

Ibid.,p. 502.

146

THE

ALEXANDRIAN Christ because He

is also named Christ.

And

without

the

INTERPRETATION has alwaysconjunction with

it is impossible for God

the Word

to do

anything

humanity, for all is

planned upon an intimate Nesnot on the deification of the humanity."1 conjunction, torius would emphasize the realityand completenessof the

J human

in the Christian's Lord.

Opposed to Nestorius,and to be his bitterest enemy, was Cyril,the patriarchof Alexandria (412-444),the nephew and of the patriarch who had had so unworthy a part in successor the downfall of Chrysostom. In him unscrupulousambition of Constantinople combined with the jealousy longentertained and it must in Alexandria be admitted, reciprocatedand with the hostility of the rival schools of Alexandria and Antioch. in his Yet it is but justto Cyrilto note that there was more how to Nestorius than mere opposition jealousyand rivalry, ever prominent those unlovelytraits may have been. Cyril, and in consonance the Alexandrian tradition, with the following Greek conceptionof salvation, in Christ the full making saw the view of Apoldivine of the human. Though he rejected linaris and held that Christ's humanity was completein that stood very near it possessed he really to body, soul,and spirit, in Christ the such divine His emphasis on was Apollinaris. Him the that of "two in union as that,though he described in Christ was that of the Logos. natures,"the onlypersonality The Logos "took flesh,"He clothed Himself with humanity. The human element had no personality apart from the Logos. Yet while Cyril held to individual man. Jesus was not an of qualities between the divine and the human, an interchange From two natures, one" ; and that each is a completenature. is the divine. For Cyril it was, therefore, one personality who was God made flesh, we born, who died,of whom partake in the Supper, and whose making divine of humanity is the that we, too, shall be made partakersof the proofand means "

"

"

If the school of Antioch separationof the divine and the human

divine nature.2

came as

near

to

such

a

leave Christ

\ only the Son of God by adoption,that of Cyrilallowed Him littlemore than an impersonalhumanity absorbed in divinity. Mother of of the Mother of Jesus was An ancient designation God"" Theotokos,"eoroW?. It had been used by Alexander of and Gregory of Nazianzus. Alexandria,Athanasius, Apollinaris, "

1

Ayer, p. 502.

2

See

Ayer,pp. 505-507.

THE To

Cyrilit was,

OF

"MOTHER

of course,

GOD"

147

natural

expression. Everywhere be said to have been in good usage, save in the East it may where the school of Antioch had influence, and even Theodore of Mopsuestia of that school was willingto employ the expres coin in sion,if carefullyguarded.1 Nestorius found it current dis Constantinople. To his thinkingit did not sufficiently from the divine in Christ. He therefore tinguishthe human preached againstit,at the beginningof his bishopric, declaring a

form to be "Mother the proper is born of flesh is flesh." Yet

littlelater

as

willingto

say

of Christ""

"for

that

which

he expressed himself a Theotokos,in the guarded way in even

"

It can be endured in con employ it. sideration of the fact that the temple, which is inseparably of her." 3 united with God In preaching the Word, comes against this expressionNestorius had touched popular piety and the rising for the Virgin on the quick. reverence religious his opportunity to humiliate the rival see of Con Cyril saw and the school of Antioch at one blow, while ad stantinople vancing his own Christology. Cyril promptly wrote to the Egyptian monks defending the disputed phrase, and 'there followed an exchange of criticalletters between soon Cyril and Nestorius. It speedily the patri to an came open attack on arch of Constantinople. to his Cyril now brought every influence at his command in aid in one church of the most repulsivecontests history. He appealed to the Emperor and Empress, Theodosius II and Eudocia, and to the Emperor's sister,Pulcheria, representing that Nestorius's doctrines destroyed all basis of salvation. He presented his case to Pope Celestine I (422-432). Nes in his turn, also wrote to the Pope. Celestine promptly torius, found in favor of Cyril,and ordered, through a Roman synod which

Theodore

would

"

in 430, that Nestorius recant be excommunicated. The or action of the Pope is hard to understand. The letter of Nes torius agreed more nearly in its definition of the question at issue with the Western

view

than

did the

theory of Cyril. Nes both natures which by the highest in the one and unmixed union are adored of the Only person 4 Politics were Begotten." probably the determiningfactor. Rome and Alexandria had long worked togetheragainst the torius declared his faith in

1 4

"

2 Ayer, p. 500. Ibid.,p. 501. In Loofs, Nestoriana, p. 171.

a

Ibid.

COUNCIL

THE

148

OF

EPHESUS

Constantinople. Nestorius was less respectful in his address to the Pope than Cyril. Moreover, without being degree of favor to the a Pelagian,Nestorius had given some the Pope opposed (see p. 187). Nestorius's Pelagianswhom also displeasingto attack on the much-prized Theotokos was risingclaims

j

of

Celestine.

widely involved in the dispute,the empire being now two Emperors, Theodosius II of the East, and Valentinian III in Ephesus in in the West, called a generalcouncil to meet 431. Cyril and his followers were early on hand, as was Nes slow in arriving. torius, but the friends of Nestorius were bishop of Ephesus promptly organized Cyril and Memnon, such of the council as were present and they could secure. v Nestorius condemned and deposed in a singleday's ses was sion.1 A few days later Nestorius's friends,led by John, the of Antioch, arrived. They organized and, in turn, patriarch v condemned and deposed Cyril and Memnon.2 Cyril'scouncil, the and added papal delegates, meanwhile, had been joinedby time condemning Pela/John to its list of deposed,at the same ^ The gianism (see p. 188), doubtless to please the West. at a loss as to what to course Emperor Theodosius II was The

Nestorius

pursue.

retired to

prisoned Cyril and inclined their

their side and

to

\ffollow. Antioch ever,

Alexandria

and

they

both, under

were

Nestorius, and

was

now

were

would

allowed

soon

in

imperialpressure,

Antioch

Theodosius

trouble-makers, but

as

real victim

The

sees.

but

Memnon

monastery.

a

to

to to

was

more hostility were

politics

return

worse

made

im

than

willingto

Nestorius, and Cyril in creedal formula. Accord

sacrifice

compromise. concede something to Antioch ingly,in 433, John of Antioch sent to Cyrila creed composed, of Cyrus, then the leadingtheo it is probable,by Theodoret This creed was Antimore logianof the school of Antioch. ochian than Alexandrian, though it could be interpretedin Lord Jesus therefore acknowledge our either direction. "We A union Christ complete God and complete man. of the two natures has been made, therefore we confess one Christ. The holy Virgin is Theotokos,because God the .

.

.

Word tion 1

was

...

.

.

.

made

united

Ayer, p.

with

507.

flesh and Himself 2

became the

man,

and

from

temple received

Ibid.,509.

3

her concep from her."

Ibid.,pp. 510, 511.

3

THE

FATE

OF

NESTORIUS

149

signed this creed, though without retracting any of his former utterances. By so doing he made irrevocable the of Nestorius. Yet Nestorius could have signed it overthrow more even willinglythan he. This agreement enabled Cyril in the East for his council of 431, to secure generalrecognition of papal representa ih the West the participation in Ephesus tives had always accredited it as the Third General Council. Nestorius himself 'was banished to upper Egypt. There he lived a miserable existence,and there he wrote, certainlyas Treatise of Heraclides of 450, his remarkable late as the autumn he survived the Council of Chalcedon Whether of Damascus. (/

Cyrilnow

"

is uncertain. all events

is

some

reason

to think

that

he did.

rejoicedin the steps which led to it,and then sympathy with the views which were

he

in

himself

There

At

felt pro

claimed orthodox. all of Nestorius's sympathizers shared in his desertion., Ibas, the leadingtheologianof the Syrian school of Edessa^ */ supported his teaching. Persecuted in the empire, NestorianNot

ism

found

Persia.

much

There

in Syria, and protectionin followingeven it developed a wide missionary activity. In

~/

time the seventh century it entered China, and about the same southern India. Nestorian churches still exist in the region Lake where Turkey and Persia divide the territorybetween Urumia The

the upper Tigris,and also in India. Antioch and Alexandria agreement of 433 between and

in reality, but

a

truce.

The

division of the two

was,

partiesbut in majority of the

Cyril undoubtedly representedthe Eastern Church, with his emphasis on the divine in the person im of reducing the human of Christ, at the expense to an personal humanity. Though he vigorouslyrejectedApollithat of Apollinaris.It had the narianism, his tendency was especially sympathy of the great party of monks; and many, in Egypt, went further than Cyril,and viewed Christ's human absorbed in His divinity,so that He pos ity as practically sessed one nature only, and that divine. Cyril died in 444, and was succeeded as patriarchof Alexandria by Dioscurus, and religious of far less intellectual acumen motive, but a man the authorityof to advance ambitious, if possible, more even the Alexandrian Two see. later,446, a new patriarch, years took the Flavian, bishop'sthrone in Constantinople. Though of his earlyhistory, littleis known it seems probable that his creased.

DIOSCURUS,

150

with

sympathieswere Flavian's

the

promised

course

AND

FLAVIAN,

LEO

school of Antioch. be

to

He

stormy.

the

From had

the

first, opposi

only of Dioscurus, but of the imperialfavorite minis ter, Chrysaphius,who had supplantedPulcheria in the counsels tion not

Chrysaphiuswas

II.

of Theodosius

a

supporter of the Alex

andrians.

r

Dioscurus planned an at arose. quarrelsoon of the Antiochian school tack on the remaining representatives In sympathy with this effort, and as a Nestorian heretics. as for

Occasion

leader

of the monastic

party,

the

on

counted, stood the aged abbot

help of

which

Dioscurus

"archimandrite," Eutyches

or

of

of little theological a man a partisan Constantinople, ability, of the late Cyril,and influential not only by reason of his the of b ut by friendship Chrysaphius. Eutyches popularity, with was now charged heresyby Bishop Eusebius of Dorylseum. with reluctance,evidentlyknowing Flavian took up the case its possibilities of mischief ; but at a local synod in Constanti and examined condemned. nople,late in 448, Eutyches was His heresy was that he affirmed : I confess that our Lord was of two before the union [i. but natures e.y the incarnation], "

after the union

had

Rome of Leo and

I

nature."

one

now

l

of the ablest of its Popes in the person (seeante, p. 135), and to Leo both Eutyches

one

(440-461)

Flavian

speedilypresentedthe case.2 To Flavian, whom he heartily supported,Leo wrote his famous letter of June, 449, usually called the Tome,3 in which the great Pope set forth a

the view

which

the West

had

entertained

since the time

of

that in Christ were two Tertullian, complete natures, from the without which, detracting propertiesof either nature and substance, came togetherin one person." What may be said,chieflyin criticism of Leo's letter is that, while represent ing clearlyand truly the Western tradition,it did not touch the subtler Greek mind the intellectual depths to which had carried its speculations.Probably it was well that it did not. Meanwhile Dioscurus was moving activelyin Eutyches's full and

"

defense and

the extension of his

the

own

claims.

Emperor called a general council to August, 449. At Ephesus Dioscurus was rehabilitated,Flavian

was 1

Ayer, pp. 513, 514.

3

Ibid.,28

and

:

; extracts, Ayer, p. 515.

At

his instance

in

Ephesus in Eutyches supreme. of Dorylseum conEusebius meet

"

Letters of Leo, 20-28.

y CHALCEDON

OF

CREED

THE

152

Jr. m^y^ ;_truly perfectIn Godhead p"rl Q^r" p^rJWvfGod and trul^m^n, of a reasonable soul and body; consubstantial with the Father accordingto the Godhead, ancLcon(ojjLOovcnov) substantial with, .us -according to the manhood, in all thingslike

the

same

sin;begotten before all ages of the Father accord ing to the Godhead, and in these latter days,for us and for our sal of God (Theotokos), vation,born of the VirginMary, the Mother Christ,Son, Lord, accordingto the manhood; one and the same us, without

unto

unchangeably, inOnly-begotten,in two natures, inconfusedly, being by no divisibly, inseparably,the distinction of natures taken away means by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved,and concurringin one person (prosopon) and one subsistence (hypostasis) not parted or divided into two and the Son and but same one Only-begotten,God the persons, Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophetsfrom the beginning have declared concerningHim, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the creed of the holy Fathers has handed down ,

to

us.

Such

is the creed that has

Greek, Latin, and

since been regardedin the

ever

Protestant

most

Churches

the

as

"

ortho

Christological problem. It is easy to criticiseit. Its adoptionwas greatlyinvolved in ecclesiastical It solved few of the intellectual difficultiesregarding politics. Christologywhich had been raised in the East. It did not ,/ even heal the Christological quarrels.But, when all is ad dox"

solution

mitted,it

of the

be said that its formulation

must

its consequences field in which a

there

portant than that, it I of the church ^

It established

useful.

had

been true

was

that in Christ

a

to

a

was norm

fortunate

and

of doctrine in

great confusion. the fundamental

More

im

conviction

complete revelation of God

is

genuinehuman life. and Roman If a coincidence of imperial interestshad secured for Rome, the imperialauthority was a great dogmatic victory determined that the victoryshould not be one of Roman juris the council diction. By a canon, againstwhich Leo protested, like that of exalted the claims of Constantinople to a dignity made

Rome

in terms

of

a

(ante,p. 135). Nor

the downfall

was

of Alexandria less

damaging. Alexandrian rivalryof Constantinoplehad been successful rivalrywas Rome's advantage in the East. Now at

an

end, for the

consequences

of the Chalcedonian

decision

^fcrippledAlexandria permanently. By the council the historic distribution of the Orient

was

Jerusalem beinggiven completed,

THE

REVOLT

MONOPHYSITE

153

the patriarchalstandingwhich it had long claimed, side by Alexan side with the three older patriarchates, Constantinople,

dria,and Antioch.

X.

THE

EAST

creed of Chalcedon

was

now

f

The

SECTION

originand largeportion of

DIVIDED

the officialstandard

the empire. Its Western

able, however, entals

to

it seemed

a

shared

the East.

This

"Nestorian."

those regionswhich

spiritmade

stronglyin

most

it unaccept Ori To many

especiallytrue

was

of

the

in

Alexandrian

tendency to emphasize the divine in Christ at the expense of the fullyhuman, and these elements of oppositionincluded of the monks, the old native stock of Egypt generally, most and a largeportion of the population of Syria and Armenia. Cyril and Undoubtedly {he tendencies which the "orthodox" his heretical successor, conDioscurus,had representedwere of the and with seemed Greek sonant conception salvation, honor Christ. These to do to special rejectersof the creed of Chalcedon included many shades of opinion,but as a whole they showed little departure from Cyril. Their chief differ from of emphasis. and the West Chalcedon ence was one They rejectedEutyches, yet most of them would say "of two and di understood that the human natures," provided it was '7

\

vine

were

united

in the incarnation

into

nature, and

one

that

attributes. As with Cyril,this divine,with human essentially than with more humanity was impersonal,and, perhaps,even him it was that without transformed into divinity, so ceasing, in a certain sense, to be human, it was properly describable as one

Hence

divine nature.

"/called Monophysites

"

the

opponents

believers in

Immediately after the Council

one

of Chalcedon

were

nature.

of Chalcedon

in

Palestine and, the government

which revolution, practical able only slowlyto master. was By 457 the see of Alexandria in possessionof a Monophysite, Timothy, called by his was enemies the Cat; by 461, Peter the Fuller,of the same faith,

next, Egypt

were

held that of Antioch. nent, but

the

native

off the

throwing sympathized with the Fuller caused

These

captures

were

not

to be perma

populationsof Egypt and Syria were of Constantinopleand dominance largely the Monophysite protest. In Antioch Peter fresh commotion by adding to the Trisagion,

EFFORTS

COMPROMISE

154

ascriptionran: "Holy God, holy Strong,holy Im mortal, who ivas crucified for us." The empire found itself grievously 'threatened, no politically and much of the less than religiously, by these disaffections; than two centuries was devoted to imperialpolicy for more In the con their adjustment, with slightpermanent success. Zeno and Basilicus for the imperialthrone, the test between direct bid for Monophysite support by issuing, latter made a "the so-called in 476, an Encyclion,in which he anathematized in modification Tome of Leo, and all thingsdone at Chalcedon that the

so

"

of the

creed.1

Nicene

For

yet ready, and this action that led to his overthrow induced I

to

attempt

new

I famous

a

heal the

reversal the East

of Basilicus

was

one

not

was

of the

causes

Zeno, however, probably

by Zeno. patriarchAcacius

the

by

such

Constantinople,made a In 482 he published his

of

schism.

In it the results of fhe Councils of Nicsea

Henoticon.2

confirmed, Nestorius and Eutyches Constantinoplewere condemned, and Cyril's "twelve chapters"3 approved. It and

of the exact relationship which to that of Chalcedon not intended to was not, and was in the declaration : These was be, clear. Its chief significance brief

a

gave

statement, Christological

"

things we write, not as making an innovation upon the faith, who has held or holds any but to satisfyyou ; and every one other opinion,either at the present or at another time, whether in any at Chalcedon or synod whatever, we anathematize." creed

left it free to hold the Chalcedonian

This

The

ous.

was

consequence

not

peace

but

to

be

confusion.

errone

While

Monophysites accepted it,the Monophysite extremists On the other would have nothing to do with the Henoticon. and its orthodoxy at hand, the Roman see, feelingits honor tacked by this practical rejectionof Chalcedon, excommuni many

cated

Acacius

and

broke

off relations with

the

East, the schism

the continuing till 519, when the Emperor Justin renewed that increased authority of Chalcedon, under circumstances the prestige of the papacy,4but only alienated Egypt and Syria

the

!

more.

Justin's successor,

than

any

other

himself master 1 3

Ayer, pp.

of the Eastern of the church.

523-526.

Ibid.,pp. 505-507.

fully making conspicuous militarysuc-

the great Justinian (527-565), more succeeded Emgerors, His 2 4

in

Ibid.,pp. 527-529. Ante, p. 135 ; see Ayer,

p. 536.

155

POLICY

JUSTINIAN'S

the empire for a time control of Italy and The church was a department now practically

cesses

restored to

North

Africa.

Heathenism

of the state. before. never

suppressed and

was

persecutedas

Justinian himself was, at first, strongly in his sympathies,his Empress, Theodora, leaned While

Chalcedonian

Monophysite side. He soon gave up the persecutionof Monophysiteswith which his reignbegan. Himself one of the minds of the age, he sought to develop an ablest theological ecclesiastical policythat would so interpretthe creed of Chalthe

to

leavingit technicallyuntouched, would ex construction, clude any possibleAntiochian or "Nestorian" thus bringing its significance fullyinto accord with the the he hoped to pla By this means ology of Cyril of Alexandria. cate the Monophysites,and also to satisfythe wishes of the whether "orthodox" or East generally, Monophysite, without and the West too deeply by an actual rejection offendingRome

/cedon that, while

of the Chalcedonian

Justinian's aim.

orthodoxy was Cyrillic-Chalcedonian a

As

difficulttask.

far

as

concerned

dox

Any

view it succeeded.

nently discredited. By satisfied the wishes of "orthodox"

result

Justinian

and

was

was

Leontius theologian,

witnessinga

Leontius

and

"orthodox"

torian."

perma

undoubtedly

"

An

the

a

fresh

teaching of

a

The

Byzantium (c.485-543). Aristotelian philosophy, distinctions to

The

feelingof

much

be

subsistences

"

explanationwithout

Leontius now "intra-hypostatic"ewTrdoraTo?

of the

the

that

Monophysite, was

hypostases

the rise of

revival of the

in Christ could not

natures

ing two

of

appliedAristotelian

tologicalproblems. two

was

overwhelming majority of the

greatlyaided in his task by of the Chalcedonian creed, in interpretation age

Cyril

East.

Justinian

monastic

was

only "ortho

the

of Antiochianism

form

a

satisfaction of the Mo

of Chalcedon

this the

It

In its effort to render the

it failed. in general nophysites of the creed lic interpretation "

a

of

establishment

the

Hence

decision.

the

Chris-

East, both

affirmation

of

without involv interpreted and therefore being "Nes these

"Nestorian" The

conse

might be that is,there might be such of one nature a hypostaticunion that while the peculiarities remained, it might find its hypostasisin the other. In Christ which is that of both natures, is that of this one hypostasis, the Logos. Thus Leontius would interpretthe creed of Chal-

quences

was

what

"

gave.

"

natures

JUSTINIAN

156

THEOLOGICAL

in terms

cedon

subordinated Such

an

seemed, interpretation

basis of reunion

with

constituted their

majority. The

the

in Christ

human

the ultimate

that

POLITICIAN

with the aim, if not

wholly consonant language,of Cyril. The

exact so

A

AS

realityis at the

is

with

the

real,but is

the divine.

time, a quitepossible

moderate

more

Monophysites, who largesection led by Severus,

Monophysite patriarchof Antioch (512-518),who, tillhis death in 538, found a refugein Egypt, held essentially the same posi tion as Leontius. Their chief difference was that they regarded the Chalcedonian Council and its creed with greater suspicion. radical Monophysites, led by Julian of HalicarWith the more less auspicious. nassus (d.after 518), the prospect of union was They went so far as to hold that Christ's body was incorrupti and incapableof ble from the beginning of the incarnation, so far as Christ Himself save permittedit. Its enemies suffering charged the theory of Julian with Docetic significance. this situation by establishing To meet an anti-Antiochian, of the creed of Chalcedon, and winning, interpretation Cyrillic if possible, the moderate Monophysites,was the aim of Jus tinian. He came to favor the so-called Theopaschite (i.e., of formula the Scythian monks, "one of the "sufferingGod") Trinity suffered in the flesh,"after a controversy lastingfrom Because of monastic 519 to 533. quarrelsin Palestine,and also because the Emperor's theological sympathies,like those of his age, were exceedinglyintolerant,Justinian condemned and teachingsof Origen in 543. 1 the memory Justinian's great effort to further his theological policywas "

occasion

the

discussion

of the

known

as

"

that

of the

"Three

Chapters." In 544 Justinian,definingthe issue by his own the person and writingsof Theo condemned imperialauthority, dore

of

Mopsuestia,now

than

more

a

century dead, but

once

the revered leader of the school of Antioch

(ante,p. 145), the writingsof Theodoret of Cyrus in criticism of Cyril (ante,p. 148), and a letter of Ibas of Edessa to Maris the Persian (ante, been and Ibas had approved by the p. 149). Theodoret Council

in interpretation

school

Council

of

any

Antioch, and i

Emperor nominally it impossible made

Cyrillicsense, condemned greatlydisparagedthe authorityof but

The

of Chalcedon.

of the

untouched, but

left the creed of Chalcedon

of

action

The

of Chalcedon.

a

edict aroused

Ayer, pp. 542, 543.

not

a

the the

little opposi-

AS

JUSTINIAN

POLITICIAN

THEOLOGICAL

A

157

Pope Vigilius(537-555) disliked it, but the imperial reconquest of Italyhad placed the Popes largelyin the power Between his knowledge of the feelingof the of the Emperor. vacil attitude was and his fear of Justinian,Vigilius's West latingand utterlyunheroic.1 To carry out his will,Justinian tion.

the Fifth General

convened

now

Council,which

met

in Constan

Chapters," i. e., Theodore tinoplein 553. By it the "Three and the writingsjust described,were condemned, the "Theoreckoned more paschite" formula approved,and Origen once heretic.2 Pope Vigilius, though in Constantinople,refused a the imperialpres but such was to share in these proceedings, less than

that within

sure

the council.

The

was

action

of the council

Africa; and

year

he acceded

to the

decision of

of the creed of Chalinterpretation Cyrillic the only "orthodox" understanding. The

cedon

now

a

was

resisted for

the yieldingattitude

few

a

of the

years

Pope led

in North to

a

schis

which lasted separationof northern Italy from Rome till the time of Gregory the Great, and in the neighboring of the longer. One main purpose Illyricumand Istria even of the "Three condemnation Chapters" the reconciliation of failed. In Egypt and Syria Monophysitthe Monophysites ism remained the dominant being that force,the real reason these provinces were developing a native national conscious differences to the empire,for which theological ness antagonistic matic

"

"

were

the

more

Justinian's

Under berius

excuse

II

than

the

successors,

(578-582), alternate

nophysitesand

vain

attempts

cause.

Justin II (565-578),and Ti severe persecutionof the Mo to

win

them

occurred.

These

the Monophysite groups as significance The native were separatednational churches. now practically Monophysite body of Egypt can hardly be given fixed date for in of Chalcedon the land was the Council its origin. From rebellion. That church, the Coptic, is creasinglyin religious than stillthe main Christian body of Egypt, numbering more six hundred and fiftythousand adherents, stronglyMonophy site to this day in doctrine,under the rule of a patriarchwho stilltakes his title from Alexandria, though his seat has long Its services are still chieflyin the ancient in Cairo. been extent replaced it. The Coptic, though Arabic has to some most conspicuousdaughterof the Coptic Church is the Abysefforts

1

See

were

now

Ayer, pp.

of less

544-551.

2

Ayer, pp. 551, 552.

158

ABYSSINIA,

EGYPT,

was Christianity

When

sinian.

SYRIA,

is uncertain.

There

is

some

ARMENIA

AND

introduced to

reason

Frumentius, ordained

think

into "Ethiopia" that

its first mis

bishop by Athanasius, effective spread of Christianity there seems The 330. about The Abyssinian 480. to have been by Egyptian monks, about stands to the present day in dependent relations to Church that of Egypt, its head, the Abuna, being appointed by the It is Monophysite, and differs Coptic patriarchof Alexandria. of its cul in the backwardness little from that of Egypt, save sionary was

a

the great extent to which fastingis carried. It is probably the lowest in civilization of any existingchurch. While Egypt presented the spectacleof a united Monophy ture, and

site population,Syria was tants

inclined to

deeply divided.

Nestorianism

(ante, p.

Part

of its inhabi

149). Some were great organizer of

Monophysite. The Syrian Monophysitism, after its persecutionin the early part of the reign of Justinian, was Baradseus Jacob, nicknamed monk and enjoyed a Edessa, he became (?-578). Born near the support of Justinian's Monophysite-disposed Empress, Theodora. In 541 or 543 he was ordained bishop of Edessa, and for the rest of his lifeserved as a Monophysite missionary, ordaining,it is said, eighty thousand clergy. To him Syrian Monophysitism owed its great growth, and from him the Syrian Monophysite Church, which exists to the present day, derives the name given by its opponents, Jacobite. Its head calls himself patriarchof Antioch, though his seat has for centuries of his flock are to be found. been in the TigrisValley,where most abou-t eighty thousand. They number Armenia Em during the first four centuries of the Roman vassal kingdom, never a pire was thoroughly Romanized, and under its own its peculiarities language maintaining own sovereigns. Christian beginnings are obscure; but the great in the land was Gregory, called the propagator of Christianity Illuminator,who labored in the closingyears of the third cen converted and tury. By him King Tiridates (c.238-314) was baptized Armenia thus becoming the first country to have a orthodox, and

many

"

Christian ruler,since this event antedated the Christian pro Armenian fession of Constantine. Christianitygrew vigor

ously. Never menia

was

in

of the next

to the Roman closelybound In part conquered by Persia in 387. very

century hatred

of Persia

seems

to

world, Ar the

have

struggles turned

MONOTHELITE

THE

160

CONTROVERSY

by the Caliphs Omar

carried out

and

fell in 635, Jerusalem In 651, the Persian kingdom the

Spain,bringingthe into

forward

the

France,

Damascus

to

end.

an

to

a

close,and

and

Poitiers.

In the

it, in 672-678, North Africa were

Syria,Egypt, and

swept

East, Con

and

again in permanently

the Mohammedans.

by

circumstances, before

such

Under efforts

naturallymade

were

to

the

final

catastrophe,

unity in the threatened

secure

After

negotiations empire. lastingseveral in which the patriarchSergius of Constantinople was leader,a union policywas inauguratedby the Emperor

portionsof the

clius,on

into

its progress was permanently under Charles in the great Martel,

resisted stantinoplesuccessfully 717-718.

By 711,

where

Franks, by V battle of 732, between Tours

taken

in 641.

Strait of Gibraltar

Visigothicmonarchy

the

checked

Othman.

brought

was

crossed

flood

Mohammedan

and

in 638, Alexandria

Antioch

the basis of

a

declaration

that in all that He

years,

the Hera-

did Christ

by "one divine-human energy." Cyrus, the "orthodox" patriarchof Alexandria,set up a formula of union, of which this the substance, in Egypt, in 633, with much was apparent suc in Monophysite opinion.1 Opposition arose, cess conciliating led by a Palestinian monk, Sophronius,soon to be patriarchof alarmed Jerusalem. and now tried to stop any Sergius was discussion of the question. He now wrote, in that sense, to Pope Honorius (625-638), who advised againstthe expression and said, rather incidentally, that "energy" as unscriptural, acted

Christ had

will.

one

Heraclius

now,

composed by Sergius,in which he question of one or two energiesand

in 638, issued his Ekthesis, forbade discussion of the affirmed

that Christ had

will.

one

It

easier to start

was

it. Pope John will in Christ 641. stans

or

discussion

655), who further an

1

Monothelite

heresy

died that year, and was II (642-668), who issued,in 648, holder

with

the as

pp.

questionof

called

was

Christ's will

661, 662.

in

Conhe

wills.2

or

I

(649-

only

to

theological problem consonant West, which had always held that Christ's

of interpretation of the

by

one "

Typos, in which

a

of the papacy the ambitious Martin was in the situation an saw opportunitynot

the views

Ayer,

of the

it

end

to

doctrine of

succeeded

Heraclius

forbade The

theological controversy than

(640-642) condemned

IV "

a

the

2

Ibid.,pp.

662-664.

THE natures

each

were

authorityin

COUNCIL

GENERAL

SIXTH

perfectand entire,but also

the Orient.

161

therefore assembled

He

papal great synod

to assert a

proclaimed the existence of two wills and not only condemned Serdivine gius and other patriarchsof Constantinople,but the Ekthesis flat defiance of the Emperor. and the Typos.} This was Conarrested and had stans brought a prisonerto Pope Martin treated with great bru Constantinoplein 653, where he was tality. Martin had the courage of his convictions. He was in 649, which and human in Christ in Rome

"

Crimea, where

exiled to the

he

died.

Strained

Constantinoplefollowed.

and

Rome

tween

"

Constans

IV

Constantine

relations II

be was

that

time, the (668-685). By by Monophysite provinces,the retention of which had been the had been taken by the Mohammedans. of the discussion, source It was more important to placateItaly than to favor them. The Emperor entered into negotiationswith Pope Agatho (678-681), who issued a long letter of definition as Leo I had Under set forth his Tome. once imperialauspicesa council, held in Constantinoplein 680 the Sixth General Council, was and 681. By it Christ was declared to have "two natural wills succeeded

willings

or

.

.

not

.

contrary

one

to

but

other

the

.

.

His

.

or reluctant,but rather as resisting subject to His divine and omnipotent will." It also con in the patriarchate demned Sergiusand other of his successors and Pope Honorius.2 of Constantinople,Cyrus of Alexandria the divided had triumphed over For the third time Rome definition. Nicsea, Chalcedon, and Con East in theological victories. It must be said, stantinoplehad all been Roman will was for that complete and also,that a human necessary for which perfecthumanity of Christ as well as perfectdivinity, The doctrine,thus defined,was the West had always stood. With its defini the logical completion of that of Chalcedon. ended in so far as controversies were tion, the Christological

will

human

follows,not

doctrinal determination

a

defeat.

Like

work

was

meet

in

of

Council

appendix

which

was

thus

was,

in

a

the council of the "Three

a

Western sense,

a

success,

Western

Chapters" (553), it

A council to do this canons. disciplinary summoned by Justinian II (685-695, 704-711), to Constantinoplein 692, and is called from the domed

formulated

had

1

sort

concerned.

was

the Sixth General

While it had

as

no

Extracts, Ayer, pp. 664, 665.

2

Ayer,

pp.

665-672.

THE

162 room

in which

council of 680

IMAGE

CONTROVERSY

it assembled and

had

681

"

met

which "

was

that

the Second

in which

Trullan

the

Council,

Quini-sextum,as completing the Fifth and Sixth It was General Councils. entirelyEastern in its composition, and is looked upon by the Oriental Church as the completion is not accepted of the council of 680 and 681 though its validity were renewed; but by that of Rome. Many ancient canons several of the new enactments directlycontradicted Western practice. It enacted, in agreement with Chalcedon, that "the see of Constantinopleshall enjoy equal privilege with the of Old Rome." It permittedmarriage to deacons and pres see the Roman byters,and condemned prohibitionof such mar riages. The Greek Church stillmaintains this permission. It of fastingon forbade the Roman custom Saturdays in Lent. It prohibited the favorite Western representationof Christ under the symbol of a lamb, orderinginstead the depictionof human a figure.1Though not very important in themselves, these enactments of the growing estrangement in are significant feelingand practicebetween East and West. The apparent collapseof the Eastern empire in the seventh followed by a very considerable renewal of its century was strength under the able Leo III, the Isaurian (717-740), to whose lease of life militaryand administrative talents its new due. A forceful sovereign,he would rule the church in was the spirit of Justinian. He desired to make entrance as easy and for the of as Jews, Moslems, possible representatives the stricter Christian sects, such as the remaining Montanists. of the wide They charged the church with idolatry, by reason spreadveneration of pictures. In 726, Leo forbade their further result was employment in worship. The religiousrevolt. The monks and common peopleresisted, partlyfrom veneration of images,partly in the interest of the freedom of the church from imperialdictation. Leo enforced his decree by the army. In most of the empire he had his will. Italywas too remote, and there Popes and people resisted him. Under Pope Gregory III (731-741), a Roman the synod of 731 excommunicated opponents of pictures. The Emperor answered by removing all of Sicilyand such portionsof Italy as he could from the Pope's jurisdiction.Leo's able and tyrannous son, Constanrelenttine V (740-775),pursued the same more policyeven or

Concilium

,

1

Ayer, pp. 673-679.

163

DAMASCUS

OF

JOHN

lessly. A synod assembled by him in Constantinoplein 754 the condemned pictures and approved his authority over In this strugglethe papacy church. sought the help of the and

Eastern

Emperors.

tore

dependence on the imperialpolicycame, however,

itself permanently from

Franks

A

change of

the

(780-797), under

VI

the accession of Constantino of his mother, Irene, a dominance with

partisanof pictures. By

the with the presence of papal delegates, estimate of the Greek Church, the last, assembled in Nicrea in 787. By its de

authority,and imperial Seventh

and, in the

General

Council

now

" the cross, and the Gospels should be given due cree pictures, not indeed that true wor salutation and honorable reverence, For the ship,which pertainsalone to the divine nature. honor which is paid to the image passes on to that which the .

image represents,and shows council

the

to

reverence

to

seems

he

have

shows

who

.

.

image

the

to

reverence

subject representedin it." the

much

that

unconscious

been

The same

thing could have been said by heathenism for its images. Among the vigoroussupporters of image-reverencewas John (700?-753?), the

of Damascus

of the later theo

honored

most

logiansof the Eastern portionof the the city from which he took his name,

church.

ancient

the

son

of

a

Born

in

Christian

civil service of the Mohammedan Caliph, he succeeded to his father's position, only to abandon it and Jerusalem, of the cloister of St. Sabas monk near become a

high-placedin

the

of Knowledge, is a complete, of the theology of the church of the systematicpresentation His

chief work,

East.

With

Fountain

The

and originality, whole presentedthe

littleof

earlier writers,he

much

use

of extracts

in clear and

from

form, logical

instructor of the Greek the great theological that he became so Church, and, thanks to a Latin translation of the twelfth cenHis philosophi tury, influenced the scholasticism of the West. influenced by Neo-Platoncal basis is an Aristotelianism largely

ism.

In

the

(ante,p. 155), in consonant

is

a

he

discussion Christological an

of the interpretation

with the views

of

Cyril.

God,

sacrifice offered to

not

a

To ransom

followed

Chalcedonian

him

the death to

Leontius

symbol of Christ

the devil.

The

Lord's Supper is fullythe body and blood of Christ,not by tranbut by a miraculous transformation wrought by substantiation, the

Holy Spirit. 1

Ayer,

pp. 694-697.

,

S

^

CONSTITUTION

164

OF

John of Damascus the

summed

Orient, and beyond the

THE

IMPERIAL

the

theological development of positionswhich he representedthe up

made

East

Its practicallyno progress. intellectual explanationof Christianity was

XII.

SECTION

CONSTITUTIONAL

THE

CHURCH

contribution

to

the

completed.

DEVELOPMENT

OF

THE

CHURCH

as acceptance of Christianity

The

to

gave

the

By

the

time

the practicalauthority over Justinian,the Emperor declared, on

Emperors of

what initiative,

the religion of the empire

a

sound

was

doctrine, and

to

a

church. his

own

considerable

regulated churchly administration.1 The Emperors largely controlled appointment to high ecclesiastical office, in the East. This imperialpower limited,how was especially by the necessity,which even Emperors as powerful as ever, Justinian felt,of securingthe approval of the church through of adminis of faith and canons generalcouncils for statements tration. The imperialsupport of these edicts and decisions of have generalcouncils made heresy a crime, and must seriously of Christian thought. It was limited freedom narrow a very path both in doctrinal opinion and in administration,that a If con bishop of Constantinople,for instance,had to walk. extent

ditions

it

were

more

favorable

for the papacy (ante,pp. 134-136), of the general ineffectiveness of

largelya consequence not lackingwhere imperialcontrol in Italy,though cases were the Popes felt the heavy hands of the Emperors. As in the third century, the bishopscontinued to be the centres was

of local ecclesiastical administration,and increase.

to

By

them

the other

clergywere

their power not

tended

merely ordained,

in their hands. The First but the pay of those below them was Council of Nicsea provided that other clergyshould not remove from

a

diocese

the bishop'sconsent.2

without

In each of the

the metropolitan, provincesthe bishop of the capitalcitywas who, according to the synod of Antioch (341), should "have that the other bishops do nothing precedence in rank of local extraordinarywithout him." 3 The ancient custom ex synods, for the consideration of provincialquestionswas .

.

tended, the First Council 1 3

E. g.,

Ayer, pp. 542, 555. Ibid.,p. 363.

.

of Nicsea

requiringthem 2

to

Ayer, p. 361.

be

held

twice

165

CLERGY

THE

year.1 This metropolitan arrangement

a

into the East

troduced

it

In the West

by

half

about

was

the

fully in

was

of the fourth

middle

century.

a century later in development, of the papacy. the dominance

limited in Italy by its way in northern Nevertheless it won and

was

the metropolitansstood the whose of the empire, the patriarchs,

Above

rise of ;the metropolitansystem.

Italy,Spain,and Gaul. bishopsof the great capitals

prominence antedated These

were

the

the

bishops,or

patriarchs,of Rome, Constantinople (by 381), Alexandria, Antioch, and, by 451, Jerusalem. class made a privileged By Constantine, the clergy were of taxation (319).2 The and exempted from the publicburdens through the en government, anxious not to lose its revenues into clerical office of the well-to-do,ordered that only trance those

fortune"

small

"of

result of this

policywas

should

ordained

be

(326).3

The

that, though the ordination of slaves

forbidden in the East everywhere discouraged,and was re prevailingly by the Emperor Zeno in 484, the clergywere

was

cruited

classes of little property

from

or

education.

The

bril

Ambrose of whom of talent and means, then before those of high is an example, show the possibilities which had long who passedthese barriers. The feeling, ability

liant careers

of

some

men

existed,that the higher clergy,at least,should

not

engage

in

were worldly or gainfuloccupation, grew, and such works expresslyforbidden by the Emperor Valentinian III in 452. an Such exclusive devotion to the clerical callingdemanded the received not merely enlarged support. The church now of old ; but the income of a rapidlyin as giftsof the faithful, creasingbody of landed estates presentedor bequeathed to it in the hands by wealthy Christians,the control of which was (468-483) of the bishops. An arrangement of Pope Simplicius provided that ecclesiasticalincome should be divided into quar each for the bishop,the other clergy,the up-keep of ters, one

any

the services and The

feelingwas

for the poor. natural that the clergyshould

and edifices,

be moral

ex

amples to their flocks. Celibacy had long been prizedas be longingto the holier Christian life. In this respect the West stricter than the East. Pope Leo I (440-461) held that was sub-deacons should refrain from marriage,4though it was even 1 3

Aver, p. Ibid.,p.

360.

2

Ibid., p. 283.

280.

4

Letters,145.

CATECHUMENS,

166

CONFIRMATION

universallyenforced in the still con Church. In the East, the practicewhich Western established by the time of Justinian,that only tinues was celibates could be bishops,while clergybelow that rank could ordination. This before without rule, though not marry advantages, has had the great disadvantage of blocking pro motion in the Eastern Church, and leading to the choice of from the ranks of the monks. bishopsprevailingly thus extensive,the growth of While the bishop'spower was

to

be centuries before this rule

the church

was

into the rural districts about

the

and of cities,

many

congregationsin the cities themselves, led to the formation of congregationsin charge of presbyters,and thus to a certain office. These increase in the importance of the presbyterial congregationsstillbelonged,in most regions,to the undivided citychurch, ruled by the bishop;but by the sixth century the in France. its appearance There the parish system made in charge received two-thirds of the local priest (presbyter) income, paying the rest to the bishop. from into the church heathenism The incoming of masses to an Reception led,at first, emphasis on the catechumenate. of hands, was and laying on to it,with the sign of the cross popularlyregarded as conferringmembership in the church, and went

of less earnest Christians the great multitude in possible in Christian profession, save danger of death.

was

as

far

as

growth of generationsof exclusivelyChristian ancestry, and, in the West, the spread of Augustinian doctrines of bap The tismal grace, brought this half-way attitude to an end. when the whole population lost its significance catechumenate had become supposedly Christian. In one important respect East and West fellasunder in this with baptism. As already period regarding rites connected described, by the time of Tertullian (ante, p. 96), baptism in followed by anointingand laying on of hands was proper token of the receptionof the Holy Spirit.In Tertullian's age both baptism and laying on of hands were acts of the bishop, in case of necessity, when save baptism could be admin the growth of istered by any Christian (ante,p. 97). With in East and the church, presbyterscame to baptize regularly West. With regard to the further rite the two regionsdiffered. The East saw its chief significance in the anointing,and al lowed that to be performed,as it does to-day,by the presbyter

The

LORD'S

THE

168

Augustine,and

and Ambrose,

SUPPER

Leo I in the West.

This preach

largelyexpository,though with plain applicationto often highly rhetori the problems of dailylife. In form it was their approval by applause. cal, and the hearers manifested excelled,preach probablynever Yet, while this preachingwas general,and in many by no means ing was country districts, ing

was

offered before

Prayer

was

form.

The

benediction

and

sermons

non-baptizedthen dismissed. The private portion of the service

the

"

held

Lord's

present, and

the

Supper

that, by divine

"

followed.

Both

the miracle

of Christ was of the presence wrought, but differed in the service it took place. In the judgment of the

to when

as

East

it was

This

was

East

West

made,

was

prayer

heard.

in liturgical

sermon

givenby the bishop,when

was

and

be

to

were

after the

classes for whom

various

the

to

cities,few

considerable

even

or

power,

the invocation,epiklesis. in the West till late in the

duringthe prayer known undoubtedly the view

as

There, however, it was replaced,probably under Roman influence,by the conviction that the Eucharistic the words of institution were when miracle occurred recited, sixth

century.

"

this is the new covenant culminatingin This is My body To Gregory of Nyssa and Cyril of Alexandria in My blood." of the incarnation,wherein Christ the Supper is the repetition .

the

takes

into union

elements

flesh. The

human

communion. other.

It

The

.

with

Himself

as

Lord's

Supper was at once possibleto emphasize

was

East

.

put that

of communion

a one

He

once

did

sacrificeand

aspect

in the

or

a

the

foreground.

theory of salvation,the Supper was viewed as primarilya great, life-giving mystery, wherein the partaker received the transformingbody and blood of his Lord, and at least,a partakerof the divine thereby became, in a measure its

with

Consonant

nature, built up

the

immortal

in the

denied

far from

was

to

and

West.

sinless life. This It

held

was

to

be

view true.

conception of salvation as coming into right relations with God, led the West to emphasize the aspect of sacrifice, as incliningGod to be gracious to those in whose But

the Western

behalf so

it

readilyas

The

offered.

was

of the

tery-drama,in which in life-giving energy.

mind

did

not

lend

itself

the Oriental mysticism. In general, Lord's Supper tended to become a mys

the Eastern

administration

Western

to

the divine and

eternal

manifested

itself

CHRISTMAS

Sunday worship,daily services

Beside the acter

were

morning

169

now

very

and

common,

cost, Easter

was

briefer char

evening worship.

and

were,

a

widely developedinto

had

older festivals of the Christian year,

The

of

Easter

and

Pente

earlier,great periodsof religiousobservance. precededby a fortydays' fast,though the method as

reckoning this lenten period varied. The Roman system became that of the whole West, and continues to -ultimately whole time of the present. The of Holy Week now a was to the Easter re observance, passingover specialpenitential of Ascension joicing.By the fourth century the observance was general. The chief addition to the festivals of the church which belongsto this periodis that of Christmas. Apparently in church till into held feast of Christ's nativitywas the no the fourth century. By the second century, January 6 had been of Basilides as the date of observed by the Gnostic disciples Jesus' baptism. At a time not now apparent, but probably about the beginning of the fourth century, this was regarded of an in the East as the time of Christ's birth also,by reason Him made of Luke 323, which exactly thirty interpretation of

years

old at His It

ever. was

was

an

created

at

calendar the

as

at work, how baptism. Other factors were opinionin the third century that the universe in the Julian the vernal equinox,reckoned

March

beginningof the

tion,fall

on

the

habits of thought would make creation,the inceptionof the incarna

Similar

25. new

day,

same

winter solstice, December

and

25.

therefore That

that

Christ's birth

date, when

the

on

the

sun

begins to turn, was the birthday of the Mithraic Sol Invictus, well of the choice,though it may not probably the reason was have commended it as substitutinga great Christian for a festival. At all events, the celebration of popular heathen first in Rome, apparently December 25 as Christmas appears in 353 or 354, though it may it From Rome date from 336. into Constantinople, spread to the East, being introduced A probably by Gregory of Nazianzus, between 378 and 381. in 388, declares of Chrysostom, preached in Antioch sermon that and

celebration

the the

discourse

observance Alexandria 1

then

was

was

ten

years

delivered,it would

of December between

not

25

400

old in the

appear,

on

East,

the first

in the

and

Syrian capital. It reached its inauguration, 432. 1 From

Kirsopp Lake, in Hastings'sEncyclopaediaof Religion and Ethics,3601-8.

MARTYRS

170 Christmas

became

SECTION

back

to

93). With

the middle

the

with

church

in honor

of Peter

deaths

public services (ante,p.

himself

Constantine

in Rome.

looked

Men

Their

Constantine, however, and the fresh from heathenism, this of masses

pilgrimageto Jerusalem, where

be discovered.

of their relics

of

largelyincreased.

reverence

CHRISTIANITY

of martyrs and second century.

of the

conversion

accession to the church

Pentecost.

LOWER

XIV.

regularlycommemorated

were

a

and

Easter

beginningsof veneration

The run

great festivals of the church,

of the

one

comparable only with

RELICS

AND

the true

cross

was

the time

on

great

a

mother, Helena, made

His

back

built

of

thought to persecution

heroic age, and upon its martyrs as the athletes of the Christian race. Popular opinion,which had with

much

as

reason,

a

of the martyrs in long sanctioned the remembrance and worship, had passed over, before the close of the to be prayed to century, to the feelingthat they were

with

tercessors

those

who

tianityof

God,1 and

as

them.

honored the second

able to

There

fourth as

protect, heal, and thus

arose

rank, as Harnack

prayer

popular

a

in aid

Chris

has well called it. The

the old gods and heroes. To the martyrs, popular feelingadded distinguished ascetics,church leaders,and opponents of heresy. There was,

martyrs, for the

yet,

as

no

masses,

of

regularprocess

Inclusion in its ranks

was

guardians of

were

took

a

the

place of

weighing claims

matter

of

cities,patrons of omnipresent. As Jerome

common

to

sainthood.

opinion. They

trades, curers

of disease.

expressed it: "They fol is present low the Lamb, whithersoever He goeth. If the Lamb be believed respectingthose who must everywhere, the same 2 with honored with the Lamb." burning are They were tapers.3 Chief of all these sacred personages the VirginMary. was Pious fancy busied itself with her early. To Irenseus she was the second Eve (ante,p. 66). Yet, curiouslyenough, she did not stand out pre-eminent tillwell into the fourth century, at least in the teaching of the intellectual circles in the church, though popular legend,as reflected for instance in the apocryThey

1

3

are

Augustine, Sermons, 1591. Ibid.,7.

2

Against Vigilantius,6.

THE

MARY

VIRGIN had

of James, phal Protevangelium

illustrated in Tertullian

as feeling,

171

made

much

of her.

and

Clement

of

Ascetic

Alexandria,

asserted her perpetualvirginity.With the rise of monasticism, monastic full elevation of ideal. The the Virgin became a created beingscame with the ChrisMary to the first among and the complete sanction of the de tologicalcontroversies, of God/' in the condemnation of Nestorius scription"Mother and the decision of the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Thenceforth ular and

the

Virginwas

officialreverence

that feelingwhich

had

the chosen

as

Apostle could

or

her went expressionin the

found

Above

far nobler form.

due

alike.

all saints in pop

among

To

goddesses of Egypt, Syria,and

mother a

foremost

that

the

was

of

All that martyr

intercessor

as

much

worship of the Asia Minor, though in her reverence rightfully

vehicle of the incarnation. do for the faithful

out

or

protector,

blessed above

abundant them, could dispensein yet more In proportion,also, as the Cyrillicinterpretation

she,

as

measure.

of the

Chalcedonian

creed and

phasizethe divine in Christ

Monophysitism tended

to

em

at the expense

of the human, and afar from men, therefore,however unintentionally, put Him she appeared a winsome sympathizer with our humanity. In

a

tween

The

she took the place of her Son,

measure,

and

God roots

of

mediator

as

be

man.

are angel-worship

to be found

in apostolic times,1 of in certain Gnostic systems, and

much yet though made playing a great role, for instance,in the speculationsof

Origen, angels

an

conspicuouslyobjects of Christian tilllate in the fourth century. They were reverence always far less definite and graspableby the common mind than the for angels was given great furtherance martyrs. Reverence Christian mystic work by the Neo-Platonic composed in the last quarter of the fifth century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite,2 and called that of Pseudo-Dionysius. Of all the most honored. angelicbeings,the Archangel Michael was A

church

were

not

of him

in commemoration

was

Constantinopleby Constantine, and in the fifth century.

When

Michaelmas, September 29 aeval It 1

feast-daysin the has already been

Col. 218.

West

the one

"

"

was

pointed

one

built

a

few miles from

existed in Rome

early

celebration of his festival on of the most popular of medi

instituted,is uncertain. out

that

reverence 2

Acts 1734.

for relics

ANGELS,

172

of martyrs

remains

ciated, it

included

being developed

was

not

merely the

mortal

of articles saints,but all manner believed, with Christ, the Apostles, and

was

and

church.

of the

heroes the

extent, and

enormous

an

century it

fourth

began early. By the to

PICTURES

RELICS,

of the

statute

Their Seventh

Council

General

this time forward

from

wide-spread use

asso

the

is illustrated

(787):

"If

by any

is found

consecratinga temple holy deposed as a transgressor of with the ecclesiastical traditions."1 this Closely connected for relics was the valuation reverence placed on pilgrimages to placeswhere preserved,and above all to the Holy they were Land, or to Rome. for pictureswas slower in gaining a foothold. Reverence It seemed connected with the ancient idolatry. too positively rapidly By the time of Cyril of Alexandria, however, it was it if where in the Eastern became, Church, anything, spreading The struggles more ending in the prevalentthan in the West. General Council of picturesby the Seventh full authorization have already been narrated (ante,p. 163). Christian feeling flat surface only,paintings, and that representation a on was bishop

relics,he

without

shall be

mosaics, not statues, should be allowed, at least in the interior of the Greek Church the custom of churches, and this remains of not matter a to the present, though this restriction was law.

church This life of

of the second Christianity the people,but it had also

monks, and leaders

it

of the

was

rank

profoundlyaffected

the

its heartiest supporters in the rather than resisted by the great

furthered

church, certainlyafter the middle

of the

fifth

from heathenism to undoubtedly made the way Christianityeasier for thousands, but it largelyheathenized It

century.

the church

itself.

SECTION

While

East

XV.

and

SOME

West

already outlined,and

CHARACTERISTICS

WESTERN

shared in the Western

theological development

influences and

contributed

much

to

contro Christological a versies,there was appreciabledifference in the weight very interest in the two portionsof the empire. The of theological leader between West produced no reallyconspicuoustheological

the

official decisions

in the

1

Arian

Canon

7.

CHARACTERISTICS

WESTERN

173

(340?-397). Even Hilary of eminent as an original not sufficiently Poitiers (300?-367) was Both real exception. thinker to make Hilary and Ambrose a

Cyprian (d. 258)

the latter espe Tertullian was per

Fathers"

students of the Greek

devoted

were

Ambrose

and

ciallyof the great Cappadocians. Though by his Montanism, his sonallydiscredited

influence lived

on

in

greatlyvalued Cyprian. While, therefore, Greek elements into Western entered largely thinking,it developedits own pe the

culiarities. The

like Tertullian, disposed,

part of the empire was

western

rather than, like the East, Christianityunder judicial Its under thought of the Gospel was philosophical aspects. did not deny law. While the West that primarilyof a new the Eastern conceptionthat salvation is a making divine and immortal of our sinful mortality,that conceptionwas too ab that sal Its own stract for it readilyto grasp. thought was vation is getting Hence, in Tertullian,Cyprian, rightwith God. of sin,and a clearer con and Ambrose there is a deeper sense Religionin the West had a ceptionof grace than in the East. closer relation to the acts of every-day life than in the East. It was recognizedevil acts, J more forgivenessof definitely a

to view

^

and

less

"more

transformation of nature, than in the East

abstract

an

overcoming

an

sin,and less

of

a

from

rescue

earthiness

West, through the teaching of Tertullian, Cyprian,and Ambrose, sin was traced to an inherited vitiation

and

In the

death.

of human

estimate

of sin and

yet

combined

was,

jbfthe

if.

West, gave

dailylife of

the

All these Western "TfTthff work

a

There

in the East.

"

in

nature

'of

that had

way

can

be

Church

was

became

though

it

ecclesiasticalorganization

Church

a

stronger control of the

Augustine.

the

Aquileiahe the

out

peoplethan was achieved by that of the East. to their fullfruition to come were peculiarities

he studied in Rome, he

firmer

the Western

could boast.

in 360.

worked imperfectly

the

SECTION

Jerome

doubt, also,that this Western

no

grace,

with

corresponding parallel

no

ablest Born where made

XVI.

scholar about he his

was

JERtfME

that 340

the

ancient

in Strido in

baptizedby Pope

headquartersfor

friend of Rufinus

Western

Dalmatia,

a

Liberius

while, where

(?-410), the translator of

174

JEROME

Origen, like Jerome to be a supporter of monasticism and a in Palestine,but with whom monk he was to quarrel over Origen'sorthodoxy. Jerome had a restless desire to know the From 366 to 370 he visited the world. scholarlyand religious cities of Gaul. him again in Aquileia. The next three years saw Then he to Antioch, where came a journey through the Orient with

overtaken

was

Himself

illness in which

severe

he believed Christ

reproached him for devotion to the turned to the Scriptures, studying Hebrew, and

appeared

classics. He

a

now

and

livingas a hermit from 373 to 379, not far from Antioch. Ordained a presbyterin Antioch, in 379, he studied in Constan him in The tinopleunder Gregory Nazianzus. year 382 saw the hearty support of Pope Damasus Rome, where he won and out of season the merits (366-384),and preached in season of the monastic life. Soon he had a largefollowing, especially Roman of position women enmity, even ; but also much among the for monasticism not as yet popular in was clergy, among the West, and

Jerome

of

disputants.The

so

uncomfortable

whither led

by

number

a

Paula

and

himself

death

was

of Damasus

in Rome

that he

of his Roman

Jerome's

made

retired,in 385,

Antioch,

to

a

celibacy,

to

the chief

Bethlehem

monastery his

made

him.

followed

her

daughter,Eustochium, soon With them he journeyed through Palestine and of Egypt, returningto monastic establishments

Jerome's

position

to monastic

converts

386, where Paula built nunneries and Here, as head of the monastery, Jerome tillhis death, in 420.

vindictive

of the most

one

for

in men.

headquarters

as a unquestionablelearningwas older Latin versions were translator of the Scriptures. The crude, and had fallen into much corruption. Pope Damasus revision. That he completed for the a proposed to Jerome

New

best

Testament

use

about

of his

lated in Bethlehem, with

proof of

The

388.

Old Testament

he then trans

friends.

the aid of Jewish

It is

a

scholarshipthat,in spiteeven of the wishes of Augustine,he went back of the Septuagint to the Hebrew. the Vulgate, The result of Jerome's work was stillin

Jerome's

in the Roman

use

Jerome

had, also, no

tinued the Chronicle a

of

soundness

It is his best monument.

Church.

small

deserts

of Eusebius.

His

biographicaldictionaryof Christian

himself.

He

was

an

abundant

a

as

De

historian.

con

Viris Inlustribus

writers to and

commentator

He

on

is

including the Scriptures.

AUGUSTINE'S

176

YOUTH

two Augustine himself. In Augustine there were natures, one other and the eagerly high-minded and passionate sensuous, be wrong not to say that father and truth-seeking. It may reflected in him. From mother sent for were Tagaste he was the sake of schoolingto the neighboring Madaura, and thence he pursued the study of rhetoric. Here, to Carthage, where

when

hold

to

he was seventeen, he took a concubine, to whom for at least fourteen a son, Adeoyears, and to them

about

dearly loved, was born in 372. If the sensuous Augustine Augustinewas thus early aroused, the truth-seeking awakened. of When the Cicero's nineteen, was speedily study almost completely lost Hortensius affec "changed my now 1 O This im tions,and turned my prayers to Thyself, Lord." perfectconversion caused Augustine to desire to seek truth as He began to study the Scriptures, "but that alone of value. they appeared to me unworthy to be compared with the dig and intellectual turned for spiritual nity of Cicero." 2 He now datus, whom

comfort

to

he

the

dualistic system syncretistic,

known

Mani-

as

willingto pray "Grant me chas yet."3 For nine years Manichsean, living Augustine remained a in and partly Tagaste,engaged in study and partlyin Carthage teaching. He was crowned at Carthage for a theatrical poem.4 He gatheredfriends about him, of whom to prove Alypius was he began to doubt the intellectual the closest. As he went on His associates urged and moral adequacy of Manichseism. him to meet the highly respectedManichsean leader,Faustus. The inadequacy of Faustus's expositionscompleted his mental he remained disillusion. Though outwardly a Manichsean, Augustinewas now inwardly a sceptic. By the advice of Manin 383, and by their ichsean friends Augustine removed to Rome aid, in 384, he obtained from the prefect,Symmachus, a gov then ernment appointment as teacher of rhetoric in Milan the Western capitalof the empire. in Milan, Augustine came under Here the powerful preach he heard as an illustration of pulpit ing of Ambrose, whom since he eloquence rather than with approval of the message, of the scepticalphilosophy of the under the sway was now and Alypius joined him. Monnica Here At New Academy. chseism (ante,p. 107). He was tityand continence, but not

;

"

1

Confessions, 34.

2

Ibid.,3s.

wish

his mother's

he

of the

youth

the

entered

It

with another.1

He on

faith

less creditable relation

even

pointof

the lowest

was

of

account

his regretfully

dismissed an

befitted his

as

postponed on

marriage was

woman.

and

ful concubine

betrothed

became

now

station in life,though

177

CONVERSION

AUGUSTINE'S

his moral

life. At

with Neo-Platonism, in contact junctureAiigustinecame (ante,p. 106), through the translations of Victorinus. It was

this

almost

a:

revelation to him.

and

of the materialism

Instead

world the spiritual the source not only of all good, but of all reality. Evil was existence,as with the no positive It was Manichseans. negative,a lack of good, an alienation

Manichseism, he only real world, and in God of

dualism

now

in the

saw

highestof blessings. This new philosophy,which always colored Augustine'steach for him to accept Christianity.He was ings,made it possible impressedby the authorityof the church, as a hearer of Ambrose As he said later,"I should not believe might well have been. the Gospel except as moved by the authorityof the Catholic know

To

God.

of the will from

God

is the

2

Church."

He at hand. now Augustine'sexperiencewas had never felt more painfullythe cleft between his ideals and his conduct. He was impressed by learningof the Christian in old age, some before, by the Neoprofessionmade years Platonist Victorinus,whose writingshad so recentlyinfluenced A travelled African,Pontitianus,told him and Alypius him.3 that filledwith shame of the monastic life of Egypt. He was like these monks could put away temptations ignorant men felt powerlessto resist.4 Over of learning, which he, a man with self-condemnation,he rushed into the garden and come

A

crisis in

there heard

ing : "Take

up

that he had in

the voice

riotingand

ness,

not

thereof." mind

and

he had 1 3

6

5

not

that

From

thus

He

drunkenness,

make

the

child from

a

reached

reading,and his

in strife and

Christ, and

a

read."

and

been

of

not

eyes

in

neighboringhouse, say for

moment

of the

copy

fell on

the words

chambering

envying ; but put

provisionfor

a

ye

on

and

epistles :

"Not

wanton

the Lord

Jesus

the flesh to fulfil the lusts

Augustine

had

the peace

of

his sins which of divine power to overcome It may be that it was, as it far sought in vain. sense

Against the Epistleof Manichceus, 5 ; Ayer, p. 455. * Confessions,88. Confessions,82; Ayer, pp. 431-433. " 1313812 435-437. Romans ; Confessions, ; Ayer, pp. 615. Confessions,

2

AUGUSTINE'S

178

called,a conversion

has been

its outward

but

LATER

form.

In

Christian transformation

to

its

LIFE

monasticism. it

essence

was

of nature.

Augustine'sconversion occurred in the late He resignedhis professorship partly on account retired with

now

to

await

ology as yet. He

his friends to the estate

baptism.

He

was

His most

far from

being the were

of 386.

summer

named

characteristic tenets

still primarilya

was

If so, that was fundamental a

and illness, Cassisiacum,

of

in the

master

undeveloped.

Christianized Neo-Platonist

; but

the

type of his piety was

At Cassisiacum the alreadydetermined. engaged in philosophicaldiscussion,and Augustine

friends wrote

some

of the earliest of his treatises.

At the Easter

season

baptized,with Adeodatus and Alypius,by Am for his birthplace. brose in Milan. left Milan Augustine now the journey Monnica On died in Ostia. The story of her death, as told by Augustine,is one of the noblest monuments of ancient Christian literature.1 His plans thus changed, he in Rome, but by the autumn lived for some months of 388 was in Tagaste. Here he dwelt with a group of friends, more once busied in studies much at Cassisiacum. as During this period in Tagaste his brilliant son, Adeodatus, died. Augustine thought to found a monastery, and to further this projectwent the modern to Hippo, near Bona, in Algeria,early in 391. There ordained he was the priesthood,almost to forcibly. of Hippo. Four ordained colleague-bishop years later he was When his aged associate, Valerius,died is unknown, but Augus tine probably soon had full episcopalcharge. In Hippo he of 387

he

was

in that portion of Africa, and the first monastery died on it also a training-school for the clergy. He

founded made

August 28, 430, during the siegeof Hippo by the Vandals. Almost from the time of his baptism Augustine wrote against With his entrance the ministry,and es the Manichseans. on peciallyas bishop,he was brought into conflict with the DonaThis tists (ante,p. 113), then wide-spreadin northern Africa. discussion led Augustine to a full consideration of the church, its nature and its authority. By the earlyyears of his episco sin and pate he had reached his characteristic opinions on not the product of the great Pelagian con They were grace. troversy which occupiedmuch of his strengthfrom 412 onward, though that struggleclarified their expression. 1

910-12. Confessions,

AUGUSTINE'S

THOUGHT

of much

OF

GOD

179

Augustine'sinfluence lay in his mys tical piety. Its fullest expression,though everywhere to be found in his works, is perhaps in the remarkable Confessions, written about 400, in which he gave an account of his experi The

secret

to

ences

of

his conversion. written

No

other

similar

autobi spiritual

in the ancient

ography was church, and few at any periodin church history. It has always stood a classic of re ligious experience."Thou hast formed us for Thyself,and our restless tillthey find their rest in Thee" (I1). "It is good, then, for me to cleave unto God, for if I remain not in hearts

are

Him, neither shall I in myself; but He, remaining in Himself, reneweth all things. And Thou art the Lord God, since my standest

Thou a

of

way

of my

goodness" (711)."I sought acquiringstrengthsufficientto enjoy Thee; but I

it not

found

in need

not

until I embraced

that 'Mediator between God and the man Christ Jesus/ 'who is over all God blessed for man, ever' callingme" (718)."My whole hope is only in Thy ex

ceeding great what

command and

thank

mercy.

Thou

Give

Thee, and

hast melted

deeper note

of

permanent,

even

confess unto Thy name, because Thou these so wicked and nefarious acts of I attribute it,and to Thy mercy, that

away

sin

my

as

personaldevotion

since Paul, and the to the livingGod

Thou

and commandest, wilt" (1029). "I will love Thee, O Lord,

from me hast put away To Thy grace mine. Thou

what

it were than

ice"

the church

as conceptionof religion was

(27).

a

if often but

had

was

partially comprehended. thus always one was

first thought of God Augustine's sonal connection

tion

with

a

being in whom

man's

is a

heard

vital relationship

the influence of which

one

Here

onlyreal

to

be

of per

satisfac

good is to be found ; but when he thought of God philo it was in terms borrowed from Neo-Platonism. God sophically, is simple, absolute being,as distinguished from all created things or

which

are

manifold

and

variable.

of all that

reallyexists. This phasize the divine unity, even

His doctrine he set forth in his came

determinative

He

is the basis -andvsource conceptionled Augustine to em when

treatingof the Trinity. great work On the Trinity. It be

henceforth of Western

thinking. "Father,

Son, and Holy Spirit, one God, alone,great, omnipotent,good, of all things visible and invisible." 1 just,merciful, creator of one and the same "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, substance, 1

Trinity,7

:

612.

"; AUGUSTINE'S

180

THOUGHT

OF

GOD

work the creator, the omnipotentTrinity, "Neither three Gods, nor three goods,but one

God

"

indivisibly(421). God, good, om

nipotent,the Trinity itself."1 Tertullian,Origen, and Athanasius had taught the subordination of the Son and Spiritto the Father. Augustine so emphasized the unity as to teach is so great an the full equality of the "persons." "There equalityin that Trinity,that not only the Father is not greater but neither are the Father and than the Son, as regardsdivinity, the Son togethergreater than the Holy Spirit." Augustine not satisfied with the distinction "persons"; but it was was consecrated by usage, and he could find nothing more fitting: "When it is asked, what are the three? human language labors under great poverty of speech. Yet we say, three 'persons/ in order to express it,but in order not to be silent." 3 It not is evident that, though Augustine held firmlyto the ecclesias and his Neo-Platonic tical tradition, his own inclinations, phi inclined toward the Monarchian Modalistic losophy position. It would, however, be wholly unjust to call him a Modalist. He attempted to illustrate the Trinityby many comparisons, the even such as memory, famous or will,4 more understanding, lover,loved, and love.5 This

"God

unity and

whom

whom

from

Augustinehold the

Word

is

that

born,

the Holy Spiritprincipally proceeds. And added because find the word principally, we

I have

therefore

equalitymade

alone is He

the Father from

and

of

sense

Eastern the Holy Spiritproceeds from the Son also."6 and remains of subordinationism feelingthat the Father is

that

all,taught that the Holy Spiritproceedsfrom for that the Father alone,but Augustine had prepared the way which, acknowledged in Spain, at the Third Council filioque, of Toledo, in 589, as a part of the so-called Nicene creed,spread the West, and remains to this day a dividingissue between over the sole

incarnation

the

the divine.

stronglyas God

and

b Wherefore, far 1

4 7

as

He

Latin Churches.

and

the Greek In

of

source

man

; so

God

far

is man,

as

Augustine emphasized "

Christ

before all worlds He

is

God, He

the Father

Trinity,8, Preface. Ibid.,1012. Enchiridion, 35.

Jesus,the Son ;

and

man

in

the of

human

God,

world.

our

.

the Father

is greater than He."

2

Ibid.

z

*

Ibid.,92.

6

as

is both

are 7

one

He

;

.

.

so

is the

Ibid.,59. Ibid.,1517.

181

STATE

FALLEN

MAN'S

alone and man, God through whom only mediator between of sins. "It [Adam's sin]cannot be pardoned there is forgiveness God mediator between and blotted out except through the one the man, and man, of that remission.

Augustine had it sometimes of

which

men

Christ's death is the basis

As

the exact

of that death, significance

to

God, sometimes stead,and sometimes

sacrifice to

a

punishment

our

Jesus."1

in

our

as

ransom

a

of the devil.

the power

freed from

are

endurance

an

as

viewed

He

thought to consistent clearness.

not as

Christ

To

a

by degree

Augustine laid stress theologians, That humility life of Jesus. of the humble the significance on the characteristic in vivid contrast to the pride which was was The true It is an example to men. note in the sin of Adam. hast pointed out Thou in Thy secret mercy mediator, whom to the humble, and didst send, that by His example also they humility." might learn the same created good and upright, Man, accordingto Augustine,was in the Greek

to be found

not

"

possessedof

with the

will,endowed

immortality.3 There was happy and in4communion

ning and He

free

of

was

sin

of not possibility

in his nature.

discord

no

God.4

with

this

From

of which fell by sin,the essence was pride.5 Its the loss of good.6 God's grace was forfeited, was consequence The of God.7 forsaken the soul died, since it was body, no of under the dominion longer controlled by the soul, came state

Adam

which

of "concupiscence,"

manifestation less and were

who

Adam

is lust.

ruin,of which all in that fell into

concerning the Not only were is made

worse

man

one

sin."

9

first all

of God. 1 4

7 10 12

a

"mass From

all the

of total and "

human

that

race

sinners in Adam,

since all

are

human

born

of

race,

but

;

has

we

man

declared

sinned.'"10

their sinful state The

"concupiscence."

the youngest in such deserves the wrath to

even

and as perdition,"12 sin "no this hopelessstate of original of

sin

for

all that

all have

'in him

hope

This

death.8

[Adam] when we were "The Apostle, however,

man

men

state

a

characteristic

most

ending is eternal

involved

result is that the whole fant is

fellinto

the proper

its consequences

and

the worst

2 Confessions,1043. Enchiridion, 48. 5 Nature and Grace, 33. 1426. City of God, 8 1415. 132. Ibid., City of God, Romans 512 ; Forgivenessof Sins, I11. OriginalSin, 34.

and

one,

Grace,33.

8

Rebuke

6

Enchiridion, 11. Ibid.,13U ; Ayer, Marriage, I27.

9 u

no,

p. 439.

GRACE

18 82 not

delivered,except by the

be

SALVATION

delivered,or is being delivered,or

has been

one,

AND

by God's grace, which and wholly free. "Wages is paid as a tary service. It is not a gift; wherefore Salvation

that death

sin is death, to show but

the due

as

is

comes

'

unearned, is not

all.

We

But

wholly undeserved, for mili

recompense

he says

l

the wages

of

inflictedundeservedly,

not

was

of sin.

recompense

1

of the Redeemer."

grace

will

ever

a

unless gift,

it is wholly

understand, then, that man's good deserts are themselves the giftof God, so that when of eternal life, these obtain the recompense it is simply grace

given

for

chooses

a

giftat

grace."2

to send

it.

This He

grace

are

to

to those to whom

comes

therefore

"to

whom predestinates

He

God

will,

3

The number of each class punishment and to salvation." is fixed.4 Augustine had held, in the periodimmediately fol lowing his conversion, that it is in man's power to accept or before the Pelagian controversy, he had rejectgrace, but even

the conclusion

to

come

this

savinggrace

originaland which

we

that grace is irresistible. The Faith is instilled, and is twofold.

personal,are

are

forgivenat baptism: "The Christians is the giftof God." 5 As

effect of

sins,both faith such

by

it is-

immediate

But justification.

Tertullian

(ante,p. 69), it is the infusion of love by the Holy

grace

does much

more.

As with

Spirit. It frees the enslaved will to choose that which is pleas ing to God, "not only in order that they may know, by the manifestation of that grace, what should be done, but more in order that, by its enabling, over they may do with love what 6 It is a gradual transformation of nature, a they know." sanctification. Through us, God does good works, which He rewards and to which He ascribes if they were men's own as merit.

No

man

have grace

may ance,

he will not

can

now,

be

sure

of his salvation in this life. He

but, unless God

maintain

adds

it to the end.7

the giftof persever that It would seem

Augustine may have been led to this conclusion largelyby the doctrine of baptismal regeneration. It is evident that if men receive grace at baptism, many do not keep it. This doctrine of grace was coupled in Augustine with a high valuation of the visible Catholic Church, as that only in which the true infusion of love by the Holy Spiritmay be found. 1 4 7

OriginalSin, 34

2

3

Ibid.,100

5

6

Rebuke

Enchiridion, 107. Ayer, p. 442. Predestination,3. Giftof Perseverance,1.

; and

Ayer, p. 442. Grace, 3.

THE

184

who

He

grace.

does not

CITY "

OF

GOD

faith

obstruct

"

expect, however, problem was not Middle Ages; but Augus may

benefit of the sacrament.1

to receive the

yet WTOiightout

it was

as

to be in the

The

be called the father of the doctrine of the sacraments tine may in the Western Church.

his City of God, begun in Augustine'sgreatest treatise was 412, in the dark days after the capture of Rome by Alaric,and It was his philosophyof history, and .his finished about 426. defense of Christianity against the heathen charge that neg lect of the 6ld gods under whom had grown Rome great was of its downfall. the cause He showed that the worship of the old gods had neither given Rome virtue,nor assurance strength, of a happy future life. The loss of the old gods, that the wor

ship of the one true God should come, was not a loss,but a great gain. Augustine then discusses the creation and the of evil. That bringshim to his great originand consequences theory of history. Since cities have

been to the

self,even of God,

againstGod "two formed by two loves : the earthlyby love of contempt of God ; the heavenly by the love

the contempt of self/'2 in Cain and Abel. Of the

These

to

even

resentatives members

been

the first rebellion

have

who

confessed

City

pilgrimson the earth. The Earthly City heathen Babylon and Rome, representatives states

and

civil order

of self his

as

own.

Those

are

due.

In

world

a

it represses its principle, But it must pass away

who

make

up

the

City

has chosen

to

though

all in that church

not

salvation.

has but

strangers and its

as

highest

all other

civil

It is a relative

its embodiment.

are

their rep of God, all have

themselves

had

of

disorder

are

the

as

of God

These

good. To it peace sin,though having love

are

are now

elect.

and

City

to

secures

of God

grows.

the elect whom in the visible

each

God

church,

the church

"Therefore

Christ, and the kingdom of kingdom His saints reign with Him, heaven. now Accordingly,even though otherwise than as they shall reignhereafter; and yet, though the tares grow in the church along with the wheat, they not reign with Him." 3 The visible,hierarchically organ and church t hat is the of ized it is,therefore, must God, City and of rule the world. this In more more teaching Augustine much of the philosophic basis of the theory of the mediaeval lay even

now

is the

of

(do A

papacy. 1

9810 Letters,

;

Ayer, p. 450.

2

City of God, 1428.

3

IUd.t

209.

TEACHINGS

PELAGIUS'S It is evident that, clear as respects,it contained many

185

Augustinein

the system of

was

profound contradictions,due

to

and Neo-Platonic thoughts of deep religious the intermingling traditionalism. Thus, he taught a and popular ecclesiastical He will,yet in which God sends grace to whom predestination with a he confined salvation to the visible church endowed

sacramental ecclesiasticism. He approached the distinction at*the Reformation between the visible and the invisi made

church, without clearlyreaching it. His heart piety, of personalrelation to God the Christian life as one also,saw in faith and love, yet he taught no less positively legalistic a ble

asceticism.

monastic

and

The

Ages did

Middle

not

reconcile his

respects beyond Augustine. It did not of them that most contradictions. It is by reason in these

could draw

movements

SECTION

most Augustine's

CONTROVERSY

PELAGIAN

THE

that in which

controversy, and

famous

various later

him.

from inspiration

XVIII.

advance

his

with to clearest expression, was teachingson sin and grace came British, a Pelagiusand that teacher's disciples.Pelagiuswas or perhaps an Irish monk, of excellent repute, much learning, about great moral earnestness, who had settled in Rome He seems the year 400, when to probably well on in years. morals and to have been shocked at the low tone of Roman

and

ethical stand labored earnestlyto secure strenuous more ards. Instead of being an innovator, his teaching in many

have

ways

the

older represented East generally, and

than

views

those

agreement with

in

"As

of virtue

and

a

to show

often

I have

in the

many

that of the popu to speak of the principles was

accustomed

am

capacityand

it is able to

what

as

holy life,I

attention to the

Augustine. With

West, will. "If I ought, I can,"

he held to the freedom of the human well expresses his position.His attitude lar Stoic ethics.

of

character

accomplish;

first of all to call

of human

then

from

and

nature

this to

arouse

of the hearer, that he may strive after different the feelings kinds of virtue." 1 He, therefore,denied any originalsin in herited power

the

mass

from not

Adam, men

affirmed that

Like the Stoics

to sin.

of

and

are

bad. 1

Adam's

Ayer,

pp.

all

men

now

have

the

he recognizedthat generally, sin set them

458,

459.

an

illexample,

PELAGIUS'S

186

TEACHINGS

they have been quick to follow. Hence they almost all need to be set right. This is accomplishedby justification by of the work faith alone, through baptism,by reason of Christ. Paul and Luther between No man so emphasized justification full power and duty faith alone. After has man baptism, by to keep the divine law. a vigorous follower in the much Pelagius won younger Ccelestius, a lawyer,and a Roman though he has been possibly which

claimed Africa

as

an

About

Irishman.

410, the

two

to

went

North

Augustine in Hippo, without findinghim. Pelagiusthen journeyed to the East, while Coelestius remained in Carthage and sought to be ordained a presbyterby Bishop Aurelius. That bishop now received from Paulinus, a deacon of

and

Milan,

"Adam sinned

called

letter

a

made

was

on

charging Coelestius

mortal

and

had

not

sinned.

self alone,and

not

the human

in that

or

would

(2) The

have

with

six

died whether

sin of Adam

(3) New-born

race.

(1)

errors.

he had

injuredhim children

are

(4) Neither does the whole race die,nor by by the death and sin of Adam the resurrection of Christ does the whole rise. race (5) The state

in which

Adam

was

before his fall.

kingdom of heaven as well as the Gospel. with men (6) Even before the coming of the Lord there were l This was sin." out an unfriendlystatement, but Coelestius did not rejectit; and it probably represents his views, which radical than those of Pelagius. have been somewhat more may An advisory synod in Carthage, in 411, decided against his ordination. Coelestius then journeyedto Ephesus, where he apparentlyreceived the desired consecration. Augustine had not been present in Carthage, but he soon heard of the matter, and at once began his long-continued literarypolemic against Pelagianism, which he found had religiousexperiencewas supporters. Augustine's own many saved been believed that he had He by deeply wounded. law

leads

to

the

irresistibledivine grace

from

sins which

he

could

never

have

as by his own strength. He held Pelagiusin error denying originalsin,rejectingsalvation by infused grace, and sin. Pelagiusdid not to live without affirminghuman power rejectgrace, but to him grace was remission of sins in baptism work of and generaldivine teaching. To Augustine the main that infusion of love by which character is gradually grace was

overcome

1

Ayer, p.

461.

AUGUSTINE

AGAINST

PELAGIUS

187

Early in Pelagius found support in the East. to 415, Augustine sent Orosius to Jerome, then in Palestine, interest him for the Augustinian cause. By Jerome, Pelagius accused before Bishop John of Jerusalem,but was approved was by the bishop" and before the year was out, a synod held in declared Pelagiusorthodox. Palestine) Diospolis(Lydda^in transformed.

In this situation

Augustineand

his friends caused

two

North

synods to be held in 416, one for its local district in in Mileve. These con Carthage and the other for Numidia demned the Pelagianopinionsand appealed to Pope Innocent African

I

(402-417) for

confirmation.

Innocent

was

undoubtedly

pleased at this recognitionof papal authority,and did as the Innocent died shortlyafter,and was African synods wished. succeeded by Zosimus (417-418), a Greek, and therefore nat urallyno specialsympathizer with the distinctive Augustinian appealed in person. positions.To Zosimus, Coelestius now The new Pope declared that the African synods had been too A to have regarded Coelestius as orthodox. hasty,and seems new synod met in Carthageearlyin 418, but the Africans made In April,418, at their instance the effective move. a more Western Emperor, Honorius, issued a rescriptcondemning Pelagianism and orderingthe exile of its adherents. In May held in Carthage, which held that Adam a largecouncil was that children should be baptizedfor the became mortal by .sin, for right remission of originalsin,that grace was necessary and that sinlessness is impossiblein this life. Moved living, Zosimus issued a circular letter condemn now by these actions,

ing Pelagiusand Coelestius. disappears. He probablydied Pelagiusnow

before 420.

A

appeared in the champion of his opinionsnow of Bishop Julian of Eclanum, in southern Italy. An person edict of the Emperor Honorius, in 419, requiredthe bishopsof of Pelagiusand Coelestius. the West to subscribe a condemnation Several of them Julian and eighteenothers in Italy refused. In Julian, driven into exile and sought refugein the East. were Augustine found an able opponent, and Pelagianismits chief who was much of a ration more systematizer ; but a defender 429 Julian and Coelestius found alist than Pelagius. About some though Nessupport from Nestorius in Constantinople, torius was not a Pelagian. This favor worked to Nestorius's troubles,and togetherwith the wish disadvantagein his own new

and

able

Pope led

of the

so-called Third

the condemnation

to

on

in less extreme

in the

a tendency represented

secure

even

and

forms, and

thinkingof

the

has

al

the church.

the great teacher of the Western before his death in 430. By no means

Church

peculiarportions of his

all

ac

theology,

definitely rejected. Thus,

Jerome

share in conversion, and had no irresistibledivine grace, though deeming grace will

ascribed to the human an

(ante,p.

West

as

cepted, however, the more where Pelagianismwas even thought of

431

the

SEMI-PELAGIANISM

XIX.

fame Augustine's was

Pelagianismby

in

Council

148). East, nevertheless lived

SECTION

of

Ephesus in officially rejectedin the

General

Pelagianism,thus

ways

AUGUSTINE

FROM

DISSENT

188

a

essential to salvation. Northern Africa, which had led the since the time of Tertullian, Church Western was intellectually devastated

now

the Vandals.

by

chief controversy

over

Cassianus, probablyfrom East, visited Egypt, and

pre-eminence in

France, and it was

southern

passedto

ship now

Its

leader

there that the

John Augustinian principlesarose. Gaul, but who had journeyed to the had served as deacon under Chrys-

in Marseilles about ostom, founded a monastery and a nunnery his Not far from 429 he wrote 415, and died there about 435.

in the form Collationes,

with

of conversations

free in man, of God." 1

opinion "the will always remains either neglector delightin the grace

his

In can

monk

of

Egyptian

Lerins, wrote

monks. and

it

Commonitorium, his design in which, without attackingAugustine by name, to do so really, was by representingAugustine'steachingson In 434

and

grace

Catholic all

Vincent,

as predestination

tradition.

possiblecare

has men

been and

a

novelties

without

support

"Moreover, in the Catholic Church that

should be taken

believed

a

we

everywhere, always

their associates

were

hold and

in

itself

that faith which

by

all." 2

called in the sixteenth

These

century

"Semi-Pelagians,"though Semi-Augustinianswould be more points with Augustine, correct, since they agreed in most and though rejectinghis essential doctrines of predestination who sincerely These were feared irresistiblegrace. earnest men that

Augustine'sdoctrines 1 2

Ayer, p. 469. Quod ubique, quod

would

cut

the

nerve

of all human

12 ;

semper,

quod

ab

omnibus, 24; Ayer, p. 471.

THE

effort after

SYNOD

OF

ORANGE

189

that righteousness righteousnessof life,especially

Predestination and irresistiblegrace sought in monasticism. seemed to deny human responsibility. This dissent from Augustine appeared in stillmore positive form in the writingsof Faustus,abbot of Lerins,and afterward bishop of Riez\ In his treatise on Grace, of about 474, he as

sin,but recognized original

held that

men

"the pos is the divine promise stillhave

of striving for salvation." Grace sibility and warning which inclines the weakened but stillfree will to choose the right rather than, as with Augustine, an inward will do with the God foresees what men transformingpower. invitations of the Gospel. He does not predestinate them. Though Faustus rejectedPelagius,he reallystood closer to him than to Augustine. A more Augustinian direction was given to the thought of southern France by the able and devoted Caes"ciiis (469?-542), for a time a monk of Lerins,and from 502 onward bishop of Aries. In 529 he held a littlesynod in Orange, the canons of which received a much because approved largersignificance Boniface II ended the by Pope (530-532). They practically Semi-Pelagian controversy, though Semi-Pelagian positions have always largelybeen maintained in the church.1 It was affirmed by this synod that man is not only under original sin, but has lost all power to turn to God, so that "it is brought about by the infusion of the Holy Spiritand His operationin that we wish to be set free." It is "by the free giftof grace, us that is,by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit,"that we have "the desire of believing"and "come to the birth of holy bap All good in man tism." is the work of God. of Thus many the main thoughts of Augustine were approved; but with a decided weakening of emphasis. The irresistibility of grace

is nowhere

affirmed.

"resist that

On

the contrary, those in

error

are

said

Holy Spirit." Predestination to evil is condemned. of all,the receptionof grace But, most marked is so bound to baptism that the sacramental qualityof grace the merit of works and are good put in the foreground. "We also believe this to be accordingto the Catholic faith,that grace having been received in baptism, all who have been baptized, and ought, by the aid and support of Christ, to perform can those thingswhich belongto the salvation of the soul,if they to

same

1

Ayer, pp. 472-476.

labor

GREAT

THE

GREGORY

190

1 Augustinianism was faithfully."

"

in the direction

modification

undoubted

approved, but with of popular Catholic" blunted.

religious conceptions. Its sharp pointswere XX.

SECTION

The

GREGORY

tendencies toward

a

THE

GREAT

and blunted, ecclesiastically

presentationof

sacra-

Augustinianism,which

mentally emphasized have alreadybeen noted, characterized the thinkingof Gregory v/the Great, the interpreter of Augustine to the Middle Ages. A teacher of littleoriginality, he presentedthe theological sys in in essential the with tem West, alreadydeveloped harmony of his age. His influence was the popular Christianity thus far-reaching.He is reckoned with Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome

of the Doctors

one

of the Latin

trative abilitiesand

achievements

become

of the

Church.

In adminis

Gregory was one of the great est of the Popes, and Latin Christianity generallyhad in him vision and permanent a leader of broad accomplishment. in of born Rome senatorial Christian family a Gregory was Before 573 he was made of about 540. or prefect, governor, the cityby the Emperor Justin II. The monastic lifeattracted civil distinctions, and by 574 he had devoted him from his and to the poor, and wealth to the founding of monasteries a

member

of St. Andrew

monastery

in what

home on the Cselian hill. Gregory formerly been his own always retained his interest in monasticism, and did much for life. His own the regulationand extension of the monastic and in 579 Pope too active for the cloister, temperament was to the Pelagius II (579-590) sent him as papal ambassador of w here he served with ability, court Constantinople, though, About curiously,without acquiringa knowledge of Greek. had

586

he

In 590 office.

The

was

he

more

once

chosen

was

He

died

time

of

on

in Rome

the

as

Pope, being the

March

of St. Andrew.

abbot

first monk

to attain that

12, 604.

Gregory's papacy

was

propitiousfor

an

able

which had risen high under Innocent I Pope. The papacy, (402-417) and Leo I (440-461),had sunk in power after Jus tinian had conquered the Ostrogothsand restored the imperial authority in Italy. Since 568, however, the control of the

Emperors

in

Italyhad

more 1

and

more

Ayer, p. 475.

waned

before the Lom-

GREGORY'S

192

THEOLOGY

for the future was significant Gregory'sfar-reach ing missionary campaign for the conversion of England, in will be given (p.198). account augurated in 596, of which some of Christianity, but It not only advanced markedly the cause of England, and the initiation of a closer relationship was than had yet been ultimatelyof Germany, with the papacy Even

achieved

more

elsewhere.

Nearer

home,

among

the

Arian

Lom

bards, Gregory inaugurated ultimately successful efforts to them to the Catholic faith,especially turn through the aid of the Queen of Kings Authari Theodelinda, who was successively (584-591)and Agilulf(592-615). Tradition mation

has ascribed to

of church

music

Gregory

the

"

a

in the refor

great work

"Gregorianchants"

"

and

in the

liturgy;but the absence of con temporary reference makes it probable that his services in both these respects were relativelyinconspicious.On the other undoubted. As a writer hand, his abilitiesas a preacherwere three of his works maintained high popularitythroughout the of Job, or Moralia, his treatise on Middle Ages his exposition the Regula Pasthe character and duties of the pastoral office, and his credulous Dialogueson the Lifeand Miracles of toralis,

development of

the Roman

"

the Italian Fathers.

Gregory'stheology is Augustinian,but with another em phasisthan that of Augustine. He developedall of Augus tine's ecclesiasticaltendencies,and

that

mass

of material

from

which Augustine took up into his system. popular Christianity Miracles, angels,and the devil have an even greater part in Gregory's system than in that of Augustine. While Gregory of the elect is fixed,and depends upon held that the number had Augus as God, he had no such interest in predestination is simply divine often speaks as if predestination tine. He practical.Man is fettered foreknowledge. His interests were in original sin,the evidence of which is his birth through lust. of Christ, re From this condition he is rescued by the work after baptism must be ceived in baptism; but sins committed satisfied. Works of merit wrought by God's assistinggrace make satisfaction. "The good that we do is both of God and of ourselves ; of God by prevenientgrace, our own by good will : for sins after following." Penance is the proper reparation baptism. It involves recognitionof the evil of the sin,coni

Moralia,

3321.

193

PURGATORY

has many helpsfor him Of these the great exercise penance. church

and satisfaction. The trition, seek merit

would

who

Supper, which

is the Lord's

est

of the sacrificeof There work

or

Gregory

should

pwn

For

martyrs."

l

as

repetition

a

the dead.

Christ,available for the livingand

is also the aid of the saints. of their

viewed

run

to

"Those

who

the

protectionof

the

in

trust

no

holy

of Christ, who, while reallydisciples

those

to achieve works opportunities avail themselves of merit, fail to do penance, or inadequately of the helps offered in the church, there remain the purifying

make

an.

of these

insufficientuse

fires of purgatory. The thought of

purgatory

first faint intimation

With

may

was

not

be

found

evident, and

Cyprian it is more

new

Gregory. The

with

in Hernias

of

he cites in this

Rome.2 connec

argued Augustine,on the basis of 1 Cor. 311'15, absolute that purgatory was not improbable,though he felt no definitely certaintyregardingit.4 Csesarius of Aries held more him fact. it was to the conception. To a Gregory now taught tion Matt.

purgatory

526.3

as

a

essential to the faith.

matter

"It

is to be be

purgatorialfire before the judgment for certain lightsins." Though the Eastern Church held that an and the judgment, death intermediate state exists between and sacrifice, its and souls can be helped therein by prayer conceptionof purgatory has always been vague compared with

lieved that

there

is

a

5

that of the West.

Thus, in all departments of ecclesiastical activityGregory

conspicuousleader of his time. In him the Western of the Middle Ages already exhibited its Church of doctrine,life, characteristic traits,whether worship, or or to be in the directions in which ganization. Its growth was Gregory had moved. as Contemporary with Gregory in part, and of significance of the theological of much the transmitter leaningof the an cient church to the Middle Isidore,the head of the Ages, was Spanish church from about GOO to 636, as bishop of Seville. brief statements of doctrine His Book to was of Sentences text-book of the Western be the theological Church tillthe His Origins or Etymologiesembraced welltwelfth century. of his age, ecclesiasticaland secular, nigh the round of learning stood

forth the most

"

1

Moralia,

*

Enchiridion,69 ;

1651.

"

2

Vis.,37.

City of God,

21 26.

3

51-5520. Letters,

6

Dialogues, 439.

ISIDORE

194

and

was

a

of

thought Vandals age,

main

antiquity. great.

was

all

the

originality

of

source

earlier but

of

SEVILLE

OF

His In

Middle

remarkable

knowledge value

him,

Ages

as

as

the

in

the

were

breadth

a

Middle

historian

to

of

of

the

learned

most

find

a

of

Ages

teacher

learning.

Goths

and of

man

of

the

his

little

THE

IV.

PERIOD

SECTION

of

acceptance

MISSIONS

I.

the

Franks

of

Catholic been

THE

the

OF

ISLANDS

Germanic

tribes,the con faith, and the gradual

Roman

the

by

orthodoxy

noted

CLOSE

THE

BRITISH

the

among to

TO

CONTROVERSY

IN

of Arianism

spread

version

AGES

INVESTITURE

THE

THE

MIDDLE

Germanic

invaders

Much,

however, to more striking proof of the no vitalityof the church in the collapsing empire and the opening it under with which Middle Ages than the vigor and success of Christianity. took the extension in the British foothold Isles before Christianity had some of Constantine. the conversion Bishops of York, London, and of Aries in 314. probably Lincoln, were present at the Council have

already

be

remained

Yet

it survived

downfall

the

129-134).

is

of the

the Celtic population, while

among

and

England

eastern

Saxon

invaders.

found but

(ante, pp.

There

done.

was

advanced

so

of the

the

feebly

soil of southern

heathenism

by the Angloto be beginnings were

slight Christian

Some

but

Empire

much

for

won

chiefly in the south

he

Roman

of Ireland

before

the

time

of

Patrick;

of the

Gospel in that island institutions,that he deserves

cause

and

the organized its Christian title of the Apostle of Ireland. Born about the 389, possibly in southern Wales, Patrick was of a deacon and the grandson of a priest. His training was son so

therefore

was

slave

a

years

Christian.

for

in

and

a

Most

the

coast

work

of

west.

not

to

facts

Few and

as

whom

which

little of his

In

432

of

he of

Germanus ended

with

of

was

or

Auxerre,

his death

in

in northeastern

were

in

the

his zeal

scattered

Patrick

monastery

south

there

conspicuous abilities

hitherto 195

the

efforts but

for six

was

Continent,

of

labors

some

survive;

the

the

France.

missionary without

405, he

about

inmate

an

in Ireland

of Patrick's

question, ganizer under no

raid

a

Escaped time

southern

Ireland, though wilder

in

missionary bishop by Bishop

began

461.

Ireland.

considerable

a

Lerins, off the dained

Seized

as

and be

can an

or

Christianity

of

Ireland

island in

the

with

and

Continent It

systematized and

was

brought

made

advance.

great

into association with

measure

some

Patrick

introduced

the diocesan

copate into Ireland; but that institution was by the clan system of the island,so that there and

monastic

many

by Patrick; but

He the

Rome. that

certain

seems

SCOTLAND

AND

IRELAND

196

soon

were,

epis

modified

instead,

favored was bishops. Monasticism great developer of the peculiar Irish

tribal the

(470?-548), under whose a stronglymissionary and, for the time, a notably leadership monasticism learned

of

group

monastic

Finian

was

monasteries

schools of Ireland centuries.

seventh

Irish

of Clonard

The

into

came

justlyfamous

were

gloryof this

is said

the can

earlyyears said.

be

to

have

labored

The

in the sixth and

Irish monasticism

missionaryachievement. in Scotland The beginningsof Christianity Ninian

being.

are

there in the fourth

very

was

its

obscure.

century and

but of his date and real work little fifth, Kentigern,or Mungo (527?-612?), who spread of the

in the neighborhood of Glasgow, is almost as dim Christianity Irish a probable that the northern figure. It would seem settlers who founded, about 490, the kingdom of Dalriada, em The Christians. as Argyleshire,came bracing the modern Columba (521-597), a man great missionaryto Scotland was of the most powerful tribal families closelyrelated with some of Ireland, and a pupil of Finian of Clonard. Distinguished in monasteries and founder of monk Ireland,he a alreadyas a himself transferred his labors,in 563, to Scotland, establishing with twelve companions on the island of lona or Hy, under the protectionof his fellow countryman and relative,the King of monas Dalriada. There Columba developed a most flourishing the labors among tery, and thence he went forth for missionary By Picts,who occupied the northern two-thirds of Scotland. and his associates the kingdom of the Picts was won Columba institutions were in Ireland, Christian for the Gospel. As the There even dioceses, and were no largely monastic. in ordination,of Co under the authority,save bishops were abbots as a lumba, who was presbyter,and of his successors of lona. These

land,

Irish

among

the island of

carried to northern Eng missionaryefforts were the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria. There, on

Lindisfarne,off the

extreme

northeastern

coast

of

OX

MISSIONARIES

England,a

lona

new

lona, in 634.

region by him associates.

by

Columba

in

monk

a

from in the

widely spread

651, and

afterward

his

by

the missionaryzeal of these Celtic monks

was

confined

means

any

Christianity was

till his death

Nor

197

established by Aidan,

was

Thence

CONTINENT

THE

the

to

British

the

Islands.

Columbanus,

monk of the Younger (543?-615), a celebrated Irish monastery of Bangor, which founded in was 558 by ;Comgall,a leader in learning and missionary zeal. From set forth, about. 585, with twelve Bangor, Columbanus monastic companions, and settled in Anegray, in Burgundy, which he planted the monastery of Luxeuil. Driven near forth about 610, in consequence of his prophet-like rebuke of King Theuderich II and the King's grandmother, Brunhilda, or

Columbanus where

worked

for

a

brief time

his Irish companion and

anchorite,and

an

became

later monastery northern

in northern

Callus, disciple,

as

name to, rather than to found, the of St. Gall. Columbanus made his way to

of

Columbanus

to live

was

to give his

Italy,and there established in.614,

the monastery

Switzerland,

Bobbio, in which

onfyone

was

monks

who

is

central and

labored

on

he died

a

of the earlier of

the Continent

"

in the year

Appenines, later.

number

a

of Irish

of them

many

in what

southern

Germany. Thus, Kilian wrought in Wiirzburgand Virgil in Salzburg. One modification of Chris tian practice, of great later importance,was introduced on the these Continent Irish monks, by notably by Columbanus. now

The

entrance

of thousands

into the church

when

Christianity

the old accepted by the state had largelybroken down of private publicdiscipline.There had grown up the custom

was

confession

stronglyfavored support than tended

to

the monks

the

among

the

of East

monks

it in the East. the Irish

among as laity,

Nowhere

had

monks, and

by

Basil

had

it"more hearty them

it

was

ex

The

the case, to some extent, by Irish on the Continent were the

introducers of privatelay confession. up

West.

indeed

was

of the East.

and

In

Ireland, also, grew

the first extensive

books, in which appropriate penitential assessed for specific sins though these books

satisfactions were had their antecedents

"

in earlier

penitentialtreatises the Irish monks

canons

made

of

councils.

familiar

on

These

the Con

tinent.

Meanwhile,

a

work

historyof Britain

of the utmost

and

the

papacy

for the religious significance had

been

undertaken

bv

MISSIONARIES

ROMAN

198

IN

ENGLAND

by a missionary impulse Pope Gregory the Great. Moved which he had long felt,and taking advantage of the favorable situation afforded by the marriage of ^Ethelberht, "King" of southeastern of Kent and overlord of much England, to a Christian princess,Berhta, Gregory sent a Roman Frankish friend,Augustine,the prior of his beloved monastery on the with a number of monastic Cselian hill, companions, to at tempt the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. The expeditionleft in 596, but its courage Rome small, and all the persuasive was of Gregory was requiredto induce it to proceed. It was power not tillthe springof 597 that the party, reinforced by Frank and ish assistants,reached Canterbury. ^Ethelberht many of his followers soon accepted Christianity.Gregory looked the struggleas already won. Augustine received epis upon copal consecration from Vergiliusof Aries in November, 597, and, by 601, Gregory appointed Augustine metropolitanwith authority to establish twelve bishops under his jurisdiction. northern When England should be converted a similar metroLondon and York politanatewas. to be established in York. British bishops, to be the ecclesiastical capitals. The were the Pope whom over Gregory had no recognizedjurisdiction, task committed to the superintendency of Augustine.1 The arduous than it seemed to much in realitywas to prove more Gregory's sanguine vision,and the greater part of a century in Eng to be dominant to pass, before Christianity was was thus inaugurated, was land. Yet the movement, vastly to The Anglo-Saxons owed their conver strengthenthe papacy. sion chieflyto the direct efforts of Rome, and they in turn devotion

displayeda

the papacy not characteristic of the had been and Spain,where Christianity

to

older lands,like France otherwise introduced.

to pro Anglo-Saxon Christianitywas of the most energeticof missionaries

some duce, moreover, the by whom Gospel and

advanced

without

obedience

were

alike to

be

the Continent.

on

England

papal

was

much

not

brought

vicissitude.

to the

The

acceptance of Christianity

hegemony

of Kent

was

wan

ing before the death of ^Ethelberht,and with it the first Chris tian triumphs were gradually gained eclipsed. Northumbria when Edwin, King of Northa success leadership. It was 1

9,

Gee

10.

and

Hardy, Documents

Illustrative of English Church

History, pp.

CHURCH

FRANKISH

200

AND

RULERS

tage of English Christianity.If that from

Rome

contributed

order,the Old British gave missionaryzeal and love of learning. The scholarshipof the Irish monasteries was transplantedto and there was strengthened by frequent AngloEngland, Of this intellectual movement Saxon a pilgrimagesto Rome. conspicuousillustration was Bede, generallycalled the "Vener able" of the joint member (672?-735). An almost life-long of Wearmouth

and

Jarrow

in

Northumbria, his learn embraced a century earlier, ing,like that of Isidore of Seville, monastery

the full round

of

of his age, and

knowledge

made

him

a

teacher

of

He wrote on generationsto come. chronology,natural phe and theology. Above the Scriptures, all,he is remem nomena, bered for his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, a of information work of great merit and the chief source regard ing the Christianization of the British Islands.

SECTION

CONTINENTAL

II.

the

With

conversion

MISSIONS

Clovis

of

AND

to

orthodox

Christianity and

of church (496) (ante,p. 133), a close relationship gan

in the Prankish

Frankish

that

of the

dominions.

conquest

Merovingian Kings

"

church

the

sank, however,

appointed

for

confiscated

or

to

the

low

ebb.

condition

true

two

sides

Clovis

of the

Even

church

be

was

"

the

Frankish

Bishops and abbots

considerations,much political put in secular hands.

were

of

state

it

largeextent

descendants

internal a

a

Christianization

and

Under

shield.

same

To

GROWTH

PAPAL

land

the efforts of

were was

Greg

papal control in France and to effect reform had little lastingresult. The political collapseof the Merovingians, led to the rise to of the Carolingianhouse, originally "mayors of the pal power ace," which was accomplished when Pippin,called,not wholly the battle of Tertry in 687. The of Heristal,won correctly, but the real authority Merovingian Kings continued in name, exercised by Pippin as "duke After his of the Franks." was Charles Martel death in 714, his illegitimate son (715-741) ex ercised all the powers of a King. By him the Mohammedan advance in western Europe was permanently stayed,by the ory

I to

gain

more

great battle between

effective

Tours

and

Poitiers in 732.

He

saw

the

advantage of churchly aid, and supported missionary effort in western Germany and the Netherlands,where he wished to ex-

Martel

Charles

nor

the

its

did

lands, and

Nevertheless,under Charles

its disorders.

sionaryand reformatorywork tianize largesections of western church, and bring the papacy the utmost

Pippin "of Heristal"

helpfulto the church of their Merovingians. They exploitedit for

secularized

political reasons,

little to check

Martel

initiated that

was

reform

Germany,

great mis

was

to Chris

the Frankish

into relations of

the Franks

and

a

both.

to

consequence

201

more

were

territoriesthan

own

neither

Yet

control. political

tend his

MISSIONARY

A

AS

BONIFACE

Willibrord (657?-739),a Northumbrian, began missionary work in Frisia with the support of Pippin of Heristal,and, in consecrated a missionarybishop by Pope SergiusI" 695, was an

resulted in the establishment

which

action

His

Utrecht.

work

of the ablest

one

Winfrid shire

had and

Boniface

or

In

and

success,

remarkable

most

An

(680?-754).

by birth,Winfrid

chester.

scanty

became

of the

with such illsuccess

that he returned

by period" up

of Devon

Anglo-Saxon of Nutcell

716, he began missionary labors

of

see

taken

was

men

monk

a

of the

near

Win

Frisia,but

in

England. In 718 and in Rome, where he received from Pope Gregory II 719, he was From 719 to (715-731) appointment to labor in Germany. he wrorked in Frisia and Hesse, going once to Rome more 722, in the year last named, and receivingconsecration mis as a to the Pope.1 The next ten sionarybishop,swearingallegiance in Hesse and Thuringia. Not a great success years witnessed only were heathen converted,but the Irish monks were brought largelyinto obedience to Rome. Gregory III (731-741) made Boniface an archbishopin 732, with authorityto found new sees. After a third journey to Rome, in 738, he thus organized the church

of

Bavaria, and

a

to

little later that

of

Thuringia. In

Sturm, in the foundation of the great 744, he aided his disciple, Benedictine monastery of Fulda, destined to be a centre of

learningand

Between

746

Mainz, which

thus

many.

of

priestlyeducation and

for all western-central

748, Boniface the

became

by

strengthenedthe causes increased papal authority. His

the considerable

fellow

found

workers

numbers

from

placein monastic 1

his and

Robinson, Readings

of native

archbishop

leadingGerman

this Boniface Jand

made

was

men

of order work and

was

England,

and

and

discipline greatlyaided

European History, 1

:

came

for whom

other Christian service. in

In all

see.

who

women

Ger

105-111.

as

he

BONIFACE'S

202

in 741

death of Charles Martel

The

his

between

Carloman

sons

(741-768). Both and

REFORMS

Carloman

monk.

churchly

more

ultimately retired

While

would

neither

his authoritydivided

(741-747), and

far

were

saw

from

abandon

Pippin than

their

father,

become

to

power

Short

the

authority

a

the

over

in the abolition of

supported Boniface and its worst abuses, and in a closer connec irregularities In a series of synods held under Boniface's tion with Rome. leadership, beginning in 742, the worldliness of the clergywas attacked,wandering bishops censured, priestlymarriage con At a synod enforced. demned, and stricter clerical discipline held in 747 the bishops assembled recognizedthe jurisdiction of the papacy, not though, as the civil rulers were present, Frankish

both

church,

these conclusions lacked the force of Frankish

law.

The

Frank

ish church, thanks to the work of Boniface, was vastlybettered in organization,character, and discipline, while, what was therein equally valued by him, the authority of the papacy was decidedlyincreased,even though that of the mayor very of the palace continued the more potent. drew As Boniface toward old age his thoughts turned toward the mission work in Frisia,with which he had begun. He se cured the appointment of his Anglo-Saxon disciple, Lull, as

his

successor

and

there

ive and faith.

in the

of Mainz.

see

murdered

was

by

the

In

had

work

well as solidation, the chief needs

SECTION

as

he

went

to

Frisia,

heathen, thus crowning his

widely influential life with His

754

death

a

of witness

and order,discipline, Christian advancement, and these

been

for

one

act

to

his con-

were

of the age.

III.

THE

FRANKS

THE

AND

PAPACY

pointed out (ante,p. 162) that the pa and Italy generally, opposed the iconoclastic efforts of pacy, the the Emperor Leo III, going so far as to excommunicate synod held under Gregory opponents of picturesin a Roman III, in 731. The by removing southern Emperor answered and placing these Italy and Sicilyfrom papal jurisdiction, regionsunder the see of Constantinople a matter long a thorn in the side of the papacy. In Rome and northern Italy the exercised from Constantinoplewas too feeble imperialpower It has already been

"

to control

papal action.

The

was imperialrepresentative

the

CORONATION

PIPPIN

OF

203

of Rome

stood a duke Ravenna, under whom in many militaryaffairs,though the Pope was of

exarch

for

respects the

of the city. Emperor's representativein the civil concerns in practical rebellion against the rulers The was now papacy

in Constantinople. It was, however, in a and were pressing, dangerous position.The Lombards The disunion conse threateningthe capture of Rome.

most were

quent

pn

papacy

seat

it necessary, if the the iconoclastic dispute made considerable to maintain independence in was any than that againstthe Lombards protection This the Popes sought,and at last obtained,

to find other

Rome, ,of the

J

their

had

who

Emperor. the Franks.

from

739

In

but in vain.

againstthe Lombards, otherwise.

was

He

greater plans than him.

Pippin

and

each to the other.

Charles

appealed to

III

Gregory

could

the papacy The

new

aid

With

his father had

even

for

Pippin the Short it minded, and ecclesiastically

more

was

Martel

Lombard

entertained be of mutual

now

moved

assistance

King, Aistulf (749-756),

from the Emperor in 751 and was griev conquered Ravenna itself. Pippin desired the kingly title as ously pressingRome in France. He had determined well as the kinglypower upon

should relegatethe last of the feeble Mero vingians,Childeric III, to a monastery, and placePippin him

a

revolution which

this change he desired not only the approval of the Frankish nobility,but the moral sanction of the church. He appealed to Pope Zacharias (741-752). The self on

the

throne.

Pope's approval was of was

751, Pippin was anointed

and

For

promptly granted, and formally in crowned, but

before the

close

kingly office. To this he whether by Boniface,as has

the

usuallybeen supposed, is uncertain. This

transaction,which

seems

to

have

been

simple at

the

far-reachingconsequences. fraught with the most the conclusion that it was it might be drawn From within the in Pope's powrer to give and withhold kingdoms. All unseen it,were wrapped up the re-establishment of the empire in the West, the Holy Roman Empire, and that interplayof papacy and empire which forms so, large a part of the historyof the Middle Ages. From this point of view it was the most impor of mediaeval history. tant event If the Pope could thus help Pippin, the latter could be no less serviceable to the Pope. Aistulf and his Lombards contime,

was

STATES

THE

204

THE

OF

CHURCH

Stephen II, therefore,went to Pippin himself,crowning anointingPippin and his sons afresh in the church of St. Denis Paris,in 754, and confirmingto near tinned to press

Rome.

and

them

the indefinite title of "Patricians

more

useful,perhaps,because

exarch his

in Ravenna.

implying a

It had

wholly undefined.

was

Soon

754, or

Aistulf to agree

early in

been

after this the

obligation. At reciprocal

late in

of the Romans"

to the

all the

relation to Rome

that

borne

by the imperial crowning,Pippin fulfilled

head

755, he invaded

to surrender

"

Pope

of

a

Prankish

Italy and Ravenna

army,

compelled

and

the other

campaign, in 756, was before the Lombard King made good his promise. necessary of which Exarchate Ravenna the capitaland The the was of the Pope. The "States the possessions now Pentapoliswere of the Church" were begun that temporal sovereigntyof the Lombard

recent

A

conquests.

second

"

which

papacy

was

to

last till1870.

Yet,

as

far

as

can

now

to Pope Stephen, judged, in thus granting the Exarchate itself, Pippin did Pippin regarded himself as overlord. Rome his to give. Legally,the not not give to the Pope. It was would have been hard to define. status of Rome Though the broken with the Emperor at Constanti Popes had practically Indeed the had not been conquered from him. nople,Rome recognizedthe sovereigntyof the Eastern Emperor in papacy till 772. the style of its public documents Pippin had the rightsthat might be included in the title wholly nebulous in the pos "Patrician of the Romans." was Actually,Rome session of the Pope. the extenta territorialruler, Though the Pope was thus now of his possessions far from was satisfying papal ambition, if' one judge by a curious forgery,the authorship of whichmay from this period the is unknown, but which to date seems

be

"

so-called "Donation

of Constantine."

l

In charter

form, and

of his expressionof a creed, and a fabulous account conversion and baptism, Constantine ordered all ecclesiastics to be subjectto Pope Sylvesterand successive occupants of the and all "the cityof Rome Roman see, and transferred to them the provinces, and cities of Italy or of the Western districts, half the Western a sovereigntyover regions." This meant of the empire at least an overlordship. Discredited by a few of the Middle of the wiser men was Ages, the "Donation" genwith

an

"

1

Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp.

319-329.

CHARLEMAGNE

205

erallybelieved,tillits falsitywas

demonstrated

of Cues

in 1440.

in 1433

and

SECTION

Pippin the

Short

Valla

Lorenzo

IV.

CHARLEMAGNE

in 768.

died

by Nicholas

A

strong ruler,his fame has been unduly eclipsed by that of his greater son, who, in general,

simply;carried had

further

his

divided

Carloman.

the

father

had

between

kingdom

his two between the

existed

Ill will

situation

what

begun.

sons,

Pippin

Charles

brothers, but

and

the

relieved

in 771. With by the death of Carloman that event the real reign of Charles, to whom the world has ascribed the title "Great" it indissolubly with to weave so as his name Charlemagne began. than any other sovereign in Charlemagne, perhaps more all thingsto his age. head over A warrior of great history, was than doubled his father's possessions. When gifts,he more he died his sway ruled all of modern France, Belgium, and Hol land, nearly half of modern Germany and Austria-Hungary, than half of Italy, and a bit of northeastern Spain. It was more since nearer imperialsize than anything that had been seen the downfall of the Western Roman Empire. Conquest was but part of his work. His armies, by extending the frontier, rest and time for consolidation to the central portion of gave his territories. He was the kindly mas the patron of learning, was

"

ter

"

of the

seemed A

church, the

small for attention

too

of

preserver or

too

quarrelwith Desiderius,King

in the

conquest

magne

in two

order, to whom

great for execution.

of the

extinction of that

and

campaigns in the

nothing

years

Lombards,

resulted

kingdom by Charle 774 to 777. Pippin's

the papacy were renewed, but the situation was altered. The was no practically longer separated as papacy

grants

to

it had

been

vening Rome

from

Lombard

was

main

Prankish

kingdom.

much

a

the

he thenceforth

ate of his

realm, rather than go

did that of the

so

far

as

Charlemagne's connection

effective overlordship than

more

father,and he did not

territories by the inter

treated as

an

the

Pope

as

bishopsof his

Highly important Charlemagne's conquest

for

that of his

the chief

independentpower,

to dictate the choice of the

with

prel

though

Popes,as he

kingdom.

the of the

extension

of

was Christianity Saxons, then occupying what

.

is

CROWNED

CHARLEMAGNE

206

EMPEROR

result achieved only after a Germany series of campaigns lastingfrom 772 to 804. His forcible a made impositionof Christianitywas permanent by the more and monasteries of plantingbishoprics throughpeacefulmeans out^theSaxon land. By this conversion the last considerable Germanic tribe,and one of the most giftedand energetic, was brought into the Christian family of Europe to its permanent became land. a wholly Christian advantage. Frisia,also,now Charlemagne's contests with the rebellious duke, Tassilo, of already Christianized Bavaria, led not only to the full absorp northwestern

now

tion of the Bavarian

system, but

to

"

in bishoprics

successful

wars

the

Prankish

against the

Avars

ecclesiastical and

the

ex

tension of Christianity of what into much is now Austria. Such a ruler,devoted equally to the extension of political power

and

of

it

the

visible embodiment

and controlling the greater part of Christianity, Western Christendom, was, indeed, a figureof imperial pro therefore,that Pope Leo III portions. It is not surprising, (795-816), who was greatlyindebted to Charlemagne for pro tection from disaffected Roman nobles, placed on the head of the Frankish the latter as King the Roman imperialcrown knelt in St. Peter's Church Christmas on day, 800. To the thinkingof the Roman populace who applauded,as to the West the restoration of the empire to the West, generally,it was that had for centuries been held by the ruler in Constan tinople. It placed Charlemagne in the great succession from Augustus. It gave a theocratic stamp to that empire. Un at the time to Charlemagne, expected,and not wholly welcome was

of

a

great ideal.

The

Roman

God's consecra died,and now thought,had never tion had been given to a Western Emperor by the hands of of the His representative.It was a not, necessarily, rejection imperialtitleof the ruler in Constantinople. The later empire had frequentlyseen Leo V two Emperors, East and West. (813-820), the Emperor in Constantinople, later, formally recognized the imperial title of his Western colleague. For

Empire, men

the West

and

consequence.

of the utmost for the papacy the coronation was of It raised questions of imperialpower and

to be controverted papal authoritythat were throughout the Middle Ages. It emphasized the feelingthat church and but two state sides of the same were shield,the one leading the other to eternal blessedness, to temporal happiness, man

15

Long.

10

EUROPE IN

THE

TIME

CHARLEMAGNE.

OF

AVest

5

10

Long.

15

East

fruui

T"

25

Greemv.

30

REVIVED

LEARNING and

both

made

more

UNDER

closelyrelated

and

than

ever

evident

cleavagebetween political peror

himself it seemed

207

owing mutual helpfulness.It anoT the deep-seatedreligious

East

and

the great Em the fulfilment of the dream of Augus

West.

To

in City offGod (ante,p. 184) the union of Christendom the earthly head. His kingdom of God, of which he was

tine's a

CHARLEMAGNE

power

"

greater than when

never

was

he died, in 814. schools were so

Charlemagne's accession no flourishing in Western Europe as those to be found in connection with the monasteries of the British Islands. It was from England that this many-sided monarch procured his chief intellectual and literaryassistant. Alcuin (735?-804) was probably a native, and certainly From of York. 781 to his death, with a student he was some interruptions, Charlemagne's main aid in a real renaissance of classical and Biblical learning, that rendered the reignbrightcompared with the years before,and raised the in At

tellectual life of the without

becoming

occasional

pupilin

though as

an

Charlemagne made Martin centre

Prankish

in

of

Tours, which

of

scholar,set the example of the palace." In 796

a

this "school

Alcuin

Charlemagne himself,

state.

much

the head

now

learningfor the.

of the monastery of St. under became his leadership a

whole

Frankish

realm.

helped in this intellectual revival,like the Lombard, (720?-795), the Frank, Einhard

Deacon

Visigoth,Theodulf various magne

national

The

mere

shows relationships

exhibited to

those who With

(760?-821). from

secure

any

the

Others

Paul

(770?-840), mention care

portionof

could raise the intellectual standards

or

the the

of these

which Western of his

Charle

Europe empire.

this growth of learning came

theologicaldiscussion. The Spanish bishops,Elipandus of Toledo and Felix of Urgel, Christology that Christ,though in His taught an adoptionist divine nature in His human the Son of God, was nature only a these opin son by adoption. Under Charlemagne's leadership ions were in synods held in Regensburg (792) and condemned Frankfort (794). In this work Charlemagne regarded himself the theological as guide no less than the protector of the church. In similar fashion,at the synod of Frankfort just mentioned, "

Charlemagne

had

the

conclusions

of the

General

Council

of

787vinNicsea of

(ante,p. 163), condemned, rejectedits approval and caused the Libri Carolini,defending picturereverence,

his position, to be issued.

In 809, at

a

synod in Aachen, Char-

ECCLESIASTICAL

208

MODIFICATIONS

lemagne approved the Spanish addition filioque(ante,p. 180) All these to the so-called Nicene-Constantinopolitancreed. in consultation with the bishops and theologiansof acts were his realm, but with no specialdeference to the Pope or refer of the matters to papal judgment. ence SECTION

V.

ECCLESIASTICAL

INSTITUTIONS

institutions were based on the cities, which on political dependent, and Christian organ surrounding country was

Roman the

ization

followed

the

same

rule.

The

country

districts

were

cared for by the city bishops and dependent upon and were their appointees,save where, in the East, there were "country Germanic invasions altered this situation. bishops." The By the sixth century the beginningsof the parish system were in France to be found (ante,p. 166). There it rapidly grew, of the foundation it was and stimulated by the custom of The founders and their heirs churches by large landowners. This situa retained the right of nominating the incumbent. tion left episcopal control uncertain. Charlemagne, there fore,provided that besides the rightof ordination of all parish the bishop should have visitorial and disciplinary priests, power his diocese. The further status was churchly throughout the full establishment of tithes. strengthenedby legal Long favored by the clergythrough Old Testament example, they demanded by a Frankish synod in Macon, in 585. By were treated as a legalcharge,and full legalsanc Pippin they were tion was to be col given them by Charlemagne. They were lected not only by bishops,but by and for the use of the incum bent of each parish. Moreover, constant giftsof lands to the church had raised ecclesiasticalpossessions, by the time of the The great to a third of the soil of France. earlyCarolingians, holdingswere a constant temptation in the financial need of a Charles Martel, who secularized much, but under the friendly of Charlemagne they were respected,if earlier government

confiscations Under

were

not

restored.

Charlemagne, preachingwas encouraged and books of sermons favored, though not yet prepared. Confession was obligatory. Every Christian was expected to be able to repeat the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles'Creed. Charlemagne renewed and extended the metropolitansystem,

AND

METROPOLITANS

ARCHBISHOPS

209

abeyance. At the beginningof his reign but one there was metropolitanin the Prankish kingdom. At These its end there were were now generally twenty-two. known as archbishops a title which goes back to the time of In Carolingiantheory Athanasius, though long looselyused. the judge and disciplinary the archbishop was officer of the bishopsof his province,possessedof powers which the growth It was of papal jurisdiction also his duty to curtail. was soon the religious to call frequentsynods to consider problems of the archdiocese,or as it was usuallystyled,the province. For the better regulation of his immediate clerical assistants, Bishop Chrodegang of Metz introduced, about 760, a semifavored which was and spread by monastic life in common, the designationof this life as the vita Charlemagne. From "canons" for the clergyattached to a cathe canonica,the name Their place of meeting was dral or collegiate church arose. called the capitulum,or chapter a title soon applied to the themselves. of the the life and work canons By this means bishop and his immediately associated clergy was largely regulated. Charlemagne himself designated the bishops of which

had

fallen into

"

"

his realm. In

all these

that of personalauthorityover changes, save episcopalappointments,Charlemagne was but carryingfurther the reforms Much that he completed begun by Boniface. his father,Pippin,had commenced. At Charlemagne's death, the Prankish

church

in

was

a

far better state

of

education,dis

and efficiency than it had been under the later Mero cipline, vingiansand earlyCarolingians.

SECTION

VI.

COLLAPSING

EMPIRE

AND

RISING

PAPACY

personal. Scarcelyhad he died when the rapid decline of his empire began. His son and Louis the Pious (814-840),was of excellent personal successor, character,but wholly unequal to the task left by Charlemagne, to the control of his own or even plottedagainsthim sons, who and quarrelled another. After his death they divided with one the empire between them by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. To Lothair (843-855) came Prankish Italyand a stripof territory the valleyof the Rhone and the region: including lyingimmedi atelywest of the Rhine, togetherwith the imperialtitle. To

Charlemagne'sgreat

power

was

THE

210

COLLAPSE

OF

THE

(843-875)was given the regioneast acquiredthe nickname, the German."

Louis he

EMPIRE of the

"

(843-877) came

most

of modern

France

and

To

Rhine, whence

Charles

the Bald

ultimatelythe is usuallyregardedas

im

the Treaty of Verdun and Germany go their separate ways. France These rulers proved utterlyinadequate for unity or defense. France suffered grievouslyfrom attacks by the Scandinavian Normans, who pushed up its rivers and burned its towns, ulti mately (911) establishingthemselves permanently in Nor of which to Saracen raids,in one a mandy. Italy was prey in Rome, was (841) St. Peter's itself, plundered. A littlelater, with the beginningof the tenth century, the raids of the Hun garians brought devastation to Germany and Italy. Under national unity or defense was im these circumstances, when possible,feudalism developed with great rapidity. Its roots back to the declining run days of the Roman Empire, but with the death of Charlemagne it was given great impetus. It was for any strong central govern intenselydivisive,substituting local seats of authority, ment jealousone of another and many engaged in constant struggle. Churches and monasteries be came largelythe prey of local nobles, or defended their rights with difficulty as parts of the feudal system. This social and form of organizationwas to dominate Europe tillthe political the growth of thirteenth century, and largelyto make possible

perialcrown. point whence

the mediaeval

This

papacy.

impulsegiven to learningby Charlemagne did not imme diatelydie. At the court of Charles the Bald, John Scotus much later added, the name Erigena was (?-877?), to whom held somewhat the same positionthat Alcuin had occupied un admired writingsof der Charlemagne. He translated the much Neothe Pseudo-Dionysius(ante, p. 171),and developedhis own too ignorant to judge Platonic philosophy,which his age was Maurus In Germany, Hrabanus heretical or orthodox. (776 ?856), abbot of Fulda and archbishopof Mainz, a pupilof Alcuin, attained a deserved reputationas a teacher, commentator on of and author furtherer of clerical education the Scriptures, what was (805?-882), well-nighan encyclopaedia.In Hincmar of France not Rheims, only a prelateof possessed archbishop controversial but a theological great assertiveness and influence, ist of decided gift. renewed The study of Augustine which this intellectual The

PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN

THE

212

DECRETALS

collapsingempire of Charlemagne led to the rise of a churchly party in France, which despairingof help from the of unity and hope. as the source state, looked toward the papacy This party regarded with suspicionalso any control of the church by the sovereigns or nobility,and it represented the jealousyof the ordinary bishops and lower clergytoward the great archbishops with their often arbitraryassertions of au Hincmar was a conspicuousexample. The thority,of whom The

aim

of the movement

the exaltation

not

was

of the papacy for of checking sec

sake; rather its exaltation as a means ular control and that of the archbishops,and of maintaining ecclesiastical unity. From 847 and 852, this circle,between and probably from Hincmar's own one regionof Rheims, came remarkable of forgeries the so-called Pseudoof the most Isidorian Decretals purporting to be collected by a certain Isidore Mercator, by whom Isidore of Seville (ante,p. 193) and its

own

"

"

Marius

Mercator

were

intended.

doubtless

It

consisted

of

of Rome in the Popes and councils from Clement first century to Gregory II in the eighth,part genuine and part "Donation of Constantine" (ante, p. 204) is forged. The included. The su early Popes therein claim for themselves jurisdiction.All bishops may appeal directlyto papal preme rightsare limited,and authority. Interveningarchiepiscopal neither papacy nor bishopsare subjectto secular control. With had nothing to do; but it was its originthe papacy to be used mightilyto the furtherance of papal claims. The age was un critical. It passed immediately as genuine, and not was ex historical study. had awakened posed tillthe Reformation the independence of the With the decline of imperialpower, the strong The Popes showed themselves rapidlyrose. papacy in Italy. Leo IV (847-855), aided by south Italian est men decisions

of

cities,defeated St. Peter's Nicholas

I

the

in Rome

with

surrounded

and

Saracens a

wall

(858-867) the Roman

"

see

the had

the

"Leonine

quarter of

City."

its ablest and

In

most

Gregory the Great and Hildebrand. of papal claims,hardly surpassed to be centuries in achieving. later,but which the papacy was Nicholas attempted to realize the ideals of Augustine'sCityof God. is superior to all earthly In his thought, the church the ruler of the whole church is the Pope, and the bish powers, able to make his agents. These conceptionshe was ops are assertive occupant between He sketched out a programme

effective in two

notable

tage of choosing the

cases,

side

on

in which which

I

NICHOLAS

BY

ADVANCED

PAPACY

he had

213

also the advan

right lay.

The

first was

Thietberga,the injuredwife of Lothair II of Lorraine. his concubine, WalDivorced that that sovereignmight marry drada, she appealed to Nicholas, who declared void the sanc tioningdecision of a synod held in Metz, in 863, and excom the archbishops of Trier and municated Cologne who had The Pope had defended helplesswoman supported Lothair. of the most two the less humbled powerful hood, he none second the ruler. In German German prelatesand thwarted a Nicholas received the appeal of the deposed Bishop case, Rothad of Soissons,who had been removed by the overbearing forced his restoration. of Rheims, and Archbishop Hincmar Here Nicholas appearedas the protector of the bishopsagainst their metropolitansand the defender of their right to appeal to the Pope as the final judge. In this quarrel the Pseudothat of

Isidorian Decretals In was

were

firstemployed in Rome.

third case, Nicholas, though having right on his side, less successful. The Emperor in Constantinople,Michael a

of ruled by his uncle,Bardas, a man Ignatius,refused Bardas reputation. The patriarch,

"

III, the Drunkard," unsavory

was

deposed. In his place,Bardas sacrament, and was learned men of the most cured the appointment of one

the

the

later Greek

world, Photius

pro

of

858-867, 878-886), (patriarch appealedto Nicholas, injured,

layman. Ignatius,thus who sent legatesto Constantinople. They joined in approval The Pope repudiatedtheir action,and, in 863, de of Photius. accused the Western clared Photius deposed. Photius now clause to the creed, Church of heresy for admitting ihefilioque fastingon Saturdays,using milk, butter, and cheese in Lent, and confiningconfirmation to the celibacy, demanding priestly bishops. At a synod under his leadershipin Constantinople, Nicholas failed in his condemned. in 867, the Pope was Church. the Eastern attempt to exercise his authority over but augmented, The ill feelingbetween East and West was which was to lead,in 1054, to the complete separationof the then

a

churches.

During this period followingthe death of Charlemagne im begun. Ansgar (801?-865), portant missionary efforts were a

monk

the next

of

driven out in 826, but was In 831 he labored in Sweden.

Corbie, entered Denmark

year.

In 829

and

830

MISSIONS

214 he

IN

EUROPE

appointed archbishop of the newly constituted see of Den Hamburg, with prospectivemissionaryjurisdiction over The destruction of Hamburg mark, Norway, and Sweden. by the Danes, in 845, resulted in Ansgar'sremoval to Bremen, which united with was ecclesiastically Hamburg. Ansgar's efforts were backed by no Frankish militaryforce,and his pa tient labors accomplished little. The full Christianization of was

Scandinavia

was

yet in the future.

attended missions in the East. The Bulgars, Larger success Turanian a originally people, from eastern Russia, had con quered a largeterritoryin the Balkan region in the seventh and century, and, in turn, had adopted the manners speech of their Slavic subjects. Under their King, Boris (852-884), For was introduced, Boris being baptizedin 864. Christianity time undecided between some Constantinopleand Rome, Boris finallychose spiritual allegianceto the former, since the pa triarch of Constantinople was willing to recognize a selfThis adhesion of immense governing Bulgarian church. was in determining the future growth of the Greek consequence Church in Eastern Europe. The most celebrated missionaries the Slavs were, however, the brothers Cyril (?-869) and among Methodius (?-885). Natives of Thessalonica, they had at tained high positionin the Eastern empire. On the request of Rostislav,duke of Moravia, the Eastern Emperor, Michael III, There they labored with great sent the brothers thither in 864. A struggleof several years between the papacy and success. resulted Constantinoplefor possessionof this new-won territory in the ultimate victoryof Rome. The use of a Slavic liturgy was permittedby Pope John VIII (872-882),though soon with its worship came drawn, but from this source ultimatelyto the Russian church. From Moravia, Christianityin its Roman

form

SECTION

came

to Bohemia

VII.

PAPAL

about

the close of the ninth

DECLINE

AND

RENEWAL

BY

THE

century.

REVIVED

EMPIRE

It may which such showed seem strange that the papacy under Nicholas I should within twenty-fiveyears of his power death is the

have fallen into its lowest

degradation. times. Up to

growing anarchy of the the collapseof the empire aided

the

The

explanation certain point a development of papal

PAPACY

THE

OF

DECLINE

RAPID

215

the sport of the became authority; that passed, the papacy in con faction was Italian nobles and ultimatelyof whatever chosen trol of Rome, since the Pope was by the clergy and could now appeal for aid to no peopleof the city. The papacy had to Pippinagainst as Zacharias strong outside political power the Lombards.

the close of the ninth century the papacy

At

quarrelsfor

in the

the

involved

was

of Italy. Stephen possession of

Spoleto,and

overborne by Guido, duke 891) was the empty imperialtitle. Formosus to grant him

V

(885-

compelled (891-896) Lambert,

similarlydependent, and crowned Guido's son, this situation Formosus sought relief Emperor in 892. From had the Germans in the aid of Arnulf, whom in 893 by calling In 895 Arnulf captured Rome, and was chosen King in 887. the next year. A few months crowned Emperor by Formosus of Rome, and his partisan, in turn master later Lambert was Stephen VI (896-897), had the remains of the latelydeceased in a synod, and treated Formosus disinterred,condemned with extreme indignity. A riot,however, thrust Stephen VI into prison,where he was strangled. in rapid succession, another the followed one as Popes now

was

various

factions

Stephen

VI

than

(897) and

influences in the

From

Alberic, a

son

much the was

who

and

man

of less

(955) no

controlling

The

century

were

notorious

those

daugh

their creatures.

controlled by Marozia's of strength, and character,who did ability, was

for

fitness for the

Octavian office,

in 955,

choosingas (955-964),being one of the

on

death

churchly reforms in Rome, but nevertheless secured appointment of his partisansas Popes. On his death he succeeded as temporal ruler of Rome by his son Octavian, had few of the father's rough virtues. Though without

moral as

throne. tenth

the XII

Theophylact, and his The Popes were Theodora.

death in 954 Rome

to his

932

the accession of John

noble

Roman

ters, Marozia

Between

Rome.

occupied the papal openingyears of the

seventeen

of the

controlled

Pope

election.

He

his

name

secured in this

earliest

Popes

whole

Roman

altered the

to

his

election

own

capacityJohn XII take

a

new

name

situation and

in

historyof the papacy, by calling the able German for aid upon sovereign,Otto I, against the threateningpower of Berengar II, who had gained control of a largepart of Italy. troduced

a

new

chapter in

the

line of

The

tion

Charlemagne

of the

to

came

of Louis

the death

911, with

OF

REGENERATION

THE

210

GERMANY

an

the Child. and

Carolingianempire

the

end

in

Germany, in With the disintegra growth of feudalism,

Germany threatened to fall into its tribal divisions,Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony, Franconia, and Lorraine. The most power ful

the tribal dukes.

were

men

The

necessities of defense from

and

Hungarians forced a degree of unity,which aided by the jealousyfelt by the bishops of the growing was nobles and of the secular nobility. In 911 the German power great clergy,therefore,chose Conrad, duke of Franconia, as King (911-918). He proved inadequate,and in 919 Henry elected his successor the Fowler, duke of Saxony, was (919-936). His abilitywas equal to the situation. Though having little in Saxony, he secured peace from the other dukes, save power, the Northmen

the drove back the Danes, subdued territories, in 933, defeated the Hun of the Elbe, and finally,

fortifiedhis Slavs east

own

The

garian invaders. moved, and he

the

foundations

succeeded

was

worst

King by

as

perilsof Germany had been re of a strong monarchy laid,when his

even

abler son,

Otto

I

(936-

973). first work

Otto's

the consolidation of his kingdom.

was

He

his vassals. In effectively all the aid of the bishops and great he used above this work abbots. They controlled largeterritoriesof Germany, and by these posts with his adherents, their forces,coupled with filling made

semi-independentdukes

the

his own,

sufficient to enable

were

Otto

to

control

any

hostile

lay nobles. He named the bishopsand abbots, to continue to the and under him they became, as they were prelates. The Napoleonicwars, lay rulers as well as spiritual peculiarconstitution of Germany thus arose, by which the imperialpower was based on control of ecclesiasticalappoint to lead to the investiture struggle ments was a situation which combination

of

"

with

the

papacy

in the next

century.

As

Otto

extended

his

bishopricson the borders of his king and partly missionary in aim, as Bran dom, partly political the Slavs,and Schleswig, Ripen, denburg and Havelberg among he

power

and

founded

Aarhus

new

for the

Danes.

He

also established

the

arch

bishopricof Magdeburg. Had

Otto

for the

ing of

confined

to

Germany

it would

have

been

land, and for the permanent upbuild strong central monarchy. He was, however, attracted

advantage a

his work

of that

HOLY

THE

ROMAN

EMPIRE

217

by Italy,and established relations there of the utmost historic the strength destined to dissipate importance,but which were A first invasion in 951 made him for centuries. of Germany of northern Italy. Rebellion at home master (953) and a great campaign againstthe Hungarians (955) interruptedhis Italian invaded Italy,invited by more enterprise ; but in 961 he once Pope John XII, then hard pressedby Berengar II (ante,p. 215). in Rome On February 2, 962, Otto was crowned by John XII event which, though in theory continuingthe as an Emperor succession of the Roman Emperors from Augustus and Charle the inaugurationof the Holy Roman was Empire, magne, in which till 1806. the to continue was name Theoretically, the head of secular Christendom, so constituted Emperor was with the approval of the church expressedby coronation by the papacy. he was less powerful Ger a more or Practically, man ruler,with Italian possessions, on varyingterms with the Popes. John XII soon tired of Otto's practical control,and plotted such to whom againsthim. Otto, of strong religious feeling, also moved a an offense,doubtless was Pope was by a desire the German to strengthenhis hold on bishops by securinga In 963 Otto more worthy and compliant head of the church. to choose no compelled the Roman people to swear Pope with John XII to be deposed, and brought out his consent, caused about the choice of Leo VIII (963-965). The new Pope stood solelyby imperialsupport. On Otto's departureJohn XII re "

his papacy, chose Benedict V. sumed

and

John's

on

death

the

factions

Roman

returned, forced Benedict into exile,restored Leo VIII, and after Leo's speedy demise, caused the choice of John XIII (965-972). Otto had rescued the papacy, for the time being,from the Roman nobles,but at the cost

of

Otto's

his

and

successor,

Otto

II

(973-983),pursued substan

policy at home, and regardingthe papacy, hand. His son, Otto father, though with a weaker same

(983-1002),went controlled

Rome, made

Otto

more

subserviencyto himself.

son

tiallythe

Once

put

the

further.

papacy

them

The

Roman

nobles

in his minority,but

down, and

caused

had

in 996

his cousin

once

as

III

more

he entered

Bruno

to

be

to hold Pope as Gregory V (996-999)" the first German the papal office. After Gregory's decease Otto III placed on the papal throne his tutor, Gerbert, archbishopof Rheims,

218

AND

EMPERORS

THE

THE

PAPACY

Silvester II (999-1003)" the first French

as

learned

of the age. of Otto III ended

man

death

The

Pope, and the

the direct line of Otto

most

I, and the

by Henry II (1002-1024), duke of Bavaria A man filled with and great-grandsonof Henry the Fowler. sincere desire to improve the state of the church, he yet felt him self forced by the difficultiesin securingand maintaining his po sition to exercise strict control over ecclesiasticalappointments. affairs to interfere His hands too fully tied by German were of Tusculum in Rome. There the counts gained effectually control of the papacy, and secured the appointment of Benedict VIII (1012-1024), with whom Henry stood on good terms, and he was crowned. persuaded the unspiriby whom Henry even tual Benedict VIII at a synod in Pavia in 1022, at which both the prohibitionof Pope and Emperor were present, to renew which the age re priestlymarriage and favor other measures garded as reforms. With the death of Henry II the direct line was more once secured by a Franconian extinct,and the imperialthrone was secured

throne

was

count,

Conrad

II

(1024-1039),

one

of the

ablest of German

empire gained great strength. His considerations however, and political thoughts were political, he Rome his ecclesiastical appointments. With determined rulers, under

did

whom

interfere.

not

for Benedict

papacy

his death

the

Tusculan

the

There

XIX

brother, John

VIII's

secured

party

the

(1024-1032),

twelve-year-old nephew, Benedict IX of the worst (1033-1048), both unworthy, and the latter one An intolerable situation arose occupants of the papal throne. able and which ended (see p. 221) by Conrad's at Rome, was far more religious son, Henry III, Emperor from 1039 to 1056. and

on

for his

SECTION

Charlemagne cational

ideals

and

himself

cultural

work

than in

the

in 779.

for its ascetic ideals.

Charlemagne's reign to

Benedict's

full ascetic observation

(ante,p. 139). The

for its edu

more

France, Witiza, or as he (750?-821) called of Aniane, from

by him

of Nursia

monasticism

of southern

Benedict

founded

MOVEMENTS

REFORM

valued

appealed,however,

nobleman

where

VIII.

aim of the

educational

was

was

"Rule" or

soon

the to

a

Those

soldier-

known,

monastery

secure

every

of Benedict

industrial side of

AIMS

220

This

new

that such

ence

force

CLUNY

REFORMS

in monasticism, and

it made

with

all the

order, under

an

a

was

THE

OF

singlehead,

a

constitution

a

with

comparable With

implies. It

Cluny practically strengthand now

came

of the Dominicans

that

or

influ

to

have

Jesuits of

this

an growth came enlargementof the An illustration is reformatory aims of the Cluny movement. of God." the "Truce Though not originatedby Cluny, it taken up and greatlyfurthered by Abbot Odilo from 1040 was

later times.

Its aim

onward.

to limit the constant

was

petty

wars

between

closed season in memory of Christ's a by prescribing from Wednesday evening tillMonday morning, during passion,

nobles

which

of violence

acts

should

visited with

be

tical punishments. Its purpose

severe

ecclesias

excellent;its success

was

but

partial. As

Cluny

the

clergy,and

movement

became

an

grew

not effort,

it

the support of the for the reform of monasticism, won

of clerical life. wide-reachingbetterment By the first half of the eleventh century the Cluny party, as a to "Simony"1 and "Nicolaitanism."2 whole, stood in opposition understood givingor receptionof a By the former was any as

at

but for first,

a

clericaloffice for money

payment

or

other sordid consideration.

By the latter,any breach of clerical celibacy,whether by marriage or concubinage. These reformers desired a worthy the age understood as clergy,appointedfor spiritual reasons, of the Cluny party, and even abbots While many worthiness. had apparently no criticism of royal ecclesias of Cluny itself, from tical appointments, if made spiritualmotives, by the of the eleventh century a large section was middle viewing and had as its reforma any investiture by a layman as simony, strong enough to take from the Kings and tory ideal a papacy princeswhat it deemed their usurped powers of clerical designa tion.

This

was

the section that

his great contest. Elsewhere than

in the

characteristic of the instituted

Romuald

tenth

ascetic reform

movement

and

a

monastic

eleventh

centuries.

In

in

was

Lor

revival of

hermits, called "deserts," in which

practised,and 1

support Hildebrand

to

largeproportionswas by Gerhard, abbot of Brogne (?-959). In Italy, of Ravenna (950?-1027) organized settlements of

Flanders

raine and

Cluny

was

Acts

from

818-24.

which

the strictest asceticism

missionaries 2

and

Rev. 2".

was

preachers went 14-

15.

RESCUES

III

HENRY

PAPACY

THE

221

"desert," which stillexists and gave Arezzo. is that of Camaldoli, near its name to the movement, Peter Damiani famous Even more was (1007?-1072), likewise of Ravenna, a fierysupporter of monastic reform, and oppo for a time, of simoriy and clerical marriage, who nent was, cardinal bishop of Ostia, and a leading ecclesiastical figurein of Hildebrandian ideas, preceding Italy in the advancement The

forth.

famous

most

Hildebrand's

papacy.

It is evident that before the middle a

for

strong movement

felt.

Henry

had, in

II

of the eleventh

reform

churchly large measure,

century

making itself sympathized with it was

under more even Henry III (1039-1056) was close its influence. Abbot Hugh of Cluny (1049-1109) was a friend of that Emperor, while the Empress, Agnes, from Aquitaine, had been brought up in heartiest sympathy with the Cluny party, of which her father had been a devoted adherent. nature, and though he Henry III was personallyof a religious had hesitation in controllingecclesiastical appointments no for political reasons as fullyas his father,Conrad II, he would take no money for so doing,denounced simony, and appointed bishops of high character and reformatory zeal. demanded The situation in Rome Henry Ill's interference,

(ante,p. 218).

for it had

now

become

an

intolerable

placed on the throne by the unworthy that its rivals,the were

back

party, had

of the

IX,

proved

Crescenzio

so

faction,

him

out

of

Rome,

partialpossessionof the city,and now, tiring and probably planning marriage, temporarilyof his high office, he sold it in 1045 for a pricevariouslystated as one thou two or sand pounds of silver. The purchaser was a Roman archpriest of good repute for piety,John Gratian, who took the name known few. to Gregory VI. Apparently the purchase was Gregory was welcomed at first by reformers like Peter Damiani. The scandal soon became public property. Benedict IX re fused to lay down the papacy, and there were three Popes now in Rome, each in possessionof one of the principalchurches, and each denouncing the other two. inter Henry III now fered. At a synod held by him in Sutri in December, 1040, Silvester III was deposed, and Gregory VI compelled to resign and banished to Germany. A few days later,a synod in Rome,

was

soon

in

nobles

Benedict

in 1044, and install their Silvester III in his stead. Benedict, however,

able to drive

as representative

Tusculan

scandal.

PARTY

REFORM

THE

222

SECURES

THE

PAPACY

under

imperialsupervision, deposed Benedict IX. Henry III and the overawed immediately nominated clergy and people of the city elected a German, Suidger,bishop of Bamberg, as Clement II (1046-1047). Henry III had reached the highmark of imperialcontrol over the papacy. water So grateful did its rescue from previousdegradationappear that the reform party did not at first seriouslycriticise this imperialdomina tion ; but it could not long go on without raisingthe question of the independence of the church. The very thoroughness of roused opposition. Henry's work soon Henry III had repeated occasion to show his control of the papal office. Clement II soon died, and Henry caused another bishop of his empire to be placed on the papal throne as DamII. The asus new Pope survived but a few months. Henry his cousin Bruno, bishop now see appointed to the vacant of Toul, a thoroughgoing reformer, in full sympathy with as a Cluny, who now journeyed to Rome pilgrim,and after merely formal canonical election by the clergy and people of the city for the Emperor's act was determinative took the "

"

title of Leo

IX

SECTION

Leo most

(1049-1054).

THE

IX.

set himself

IX

effective

composition of

measure

REFORM

PARTY

vigorouslyto was

a

SECURES

the

THE

PAPACY

task of reform.

His

great alteration wrought in the

advisers the cardinals. Pope's immediate The been employed to indicate cardinal,had originally name, a clergyman permanently attached to an ecclesiastical posi tion. By the time of Gregory I (590-604),its use in Rome was, uncertain From however, becoming technical. an epoch, but earlier than of Rome

the

the

"

conversion

of

Constantine, in each district deemed, or designated,the

particularchurch was the exclusive place for baptisms most as important,originally "title" churches, known as probably. These churches were and their presbytersor head presbyterswere the "cardinal" of the heads In a similar way, or leadingpriestsof Rome. the charitydistricts into which Rome divided in the third was known the "cardinal" or leading deacons. as century were At a later period,but certainlyby the eighth century, the bishops in the immediate vicinityof Rome, the "suburbicarian"

a

or

suburban

bishops,were

called the

"cardinal

bish-

THE

PARTY

REFORM

THE

SECURES

PAPACY

223

ops/' This division of the collegeof cardinals into "cardinal persists bishops,""cardinal priests,"and "cardinal deacons" and of As the Rome the to vicinity, leadingclergy present day. became "cardinal" the before name exclusively they were, long even or primarilyattached to them, the Pope's chief aids and advisers.

attainingthe

On

Leo

papacy

found

IX

the cardinalate filled

they were representativeof the had before noble factions which long controlled the papacy unsympathetic with Henry Ill's intervention, with men Leo IX appointed to several of these high placesmen reform. Christendom. of reformatory zeal from other parts of Western thus largelychanged the sympathies of the cardinalate, He with

Romans,

and

himself

surrounded

with the

rendered

measure

far

so

Church

of the Western

as

trusted

and in considerable assistants,

thenceforth

cardinalate as

whole

a

and

representative simply of the local

not

community. It was a step of far-reaching consequence. of of these Three specialsignificance. appointments were made cardinal of bishop,and Humbert, a monk Lorraine,was to be a leadingopponent of lay inves to his death in 1061 was titure and a force in papal politics.Hugh the White, a monk from the vicinityof Toul, who was to live till after 1098, be cardinal priest, was a long to be a supporter of reform, came only to become for the last twenty years of his life the most Roman

of

embittered

Finally,Hildebrand from Germany, was cial man

himself, who made

administration,in see.

tory zeal

a

and

his

successors.

had

accompanied Leo IX sub-deacon,charged with the finan considerable

some

of the

measure,

Ro

of power and reforma appointed other men important,if less prominent,posts in Rome and its

Leo to

of Hildebrand

opponents

IX

vicinity. Hildebrand, who dinalate, is the

papal history.

A

now

most man

came

into

remarkable of diminutive

association with

personalityin stature

and

the

car

mediaeval

unimpressive

of intellect, his power firmness of will,and limithim the outstandingfigureof his age. lessness of design made

appearance,

Born

Tuscany, not far from the educated in the Cluny monastery of St. 1020, he was year Mary on the Aventine in Rome, and early inspiredwith the radical of reformatory ideals. He accompanied Gregory most VI to Germany on that unlucky Pope's banishment (ante. in humble

circumstances

in

LEO

224

IX.

EAST

AND

WEST

DIVIDED

with Leo IX. 221), and thence returned to Rome Probably but whether he in he was was ever already a monk, Cluny it He was, however, still a young self is doubtful. and to man, p.

is

Leo

error.

an

Leo

leadinginfluence

the

ascribe to him

the

vigorousLeo

vigorouslyon

the work

of reform.

in cordial relations with its chief leaders,Hugo, abbot

Damiani, and

Peter

IX

rather his teacher.

was

entered

IX

under

Frederick

of Lorraine.

He

He

stood

of

Cluny,

made

exten

sive

journeys to Germany and France, holding synods and enforcingpapal authority. At his first Easter synod in Rome, in 1049, he condemned simony and priestlymarriage in the A synod held under his presidencyin Rheims severest terms. affirmed the same the principleof canonical election, year "no shall be promoted to ecclesiastical rulershipwithout one the choice of the clergyand people." By these journeys and assemblies the influence of the papacy was greatlyraised. In his relations with southern Italyand with Constantinople Leo IX was less fortunate. The advancing claims of the Nor who since 1016 had been graduallyconquering the lower mans, opposed by the Pope, who asserted part of the peninsula,were Papal interference with the possession for the papacy. still paid allegianceto churches, especiallyof Sicily,which Constantinople,aroused the assertive patriarchof that city, in conjunctionwith Michael Cerularius (1043-1058), who now, Leo, the metropolitanof Bulgaria,closed the churches of the in a the Latin Church Latin rite in their regionsand attacked letter written by the latter urging the old charges of Photius of un of the use (ante,p. 213), and adding a condemnation which had be leavened bread in the Lord's Supper a custom "

come

the

in

common

in the

West

ninth

IX

Leo

century.

of Lor and Frederick repliedby sending Cardinal Humbert raine,the papal chancellor,to Constantinoplein 1054, by whom an

of Michael

excommunication laid

was

on

the

high

usuallyregarded Latin

Churches.

as

altar of St. Sofia.

the

In

1053

formal Leo's

himself

Normans.

this

1054.

captured by the catastrophe, dying in

all his followers

Cerularius and This

separationof forces He

were

did

act

the

has

Greek

defeated not

been

and

and he

long survive

IX, Henry III appointed another Ger He took the of Eichstadt, as Pope. Bishop Gebhard man, title of Victor II (1055-1057). Though friendly to the reform On

the death

of Leo

INDEPENDENCE

SEEKS

PAPACY

THE

devoted

225

of his

admirer

imperialpatron, the unexpected death of the great Emperor in 1156, and on the quiet succession of Henry Ill's son did much to secure Henry IV, then a boy of six,under the regency of the Empress Mother, Agnesj. Less than a year later Victor II died. party, Victor II

X.

SECTION

a

THE

radical

BREAKS

PAPACY

Ill's dominance

Henry more

was

was

reformers,who

WITH

THE

EMPIRE

to the undoubtedly displeasing had endured it partlyof necessity,

be the papacy could otherwise freed from the control of the Roman nobles,and partlybecause since it

apparent how

not

was

Henry's sympathy with ment. Henry himself had of

features

many

been

firmly intrenched

so

church, and

control of the German

of the

of the reform the logicalconsequences he been clear to him. Now to have had

gency

formers

taken

for

an

place.

advance

if possible, end

or,

his

it

The

was

gone.

seemed lessen

move

in his

that itself,

papacy

movement

time

should

which

of the reform

appear

A

weak

not re

ripe to the re imperialcontrol,

altogether.

by the reform clergy, chose Frederick of Lorraine Pope as Stephen IX (1057-1058) without consulting the German thoroughgoing regent. A the brother of Duke reformer, the new Godfrey of Pope was of the German Lorraine,an enemy imperialhouse, who by his marriage with the Countess Beatrice of Tuscany had become the strongest noble in northern Italy. Under Stephen,Cardinal On

Victor

Humbert Three

now

II 's death

issued

a

the

Romans,

programme

led

for the reform

party in his

Books

Against the Simoniacs, in which he declared all attacked lay appointment invalid and, in especial, lay investi ture, that is the giftby the Emperor of a ring and a staff to the elected bishop in token of his induction into office. The the foundations victoryof these principleswould undermine of the imperial power in Germany. Their strenuous asser tion could but lead to a struggle of giganticproportions. far. too Nevertheless, Stephen did not dare push matters and Bishop Anselm of Lucca, He, therefore,sent Hildebrand who secured the approval of the Empress Agnes for his papacy. Scarcelyhad this been obtained when Stephen died in Flor ence.

Stephen'sdeath

provoked

a

crisis.

The

Roman

nobles

re-

HILDEBRAND'S

226

LEADERSHIP the

asserted their old authority over

partisan,Benedict

own

cardinals had lost.

The

to

X, only

flee.

situation

Their

week

a

by

the

chose their

later.

seemed

cause

saved

and

papacy

The

reform

for the

firmness

moment

and

political approval Godfrey of Tuscany and of a part of the people of Rome for the candidacy of Gerhard, bishop of Florence,a reformer and, like Godfrey, a A representative of this Roman native of Lorraine. minority obtained the consent of the regent, Agnes. Hildebrand now gathered the reform cardinals in Siena, and Gerhard was there chosen as Nicholas II (1058-1061). The militaryaid of God the new of Rome. made Pope master frey of Tuscany soon was

skill of Hildebrand.

secured

He

the

of

that of Hildebrand, and II the real power was and Peter Damiani. in lesser degree of the cardinals Humbert

Under

The

Nicholas

problem

Roman

nobles

to

was

without

free the papacy coming under

from the

the control

of the

overlordshipof

the

be must physical support for the papacy found. The aid of Tuscany could be counted assured. as Beatrice and her daughter, Matilda, were to be indefatigable in assistance. Yet sufficient. Under the not Tuscany was skilful guidance of Hildebrand, Nicholas II entered into cordial Some

Emperor.

relations with

the

Normans, who

trouble, recognized their vassals of the papacy.

had

caused

conquests, and

With

like

Leo

IX

received

intimate ability,

so

much

them

as

connections

of Peter established,largelythrough the agency of Lucca, with the democratic and Bishop Anselm Damiani the Pataria,opposed to the antias party in Lombardy known were

now

higher clergy of that region. reformatory and imperialistic Nicholas II at the Roman alliances, Strengthenedby these new synod of 1059 expresslyforbad lay investiture under any cir cumstances.

The

event significant

most

the decree

of this Roman

of the papacy synod of 1059

of Nicholas

regulatingchoice

the papacy the oldest written constitution now in spiteof considerable modification,it governs "

II

in

was

to

force,since,

the selection of

day. In theory,the choice of the Pope had been, like that of other bishops,by the clergyand people of the city In practice, election. of his see. termed This was a canonical such election had meant control by whatever political power constitution dominant The in Rome. was design of the new that danger. In form, it put into law the cirto remove was Popes

to this

in Mantua over

a

Alexander

IX

Hildebrand's

Thus

in 1064.

divided

EMPIRE

AND

PAPACY

228

CONTEST bold

policytriumphed

Germany.

II,with Hildebrand's

guidance,advanced the papal of Mainz, authoritymarkedly. Anno of Cologne and Siegfried of the most two powerfulprelatesof Germany, were compelled for simony. He preventedHenry IV from secur to do penance lent his approval to He ing a divorce from Queen Bertha. William the Conqueror's piratical expedition which resulted in the Norman conquest of England in 1066, and further aided of Norman William's plans by the establishment bishopsin the He gave his sanction to the efforts of principalEnglish sees. of southern the Normans to result in the Italy which were of age in 1065. Henry IV came conquest of Sicily. Meanwhile showed himself one of the Far from being a weak King, he soon most

of German

resourceful

rulers.

It

inevitable

was

that the

papal policyregardingecclesiastical appointments should clash with that historic control by German sovereignson which their The actual dispute in the empire so largelyrested. power of Milan the archbishopric a over came post of the first im Italy. Henry had ap portance for the control of northern whom Alexander had charged pointed Godfrey of Castiglione, "

with

simony.

The

Pataria

of

Milan

chose

a

certain

Atto,

recognizedas rightfularchbishop. In spite secured Godfrey's consecration,in of that act, Henry now fully on. struggle was 1073, to the disputed post. The of the the power involved The contest imperialgovernment Alexander and the claims of the radical papal reform party. misled looked Henry as a well-intentioned young man, upon not Henry by bad advice, and he therefore excommunicated counsellors as guiltyof simony. himself,but Henry's immediate II died,leaving the Within few days thereafter Alexander a great dispute to his successor. Alexander

whom

SECTION

Hildebrand's new

election

constitution

of Alexander

claimed

Hildebrand

the church

took the

came

established

funeral

Pope,

and

in curious

under

Nicholas

carried

IV

HENRY

about

II, in St. John

disregardof the II. During the

Lateran, the crowd

him, almost

Chains, where he was of Gregory VII (1073-1085).

of St. Peter in name

AND

HILDEBRAND

XI.

in

a

ac

riot,to

enthroned.

He

In his accession

IIILDEBRAXI)

AND

HEXRY

IV

229

of Augustine's of the principles interpretation he The papacy City of God had reached the papal throne. which all viewed as a divinelyappointed universal sovereignty, must obey, and to- which all earthlysovereignsare responsible, welfare,but for their temporal good not only for tl"eir spiritual Though Cardinal Deusdedit, rather than Hildegovernment. brand, .was probably the author of the famous Dictatus,it well Church "That the Roman Hildebrand's principles: expresses "That the Roman founded pontiffalone was by God alone." de he alone can "That with rightbe called universal." can "That he alone may use [i.e., dis pose or reinstate bishops." be permitted it may "That pose of] the imperialinsignia." be judged he himself may him to depose Emperors." "That absolve subjectsfrom their fealty he may "That of no one." It was men."1 to wicked nothing less than an ideal of worldrulership.In view of later experienceit may be called imprac

the extremest

ticable and

unchristian; but neither Hildebrand

even

nor

his

experience. It was a great ideal of a possible effected by obedience to command society, regeneratedhuman and as such was deservingof respect in ing spiritual power, alone could held it,and worthy of that trial which those who age

had

had

that

reveal its value

or

worthlessness.

favorable were pontificate A rebellion againstHenry IV by his Saxon for the papacy. and the discontent of the who had many grievances, subjects, nobles of other regionskept Henry fullyoccupied. In 1074 he and prom in Nuremberg before the papal legates, did penance in 1075, Hilde ised obedience. At the Easter synod in Rome brand the decree againstlay investiture7~cfejiy to renewed later Henry any share in creatingbishops. A few months Henry's fortunes changed. In June, 1075, his defeat of the of Germany, and his atti Saxons made him apparentlymaster tude toward the papacy more speedilyaltered. Henry once Hilde made an appointment to the archbishopricof Milan. brand replied, in December, 1075, with a letter calling Henry his with account.2 On to severe January 24, 1076, Henry, nobles and bishops, held a council in Worms, at which the turn forward with personal coat cardinal,Hugh the White, was The

1

opening years

of Hildebrand's

Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp. 366, 367 Robinson, Readings in European History, 1 : 274. 2 Henderson, pp. 367-371 ; Robinson, 1 : 276-279.

;

extracts

in

HILDEBRAND

230

AND

IV

HENRY

There a largeportionof the Ger chargesagainstHildebrand. of Hildebrand and man bishopsjoinedin a fierce denunciation of his authorityas Pope1 an action for which the a rejection approval of the Lombard prelateswas speedilysecured. Hildebrand's reply was the most famous of mediaeval papal At the Roman decrees. synod of February 22, 1076, he ex communicated Henry, forbad him authorityover Germany and Italy,and released all Henry's subjectsfrom their oaths of allegiance.2It was- the boldest assertion of papal authority To it Henry replied that had ever been made. by a fieryletter "

addressed which

to

HiHebrand,

he called

on

"now

Hildebrand

no

pope,

to

"come

but

false

a

down,

to

monk," in

be damned

throughout all eternity."3 Had Henry IV had a united Germany behind him the result might easilyhave been Hildebrand's overthrow. Germany was united. The Saxons and Henry's other political enemies not used the opportunityto make him trouble. the bishops Even had regard for the authorityof a Pope they had nominally unable the risingopposition. to meet rejected. Henry was An assembly of nobles in Tribur, in October, 1076, declared that unless released

from

excommunication

within

a

year

he would

be

invited to a new assembly to deposed, and the Pope was in Augsburg, in February, 1077, at which the whole Ger meet man politicaland religioussituation should be considered. It became a Henry was in great danger of losinghis throne. of vital importance to free himself from excommunica matter Hildebrand tion. refused all appeals;he would settle the ques tions at Augsburg. and dramatic resolved on a step of the utmost Henry IV now Hildebrand would before the He meet political significance. Pope could reach the assembly in Augsburg and wring from He crossed the Alps in the winter him the desired absolution. in northern Italy,through which the and sought Hildebrand Pope was passingon his way to Germany. In doubt whether in peace or war, Hildebrand sought refugein the Henry came strong castle of Canossa, belongingto his ardent supporter, the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, the daughter of Beatrice (ante, 1

Henderson,

pp.

373-376.

Henderson, pp. 376, 377 ; Robinson, 1 : 281, 282. to The letter seems Henderson, pp. 372, 373 ; Robinson, 1 : 279-281. often which it is to to rather than assigned. belong here, January, 1076, 2 3

HILDEBRAND

226). Thither

p.

AND

Henry went,

IV

HENRY

there

and

231

presentedhimself

days, barefooted as a companions pleaded for him, and on released from excommunica January 28, 1077, Henry IV was it was tion. In man^ a political triumph for the King. ways before the castle gate on penitent. The Pope's

had

He

three successive

his German

thrown

opponents into confusion.

had

He

prevented a successful assembly in Augsburg under papal lead ership. The Pope's plans had been disappointed. Yet the in men's recollection as the deepest has always remained event of the humiliation of the mediaeval empire before the power church.1

enemies, without Hilde1077, Henry's German brand's instigation, of Swabia, as counterchose Rudolf, duke claim ensued, while the Pope balanced one King. Civil war ant againstthe other,hoping to gain for himself the ultimate decision. Forced at last to take sides,Hildebrand, at the Roman synod in March, 1080, a second time excommunicated In

March,

and

seldom can deposed Henry.2 The same political weapons be used twice effectively. Sentiment had crystallized in Ger and this time the Pope's action had littleeffect. Henry many, answered by a synod in Brixen in June, 1080, deposing Hilde brand,3 and choosing one of Hildebrand's bitterest opponents, Archbishop Wibert of Ravenna, as Pope in his place. Wibert called himself in

Clement

battle,in October

than

before.

ever

III

He

Henry invaded gainedpossessionof and

to the victorious

Rome.

it

army

offer no

porters 1

The

so

burned

best account

387 ; Robinson, 1

:

2

Henderson,

8

Ibid,,pp. 391-394.

pp.

388-391.

Hildebrand.

In

before

he

The

resistance.

thirteen of the

cardinals,turned ruler and his Pope. In March, 1084, crowned

Hilde

Henry Emperor. still held

any

the

castle of San

compromise.

In

May a rough sup

but these relief, plundered Rome, that he had

is that of Hildebrand 282-283.

Germany

by the overwhelming political supporters

to Hildebrand's

and

in

years

permanently effective

less than

German

came

upon

forces,Hildebrand's

brand, apparently a beaten man, Angelo, and absolutelyrefused Norman

three

was

Pressed

enthroned, and

was

to be rid of

Italy,but

Lombard

proved too weak to Roman people,and Wibert

determined

of Rudolf

death

left Henry stronger following,

1081

German

(1080-1100). The

himself.

to

Henderson,

with-

pp.

385-

232

APPARENT

draw

with

DEFEAT

them, and

he died in Salerno,

by

in the account

be

sufficient to

May

Erance.

of this

painfulexile,

1085.

25,

other

countries

conflict with

in the

such

to

his control.

bring

to

He

Henry with

extreme

an

attempted

He

under

year

CONTINUED

have

been

passed

of his great strugglewith Germany. It may similar,though so en say that his aims were

he grossed was pushed matters where

nearly a

relations to

Hildebrand's

and

after

on

WORK

BUT

caused

the the

IV

that

he

never

Kings of England high clergy every

extensive

codification

of

He enforced clerical celibacyas not law to be made. Church. rule of the Roman only the theoretical but the practical church

If his methods

doubtedly

and

misfortune

no

were,

ever

unscrupulous,as caused

him

to

moral in apparent defeat he won a ideals that he had established for the papacy were

claims, and The

worldly

were

long after

even

they abate

un

his

victory. to

live

him.

SECTION

STRUGGLE

THE

XII.

ENDS

IN

COMPROMISE

Hildebrand, the cardinals faithful to him chose as his successor Desiderius,the able and scholarlyabbot of Victor III (1086of Monte Cassino, who took the name the outlook that he long refused 1087). So discouragingwas honor. When at last he accepted it,he quietly the doubtful On

the death

of

efforts at extremer world-rulership, dropped Hildebrand's with utmost of investiture though renewing the prohibition lay but a few days. vigor. He was, however, able to be in Rome in the hands of Wibert, and before the end That cityremained of 1087

Victor

of Hildebrand

III

was

seemed

no

more.

The

situation

well-nighhopeless. After

of the party hesita much

and chose tion,a few of the reform cardinals met in Terraciria, French a Cluny monk, who had been appointed a cardinal bishopby Hildebrand, Odo of Lagary, as Pope Urban II (1088of Hildebrandian convictions,without Hilde 1099). A man brand's skilful.

genius,Urban He sought

party among

was

with

the German

and politically conciliatory create to a friendly great success monks the clergy,aided thereto by far

more

He stirred up dis of the influential monastery of Hirschau. Yet it was affection for Henry IV, often by no worthy means. not

tillthe close of 1093

of possession

Rome

and

that Urban

drive out

able to take effective His rise in power Wibert. was

thence

was

CONTINUED

STRUGGLE

THE

rapid.

1095, he sounded

At

in

great synod held in Piacenza

a

of

the note

At

crusade.

a

March, in No

Clermont

brought the Crusade into being Urban rose (p.239). On the flood of the crusadingmovement of European leadership.Henry IV and to a ppsition at once achieved had Wibert a him, but the papacy might oppose compared with which they had nothing to popular significance of the

vember

same

he

year

offer.

Though Paschal ter.

were

men

(1099-1118), made

II

Henry

IV's

bellion,headed abdication

of the

weary

last

by

in 1105.

days

long strife,the

matters

his son, Henry V His death followed

V's

positionin Germany

had

been, and he

unscrupulous.

more

was

rightsof investiture was 1110 Henry V marched

the next

as on

insistent

as

ever

assertion of his

that of his father. Paschal II

in force.

Rome

Henry

year.

his father's

His

re

his

(1106-1125), forced

stronger than

was

bet

successful

A

disastrous.

were

than

rather

worse

Pope,

next

was

In

pow

Pope and resignhis right Germany should relin

of a Hildebrand. without the courage agreed (1111) that the King should

erless and

Henry now of investiture, providedthe bishops of quish to him all temporal lordships.1That revolution

that

would

have

reduced

poverty, and

the protest raised in February, 1111, showed it

on

its

The

would

the

German

have

been

church

a

to

promulgationin Rome,

impossibleof accomplishment. Henry V then took the Pope and the cardinals prisoners. Pas chal weakened. In April,1111, he resignedto Henry investi him Emperor.2 The Hil and crowned ture with ring and staff, debrand ian party stormed in protest. At the Roman synod of March, 1112, Paschal well hold

was

wrung

withdrew from

him

his agreement, which he could by force. A synod in Vienne in

Henry and forbad lay investiture, and this action the Pope approved. Yet the basis of a compromise wras already in sight. Two French church leaders,Ivo, bishop of Chartres, and Hugo of and 1099 1106, had argued that Fleury,in writingsbetween church and state each had their rightsof investiture, the one with spiritual, the other with temporal authority. Anselm, the famous archbishop of Canterbury, a firm supporter of reform principles (1093-1109), had refused investiture from Henry I September excommunicated

1

Henderson,

2

Henderson,

pp.

pp.

405-407

407,

408.

;

Robinson,

1

:

290-292.

CONCORDAT

THE

234

OF

WORMS

of

England (1100-1135), and -led to a contest which ended in the resignation by the King of investiture with ring and staff, while retainingto the crown investiture with temporal posses sion by the receptionof an oath of fealty. These principles and of the controversy. precedents influenced the further course The in 1122, in the Concordat of Worms, compromise came arranged between Henry V and Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124). By mutual agreement, elections of bishops and abbots in Ger the

to

were

many

Emperor

be free and at

in canonical

the choice

election he should

form, yet the presence of allowed, and in case of disputed

was

consult with the

metropolitanand other bish ops of the province. In other parts of the empire, Burgundy and Italy, mention made of the imperialpresence. The no was investiture with ring and staff, i. e., with Emperor renounced the symbols of spiritual authority. In turn, the Pope granted him the right of investiture with the temporal possessionsof the office by the touch of the royal sceptre, without demand of from the candidate. This imperialrecognitionwas payment to take place in Germany before consecration,and in the other thereafter.1 The effect parts of the empire within six months that in Germany at least a bishop or abbot must be accept was able both to the church and to the Emperor. In Italy the imperialpower, which had rested on control of churchly ap It was of the outcome pointments, was greatly broken. an strugglewhich would but partiallyhave satisfied Hildebrand. Yet the church had won much. If not superiorto the state, it had vindicated its equalitywith the temporal power. SECTION

XIII.

THE

GREEK

CHURCH

AFTER

THE

PICTURE

CONTROVERSY

The the

Isaurian dynasty in

internal conflicts caused

severe

controversy, which of the the

church

from

loss of Rome

renewed

(717-802),witnessed Constantinople

in

was

a

measure

by the picture-worshipping for the freedom a struggle

imperialcontrol (ante,p. 162). and

of the

Exarchate, and

the

It beheld

rise of the

Charlemagne. The periodsof the Phrygian (820-867) and Macedonian dynasties(867-1057) marked notable revival of were that, intellec so learning, by a The patually,the East was decidedlysuperiorto the West. Western

1

empire

Henderson,

pp.

under

408, 409

;

Robinson,

1

:

292, 293.

SCANDINAVIAN

THE

236

to seek

(p.249). Driven

LANDS the Saracens, some~secthe borders of the empire in

refugeamong

tions of the Paulicians harassed

century, and

penetrateddeeply into it,tilltheir was activity, militarysuccess, though not their religious per in the Emperor, Basil I, 871. manently checked by the ninth

even

ninth

latter half of the

The

and

the tenth centuries

was

a

for the Eastern empire, espe revived militarypower under John Tzimiskes (969-976) and Basil II (976-1025). cially

periodof

latter, Bulgariaand Armenia

the

By

dissensions and

empire in

the eleventh

it

found

Turks

fear of

a

usurping militarism

century,

unprepared.

In

great loss

a

hundred

from

to be

weakened

the

Turks

conquered

established themselves

1080

miles

Christianitywas

to

the

1071

Internal

the rise of the Seljuk

that

so

largepart of Asia Minor, and in Nicsea, less than

conquered.

were

one

a

in

Constantinople.This of the causes leading

the Crusades.

to

XIV.

SECTION

and

tenth

The

THE

SPREAD

OF

centuries

eleventh

were

extension of Christianity.Ansgar's work lands (ante,p. 213) had left few results.

CHURCH

THE

an

epoch

of

large

in the Scandinavian Scandinavian

Chris-

and

Unni, archbishop gradual process. but without of Hamburg Ansgar, (918-936), great forward carried The work was by Archbishop Adaldag success. Bluetooth of (937-988). Under his influence,King Harold and Danish Denmark bishopricswere accepted Christianity, Harold's Under established. was Sweyn, heathenism son, but he was brought to favor the church in again in power; by King Canute completed in Denmark 995, and the work was also ruled England and, for a the Great (1015-1035), who time, Norway. The story of Norway is similar. Some Christian beginnings tianization

slow

a

was

imitated

were

sent

under

made

by

Harold

Hakon

Bluetooth

I

(935-961), and

of Denmark.

missionaries

were

in Christianity

Nor

permanently established till the time of Olaf I (995-1000), who brought in English preachers. The work extended to the Orkneys, Shetland, Hebrides, Faroe, was now possession. Iceland, and Greenland, then in Scandinavian way

was

not

Olaf

II

such

extreme

(1015-1028) enforced measures

that he

Christianity in Norway was

deposed and

Canute

with

gained

control;

lie

yet

Christianity konung

turies

who

and

various

the

organizer

1038),

history

cepted

St.

as

in

King

Ansgar,

Olaf

Skottthe

work

till

about

Yet

overthrown

reached

till

two

cen

in

the

Russia

of

patriarch

The

957.

work

last

Vladimir

I

(980-1015),

and

compelled

his

subjects

nominated

placed Kiev,

Vladimir,

at

the from

and

the

by

head

of

which

in

been

made

1325

the it to

to

follow

patriarch

Moscow.

his of

Russia.

The

by

time Rus

A

example.

his to

Grandin

baptism

1299

Chris

the

as

Constantinople,

in

this

Constantinople

to

with

in

of

established

church,

transferred

of

(866).

received

Latin

lies

early

visit

a

the

spread

as

definitely who

Russian was

on

of

conversion

Photius

baptism at

was

work

the

I

1124-1128.

Church

for

Constantinople

duke

politan,

the

ac

archbishopric till

the

lives

Boleslaus

an

Greek

Efforts

received

Olga,

Queen,

the

by

have

to

seem

with

were

of

who

King

1000

(997-

Mieczyslaw,

Christianized

considered

obscure.

are

in

not

extension

duke,

was

I

Stephen

monarchy,

church

accomplished

was

King

Polish

and

was

Christianity

century,

by

Polish

the

great

beginnings

tianity

in

(1035-

of

time

1008.

Hungarian

967,

just

and

period

in

in

tenth

The

Stephen.

movements

The

the

the

Pomerania

Church.

sian

by

not

were

Hungary

of

organized

Gnesen. The

in in

Christianity

(992-1025)

of

I

Magnus

the

fully

not

was

efforts

established

Its

from

baptized

Lapland

effectively

in

237

later.

After

in

Olaf.

established

was

heathenism

Finland

1100.

St.

as

beginnings

effectively

(994-1024), and

RUSSIA

work. many

was

slow,

tradition

in

the after

Sweden,

In

was

lives

completed

1047)

AND

POLAND,

HUNGARY,

see

the

988,

metro was

speedily city

of

PERIOD

V.

SECTION

Crusades

THE the

phenomena

The

historian

claim a

as

main

even

of the

counted.

worse.

Misery

at

the

had

as

downfall

and

Stimulated

by

age

made

period

a,

took feeTmgi ItT^mnifestations

It of

characterized

was

by

misery of earth increasing religiouszeal the

and

the

had

been

were

The

widely. such

more

migrations

Germanic

invasions

The

desire

of

same

to

of

sense

ascetic

and

forms.

"other-worldliness,"

blessedness

of

heaven.

forge which

the

the

religions

deepening

monastic

strong

a

conditions

conditions, doubtless,

economic

eleventh_jcentiirywa,a

century

felt.

however,

these

well

may

forty-eight famine

the

empire.

of

many.

eleventh

impossible in

Western

was,

the

1095

to

were

influences

prevailed

exhibited

the

causes

1040

1085

unrest

been

environment

change whole

of

and

970

remarkable

most

Their

Ages.

From

of the

conditions

nations

Middle

Between

source.

of

the

ways

who

were

settled

many

CRUSADES

emphasizes economic of unusually trying conditions

the

years

in

are

THE

I.

AGES

MIDDLE

LATER

THE

hnd

This

reformed

supported antagonism to simony and the empire. the long struggle with Nicolaitanism, and nerved had shone Those brightest, regions where the reform movement with the which into closest relations had reforming or come the recruit and southern France, Lorraine, Italy,were papacy, The jpjety nf fjip ing-grounds of the chief crusading armies. time rpljcs and placecLgreat vain** pilgrimages,and what nobler pilgrimage more precious relic could there be, or what shrine, than the land hallowed by the life,death, and resurrec had been tion of Christ? That land an object of pilgrimage had been since the days of Constantine. Jerusalem Though in Moslem been, save possession since 638, pilgrimages had for brief intervals, practicallyuninterrupted. They had never the

papacy,

and

had

nn

been

more

conquest capture

than

numerous

of much

of Asia

of Jerusalem,

ip nnd

by

in

the

Minor,

eleventh from

1071

the Seljuk Turks,

dpfifrrRted *b? 238

ho

century,

onward, mnde

till the and

the

pilgrimage

OF

CAUSES

CRUSADES

THE

239

profoundly impressed with the spiritual of these things came. advantage of pilgrimagesthat the news The was witnessingsuccessful contests with time, moreover, It

to

was

an

age

Between

Mohammedanism.

Jtaly

southern

of

Under

Ferdinand

1060

wrested

had

I of Castile

and

1090

Sicily from

the

Normans

the

Moslems.

(1028-1065) the effective Chris

had begun. tian reconquest of Spain from the Mohammedans The later eleventh century is the age of the Cid (1040?-1099). could dispossess The feeling was wide-spreadthat Christianity Love

Mohammedanism.

of

adventure,

desire for territorial advancement the Crusaders doubteoUymoved

and with

hopes

for

plunder,

religioushatred,

un-

earthly impulses.

very

should wrong them, however, if we did not recognizewith doing something equal clearness that they thought they were We

of the The

highestimportance for their souls and first impulse to the Crusades came

for Christ. from

an

appeal

of

Hildpbrand Vli (lU(^-1078),.t,n the~Easternt Emperor^Michael for

That Seljufes. ^ip^a^ajinstjthe

seemed

to

promise the

dom, took the

matter

reunion up

in

great Pope, to whom

of Greek

1074, and

and was

Latin

this

Christen

able to report to

were ready to Henry IV of Germany that fiftythousand men the proper leadership. The speedy outbreak of the go under investiture strugglefrustrated the plan. It was effectively in Urban the of be revived heir directions to II, by so many

Hildebrand. f

Alexius

I

(1081-1118), a stronger ruler than his immediate

predecessorsin Constantinople,felt unable to cope with the perilswhich threatened the empire. He, therefore,appealed II for assistance. Urban received the imperialmes to Urban at the synod in Piacenza, in northern Italy,in March, sengers 1095, and promised his help. At the synod held in Clermont, Urban in eastern France, in the followingNovember, now proclaimed the Crusade in an appeal of almost unexampled The enterprisehad magnified in his concep consequence. tion from that of aid to the hard-pressedAlexius to a general of the holy places from Moslem hands. H" called on rescue all Christendom tn giVpnpssj^sins

to

take

a.11 and

part in the work, promisingforfall fitprimllifp to thos^ wfrn shniiM

immediate in theenterprise. The message found and enthu the popular preachers who took it siastic response! Among than famous Peter the Hermit, a monk was more up none

THE

240

CRUSADE

FIRST

its vicinity.Early legend attributed to him of which he was the originof the Crusade itself, unquestionably Amiens

from

of the

one

or

effective

most

attributed

the distinction thus the

Crusade,

leadershipor Such

to

does

deserve

his conduct

was

to

not

do

on

credit to his

to his courage.

even

the

He

him, nor started,such as

it had

once

proclaimers.

enthusiasm

in France, engendered, especially of peasants, with some that largegroups knights among them, the lead of Walter the set forth in the spring of 1096, under Penniless;a priest,Gottschalk, and Peter the Hermit himself. of these wild companies many Jews were massacred By some cities. Their own in the Rhine disorderlypillageled to savage That under Peter reprisalsin Hungary and the Balkans. almost entirelydestroyedby reached Constantinople,but was was

the

Turks

not

share

and

in

real work from

the moral

Baldwin

of the

First

Crusade

was

himself did

crusading force, accomplished by

hero of the Crusade, since he commanded

his

to

though

not

the respect to its aims,

single-mindedand unselfish devotion its ablest general. With Godfrey were

and

Eustace.

led by Hugh

were

Peter

raised. nobilityof Europe. Three great armies were Lorraine and Belgium included Godfrey of Bouillon,

the feudal

due

Nicsea.

this catastrophe,joined the main survived the perilsof the expedition.

The

That

to reach

attempt

an

armies

Other

of Vermandois

and

from Robert

his

northern of

brothers, France

Normandy.

large force under Count Raimond of Toulouse, and from Norman Italy a well-equipped and his nephew Tancred. of Taranto led by Bohemund army No single The earliest of these forces started in August, 1096. Urban II had commander led the hosts. appointed Bishop Ademar of Puy his legate; and Ademar designatedConstan tinopleas the gatheringplace. Thither each army made its best it could, arrivingthere in the winter and spring as way little difficulty of 1096-1097, and causing Alexius no by their From

southern

disorder and

France

came

a

demands.

began the siegeof Nicsea. Its surrender On followed in June. July 1 a great victory Asia the Turks over near Dorylseum opened the route across losses through Minor, so that Iconium was reached, after severe hunger and thirst,by the middle of August. By October the That before the walls of Antioch. city crusading host was In

May, 1097, the crusadingarmy

Longl

it captured only after

days

the

later

CRUSADE

FIRST

THE

241

June

difficult siege, on

a

Crusaders

besieged in

were

Three

3, 1098.

the

city by

the

The crisis of the Crusade Kerbogha of Mosul. this time of periland despair;but on June 28 Kerbogha was Yet it was not till June, 1099, that was completelyf defeated. Jerusalem reached, and not till July 15 that it was was cap The tured and its inhabitants complete put to the sword. Ascalon defeat of an Egyptian relieving on August near army Turkish

ruler

12, 1099, crowned On

the

chosen

completion

Protector

1100, and lished

a

Baldwin

the

Latin I

of the

of the

succeeded

was

of the Crusade.

success

work, Godfrey of Bouillon He

died

Holy Sepulchre. by his abler brother, who

county in Edessa, and

(1100-1118). The

was

in

had

July, estab

took the title of

now

Crusaders

from

were

King

the feudal

divided and organizedin full feudal West, and the country was fashion. It included,besides the Holy Land, the principality of Antioch, and the counties of Tripoliand Edessa, which were

practicallyindependent towns important Italian of the knights were most Latin

rite in

of

the

business French.

and bishoprics,

ten

Under

a

but

patriarchof

the

into four arch

monasteries

numerous

the

up;

sprang

divided

was

In

Jerusalem.

settlements

Jerusalem, the country

bishopricsand

of

King

were

established. The

greatest support of the kingdom

soon

came

to

be the

militaryorders. Of these,that of the Templars was founded the by Hugo de Pay ens in 1119, and granted quarters near site of the temple hence II their name by King Baldwin (1118-1131). Through the hearty support of Bernard of Clairthe order received papal approval in 1128, and soon vaux won wide popularity in the West. Its members took the usual monastic and pledged themselves, in addition, to fight vows for the defense of the Holy Land and to protect pilgrims.They not clergy,but laymen. In some were respects the order was like a modern missionary society. Those who sympathized with the Crusade, but were debarred by age or sex from a personal share in the work, gave largelythat they might be Since represented by others through the order. property in the became was land, mostly Templars soon great land holders in the West. Their independence and wealth made them objectsof royal jealousy,especially after their original purpose had been frustrated by the end of the Crusades, and "

"

their

led to

ORDERS.

MILITARY

THE

242

suppressionin

brutal

France

CRUSADES in

the Crusades

(1285-1314). While

Philip IV

LATER

1307

lasted

by King they were

kingdom of Jerusalem. Much the same thing may be said of the great rivals of the Charle Templars, the Hospitallersor Knights of St. John. had founded de a hospitalin Jerusalem, which was magne Refounded stroyed in 1010. by citizens of Amalfi, in Italy, a

it

bulwark

main

of the

before

in existence

was

for the church

the

of St. John

First

Crusade, and

named

was

which it stood. Baptist,near This foundation made into a militaryorder by its grand was du Puy (1120-1160?), though without master, Raymond neg lectingits duties to the sick. After the crusading epoch it maintained a strugglewith the Turks from its seat in Rhodes

(1310-1523), and later

order

Germans

then that

was

in 1190.

the

from

(1530-1798). A third and

Malta

of the

Teutonic

Its chief

but, from 1229 known, East Prussia,where Palestine

work, however, was onward, in Prussia, or it

was

a

founded

Knights,

not as

by

to be

it is

in

now

pioneer in civilization and

Christianization. In was

the kingdom of Jerusalem spiteof feudal disorganization fairlysuccessful till the capture of Edessa by the Mo

hammedans Bernard a

in of

Clairvaux, now

Crusade

new

it of its northeastern

robbed

1144

enlisted Louis

and

and

the Emperor Conrad In 1147 the Second 1146.

III

littleof the fieryenthusiasm

of

the

West

toward

the Eastern

failure, rightlyor wrongly, was One the

of the

reason

quarrelsof

success

fame, proclaimed (1137-1180)

(1138-1152) from

Germany

forth; but it showed its forces largely its predecessor,

such to

as

take

reached

Palestine

Damascus,

In 1171

were

in 1148.

It

feelingin princes that

bitter

a

empire, to whose charged. of the Latin kingdom had

the Mohammedans.

in

set

failure,and its collapseleft

disastrous

a

his

of France

VII

Crusade

perished in Asia Minor, and badly defeated in an attempt was

heightof

at the

bulwark.

the Kurdish

been gen

of Egypt; by 1174 he had eral,Saladin, made himself master secured Damascus, and by 1183 Saladin's territories surrounded A united the Latin kingdom on the north, east, and south.

Mohammedanism At

Hattin

had

the

Latin

loss of Jerusalem

lowed.

The

news

and of

now

to

be met.

Results

soon

followed.

July, 1187. The of most of the Holy Land speedilyfol this catastropheroused Europe to the

army

was

defeated

in

LATER

Crusade

Third

CRUSADES

(1189-1192). None

243

of the Crusades

was

more

led by the elaboratelyequipped. Three great armies were (1152-1190), the first soldier Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of his age, by King PhilipAugustus of France (1179-1223), and by King Richard "Cceur de Lion" of England (1189-1199). was* accidentallydrowned in Cilicia. His army, Frederick deprived of his vigorous leadership,was utterly ineffective. The quarrelsbetween the Kings of France and England, and Philip'sspeedy return to France to push his own political rendered the whole almost abortive. Acre schemes, expedition was recovered, but Jerusalem remained in Moslem possession. Fourth

The

Crusade

(1202-1204)

engaged, but

of

consequences.

Its forces

were

France

as

as

numbers

known

of Jerusalem

was

small

affair

from

and

the

far

religious

districts of northern

Blois, and

that the true

as

from

Flanders.

to the recovery

route

the

therefore

Crusaders

a

and important political

Champagne convinced

had become

Men

was

preliminaryconquest of Egypt. The bargainedwith the Venetians for trans

portationthither. Unable to raise the full cost, they accepted the proposition of the Venetians that,in lieu of the balance due, Zara from Hungary for they stop on their way and conquer This they did. A much Venice. now greater proposal was made should and assist to them. at They Constantinople, stop in

dethroningthe imperialusurper, Alexius III (1195-1203). Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac II, promised the Crusaders and large payment help on their expeditionprovided they would

and the usurper, crafty Venice saw bright hatred Western of the Greeks prospects of increased trade. contributed. Though Pope Innocent III forbad this division overthrow

of purpose, the Crusaders easilydriven from his throne to

keep

his

tians, in

were

persuaded.

Alexius

; but the other Alexius

promises to the Crusaders, who

now

1204, captured Constantinople,and No

booty

was

III

was

unable

with the Vene

plundered its

eagerlysought than the relics in the churches,which now went to enrich the placesof worship of the West. Baldwin of Flanders made was Emperor, and a largeportion of the Eastern empire was divided, feudal fash Western ion,among knights. Venice obtained a considerable A Latin patriarchof Constanti part and a monopoly of trade. made nople was appointed,and the Greek Church subjectto the Pope. The Eastern empire still continued,though it was

treasures.

was

more

CRUSADES

LATER

244

regainConstantinopletill 1261.

not

to

was

disastrous.

It

greatlyweakened

This

Latin

conquest

the Eastern

Greek

empire, and Christianity.

and between augmented the so-called "Children's Crusade" A melancholy episodewas A shepherd boy, Stephen, in France, and a boy of of 1212. Cologne,in Germany, Nicholas,gatheredthousands of children. Stragglingto Italy,they were largelysold into slaveryin Egypt. Other crusading attempts were An expeditionagainst made. initial success, in but ended Egypt, in 1218-1221, had some failure. It is usually called the Fifth Crusade. The most Sixth the curious was (1228-1229). The free-thinking Emperor the hatred

Frederick

II

showed

haste to fulfilhis

but

no

in 1215, but At last,in 1227, he started,

(1212-1250), had

put back.

soon

He

seems

Latin

taken

vows.

to

the

cross

have been

Gregory IX (1227-1241), believinghim a other grounds of hostility, excommunicated

but Pope reallyill, deserter,and having him.

spiteof"

In

forward in 1228, and the next year ban, Frederick went secured, by treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, possessionof and a Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth path to the coast. the

Jerusalem

permanentlylost.

was

in Christian

more

once

was

The

spent, though Louis IX a

disastrous

taken

was

Edward, and

in 1271

of France

(St. Louis, 1226-1270) led

againstEgypt expedition a nd attack on an prisoner,

Palestine

was

continued

to

soon

In

1272.

in 1248-1250, in which he Tunis in 1270, in which

that of last considerable expeditionwas I of England (1272-1307), to be Edward

he lost his life. The Prince

keeping till1244, when it was now crusadingspirit well-nigh

1291, the last of the Latin holdingsin

lost. The talk of

new

Crusades

were

over,

though

for nearlytwo expeditions

men

centuries

more.

Viewed

from

the aspectof their purpose

the

Crusadesjvgre

failures^ Thgy_^made no permanent conquest of the Iloly be "doubted whether they greatlyretarded the LancL It may advance

of Mohammedanism.

and treasure costjnjjyes

Their

of devotion, high spirit their methods not those which modern at best were Christianity regards as illustrative of the Gospel, and their conduct was disgracedthroughout by quarrels,divided motives, and low standards of personalconduct. Whpnjfrpir indirect resistsare was^enormous.

Though initiated in

examinerljhowever orth.

a ;

^zery

a

is taJba-mad^-of

differentestimate

Civilization is the result of

so

complex

factors

245

CRUSADES

THE

OF

RESULTS

Europe that it is hard to assignprecisevalues to singlecauses. would have made progress during this periodhad there been no that remarkable the changes wrought are But so Crusades. that the largestsingleinfluence

is unavoidable

the conclusion

that of thd Crusades.

was

Itiie

which

commerce

and

of

great

the

stimulated

Crusades

the

trade route

the

cities

over

impnrtanpp JBy the sacrifices of political feudal lands and property which they involved, a new third estate ""was preatlv a element, that__oi.Jhglowns" and

the_J]hinp

down

r'."s^

t"

"

stimulated,

Thgjmpntal esp^iallyJnFrance.

of the

horizon

who

Thousands iVnorance

narrow-mindedness

and

were

period wit,npgse^ the

Thf

awakening. development,of It

the church.

the

"

"

highest theological

that of Scholasticism. It in and outside of movements, religious A

Middle

the

great popular

beheld

Kveryw^pr^

East.

civilization of the

UPS

"

the development of the universities.

saw

In it

transforming influence. to flourish. A-great artisvernacular literaturej)egan

study_ of RomarT

Modem

law

became

the national tic_develoipmerit,

a

architecture of northern

France,

The

Europe and enlightenedcom of the periodof the Crusades wras awake pared with the centuries which had gone before. Admitting but one factor in this result, that the Crusades were they were misnamed

worth

the'

Gothic, now

its glorious career.

all their cost.

II.

SECTION

The

ran

epoch of the

NEW

MOVEMENTS

RELIGIOUS

First Crusade

was

one

of

increasing religious

earnestness, manifestingitself in other-worldliness,asceticism, mysticalpiety,and emphasis on the monastic life. The long battle

againstsimony

and

Nicolaitanism

had

turned

popular ordinary religious

sympathies from the often criticised "secular,"or of the clergy,to the monks as the true representatives ideal. Cluny had, in a measure, spent its force. Its very associations had led to luxury of living. New religious success that of the important was were arising,of which the most Cistercians as

Cluny

"

an

order

which

had the eleventh.

dominated

the

twelfth

century

CISTERCIANS.

THE

246

Like Cluny, the Cistercians dictine with

BERNARD

were

of French

monk, Robert, of the monastery

of

origin. A Bene Montier, impressed

of contemporary ill-discipline

the

monasticism, founded a monastery of great strictness in Citeaux, not far from Dijon, in 1098. the first,the purpose of the foundation From of Citeaux

cultivate

to

was

a

life. self-denying

strenuous,

Its

the surroundingsof worship, were of buildings,utensils,even the plainestcharacter. In food and clothingit exercised great that of Benedict, but its self-denial austerity. Its rule was far beyond that of Benedictines was generally. Under its third abbot, Stephen Harding (1109-1134), an Englishman, the sig Four affiliated monasteries nificance of Citeaux rapidlygrew. founded were by 1115, under his leadership. Thenceforth its was rapid throughout all the West. By 1130, the progress houses numbered Cistercian thirty;by 1168, two hundred and and a century later six hundred and seventy-one. eighty-eight, Over all these the abbot of Citeaux had authority,assisted by a yearly assembly of the heads of the affiliatedmonasteries. Much devoted attention was littleto to agriculture, relatively The ideals were withdrawal from the teachingor pastoralwork. world, contemplation,and imitation of apostolicpoverty." Not a littleof the earlysuccess of the Cistercians was due to the influence of Bernard (1090-1153),the greatest religious force of his age, and, by common of the chief one consent, deemed of mediaeval saints. of knightly ancestry in Fontaines, Born near a Dijon, he inherited from his mother deeply religious With nature. some thirtycompanions, the fruit of his powers of persuasion,he entered the monastery of Citeaux, probably "

in 1112.

monastery

Thence

he went

forth in 1115

of Clairvaux, abbot

of which

to found

he

the Cistercian

remained, in spite

A preferment,tillhis death. his prime motive was of the utmost man self-consecration, a love in spiteof extreme monastic to Christ,which self-mortification, found so evangelical an expressionas to win the heartyapproval of Luther and The Calvin. mystic contemplation of Christ his highest spiritual was joy. It determined not merely his own type of piety,but very largelythat of the age in its nobler in Bernard admired force, a moral expressions.Above all,men a consistencyof character,which added weight to all that he of

splendidoffers

said and Bernard

of ecclesiastical

did. was

far too

much

a

man

of action to be confined

RADICAL

248

REFORMERS

influential till the accession Arnold remained city. There the only English IV of the vigorous Hadrian (1154-1159) who has Hadrian, in occupied the papal throne. ever man to expel Arnold 1155, compelled the Romans by proclaiming interdict forbidding religiousservices in the city ; and bar an German Barbarossa sovereign, Frederick gained with the new of Arnold the price of im as (1152-1190), for the destruction Arnold In 1155 hanged and his body perial coronation. was burned. Though charged with heresy, these accusations are the

"

and

vague

offense the

his attack

was

radical

more

had

in the

of

been

opening years whose origin or early

ceticism tion

he

combined

of the

Lord's

ceremonies the as

the

upon

riches

and

Arnold's

temporal

real of

power

church.

Far

of

little substance.

had

have

to

seem

and

the

also in St.

date, probably between

disciple,but Lausanne,"

hardly once

a

burned

1120 so

to

and

be

Benedictine

rather

Christ

dead.

the

himself

was

With

Bruys,

strict

a

as

baptism, the rejec form, the repudiation of all any buildings, and the rejection of

which

for

France, of

Peter

"

of infant

condemned

be

through

prayers

Gilles,he

in

of church

should

instrument

opposed

denial

the

even

century

southern

life little is known.

Supper

which

cross,

twelfth

the

in

preacher

a

had

Having by

the

mob

honored

than suffered.

Peter

burned at

crosses

uncertain

an

Reputed to Henry, regarded was monk, who preached, 1130.

be

Peter's

called with

"of

large

and following, from 1101 till his death after 1145, in western Above France. all, a preacher of ascetic especially southern spiritthe validity righteousness,he denied in ancient Donatist of sacraments administered by unworthy priests. His test of worthiness ascetic life and By this apostolic poverty. was standard he condemned the wealthy and power-seeking clergy. been have Arnold, Peter, and Henry proclaimed Protestants before Their carried

the

conception to

a

radical

extreme

manifestation

was

do

so

is to

misunderstand

them.

They essentiallymediaeval. criticism of the worldly aspects a con widely shared and had its more

of salvation

of clerical life which

servative

To

Reformation.

in the

was

life and

teachings of

Bernard.

WAL-

Empire, of which

later Roman

the

of

Manichseism

AND

INQUISITION

THE

DENSES.

The

CATHARI

SECTS.

ANTICHURCHLY

III.

SECTION

249

CATHARI

THE

adherent (ante,pp. 107, 176), seems an Augustine was f once in the West. It was stimu absolutelyto have died out never lated by;the accession of Paulicians and Bogomiles(ante, p. 235) whom the persecuting policy of the Eastern Emperors drove intercourse with the East fos from Bulgaria,and by the new Manichseism. The result was a new tered by the Crusades. called Cathari,as the "Pure," or Albigenses, Its adherents were from

Albi,one

of their chief seats in southern France.

enthusiastic

ascetic and

Cathari

Crusades, the

the

impulsewhich rose

to

With

the

caused and accompanied

great activity.Though

in many parts of Europe, their chief regionswere Spain. In Italy, and northern France, northern

to be found

southern

southern France, Bernard himself labored in vain for their con version. \Vith the criticism of existingchurchly conditions consequent upon the disastrous failure of the Second Crusade with great rapidity.In 1167 (ante,p. 242), they multiplied

they de

were

able to hold

Caraman,

near

Toulouse

; and

the support of a of the populationof southern

they had

won

princes. In northern Cathari

in Florence

the inhabitants.

France

alone in 1228 year

before the end of the century

largesection,possiblya majority,

Italy they

By the

council in St. Felix

widely attended

a

1200

and

were

the

very

counted

they were

of protection numerous.

its

The

nearly one-third of an exceedingperil the ascetic spirit

the movement and criticism of the wealth of the age found full expression, satisfaction in complete rejection and power of the church saw for the Roman

of its clergyand

Church.

In

claims.

dualists. The Like the ancient Manichses, the Cathari were of the Cathari of Italyheld that the good Bogomiles and many the elder re of whom God had two sons, Satanel and Christ the leader of evil. The Cathari of France belled and became "

generallyasserted two eternal powers, the one good,the other malign. All agreed that this visible world is the work of the evil power, in which souls,taken prisonersfrom the realm of the good God, are held in bondage. The greatest of sins,the and Eve, is human sin of Adam reproduction, whereby original is the number is of prison-houses increased. Salvation by re-

250

THE

CATHARI

pentance, asceticism,and

baptism

in the

the

"consolation."

This

rite,like

church, works

forgivenessof sins and restora It is conferred by laying kingdom of the good God. of hands on by one who has received it,togetherwith placing the Gospel of John the head of the candidate. It is the on succession. One who has received the "con true apostolical solation" becomes but lest he lose the grace, a perfectus; perfect, he must henceforth eschew marriage,avoid oaths, war, posses sion of property, and the eatingof meat, milk, or eggs, since they the sin of the of reproduction. The are product "perfect," called in France, the bons hommes good men or, as they were the real clergy of the Cathari, and there are notices of were of a "Pope" among "bishops" and even them, though exactly what the gradationsin authoritywere it is impossibleto say. By a convenient belief the majority of adherents, the credenti tion to the

"

or

allowed

"believers,"were

joy

the

good

to

hold

marry,

"

property, and

things of this

en

world, even outwardly should Church, that, they receive the "consolation" before death, they would be saved. Those who died unconsoled would, in the opinion of most of the Cathari, be reincarnated in human, or even animal, bodies till at last to

the

Roman

to conform

assured

The they, too, should be brought to salvation. not always to have been fullyinitiated into seem the system. The Cathari

made

"believers" the tenets

of

which they trans Scripture, lated and in which they claimed to find their teachings. Some rejectedthe Old Testament entirelyas the work of the evil others accepted the Psalms and the prophets. All be power, lieved the New Testament from the good God. to come Since all thingsmaterial are of evil,Christ could not have had a real body or died a real death. They therefore rejectedthe cross.

great

use

of

The

evil. The sacraments, with their material elements, were good God is dishonored by the erection of churches built and ornamented

with

services of

the

material Cathari

creations

were

simple.

the Gospel of John, read, especially

all. A

of the

as

The the

evil power.

The

Scriptureswere of most spiritual

then knelt preached. The "believers" and adored the "perfect" as those indwelt with the divine Spirit. The "perfect,"in turn, gave their blessing.Only the Lord's Prayer was used in the service. A common meal, at which the bread was held in many consecrated, was places sermon

was

THE

once

a

month,

as

a

WALDENSES

Supper. The student of the extremely interestingsurvivals of

kind of Lord's

will find in it

movement

251

ancient Christian rites and

ceremonies, orthodox

heretical.

and

and women the "perfect"seem to have been men general, moral steadfast of uprightness! earnestness, and courageous in persecution.Of their effectiveness in gainingthe alle ness walks of life, from the humbler gianceof thousands, especially be no question. there can in no conscious Unlike the Cathari, the Waldenses originated In

to the church and, had they been treated with skill, hostility have separatedfrom it. In 1176 Valdez, would probablynever of Lyons, impressedby the song of Waldo, a rich merchant or wandering minstrel recounting the sacrifices of St. Alexis, a The clergy asked a master of theology"the best way to God." man quoted that golden text of monasticism : If thou wouldst be perfect, go, sellthat thou hast,and giveto the poor, and thou "

shalt have

treasure

in

heaven; and

come,

follow Me."1

Val

into practice.Providingmodestly dez put this counsel literally for his wife and daughters,he gave the rest of his means to the He determined to fulfil the directions of Christ to the poor. the raiment there desig Apostles2absolutely. He would wear He would live by what was nated. given him. To know his duty better he procured a translation of the New Testament. his friends. Here, they His action made a deep impressionon true "apostolicpoverty." By 1177 he was thought, was and the little company and women, joinedby others, men further Christ's directions by preaching undertook to carry 3 in Spirit." repentance. They called themselves the "Poor appealed to the Third Lateran Council, in 1179, for They now permissionto preach. The council did not deem them heret ical. It thought them ignorantlaymen, and Pope Alexander

(1159-1181) refused

III

This

consent.

led to decisive action.

of his later historyas Valdez, who appears in what is known determined,not to say obstinate,felt that this refusal was the He and his associates con voice of man againstthat of God. tinued preaching. As disobedient,they were, therefore, ex communicated, in 1184, by Pope Lucius III (1181-1185). These unwise acts of the papacy not only forced the Wal denses out of the church againsttheir will,they brought to

them 1

a

Matt.

considerable accession. 1921.

2

Matt.

10.

The

Humiliati 3

were

a

company

Probably from Matt.

53.

THE

252 of

in and of penance to hold separate

and

associated themselves

had

who

lowly folk

about

Milan.

meetings, or

excommunicated

were

WALDENSES

for

These, too, to

in 1184

a

life

common

forbidden

were

preach, by Alexander for disobedience.

III,

A

very

Humiliati considerable part of these Lombard now under the control of Valdez. Waldenses, and came

joined the The early characteristics of the Waldenses now rapidlydeveloped. Chief the New that the Bible, and especially the principle of all was Testament, is the sole rule of belief and life. Yet they read it to them a through thoroughly mediaeval spectacles.It was book

of law

"

of minute

to prescriptions,

be

followed

to

the

In accordance learned by heart. letter. Large portionswere with what they believed to be its teachingsthey went about,

by two, preaching,clad in a simple woollen robe, bare footed or wearing sandals, livingwholly on the giftsof their hearers,fastingon Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,reject ing oaths and all shedding of blood, and using no prayers but the Lord's and a form of grace at table. They heard confes sions,observed the Lord's Supper together,and ordained their members as ministry. As unbiblical,they rejectedmasses a for the dead, and denied purgatory. They held and prayers invalid if dispensedby unworthy priests.They the sacraments effective than in church. believed prayer in secret more They and defended women. They had lay preaching by men and deacons, and a head, or rector, of the bishops,priests, Valdez himself; later appointment society. The first was the societyproper, by election. Besides this inner circle, was they soon developed a body of sympathizers, friends" or "be the societywas recruited,but who re lievers,"from whom with the Roman Church. mained outwardly in communion of this development seems to have been immediately sub Most two

"

to

sequent

their excommunication

in 1184.

Much

of it

was

Cathari

and example, yet they opposed justlyregarded themselves as widely different. Certain conflicts of opinion,and a feelingthat the govern led to the secession of the Lom of Valdez was ment arbitrary, that attempts at reunion in breach bard branch a by 1210 due

to

the

Catharite

"

1218, after Valdez's

death, failed

to

heal.

The

two

bodies

estranged. The able Pope, Innocent III (1198-1216), improved these disputesby countenancing in 1208 the organ

remained

ization of pauper

es

which catholici,

allowed

many

of the prac-

Waldenses

tices of the

siderable numbers

253

strict churchly oversight. Con

under thus

were

CATHARI

THE

AGAINST

CRUSADE

back

won

to

the church.

Never

to be body spread. Waldenses were found in northern Spain, in Austria and Germany, as well as in their original homes. gradually repressed,till They were of their chief seat came to be the Alpine valleys southwest At the Reformation Turin, where they are stillto be found. and became fullyProtes they rea'dily accepted its principles, freedom Under modern tant. they are laboringwith religious of heroic in many success parts of Italy. Their story is one honorable history and they endurance of persecution a most still survives,though with the only mediaeval sect which are

theless,the Waldensian

"

"

wide modification the

By ern

and

Spain

and

methods.

the thirteenth century the situation of the in southern France, northern Italy,and north

dubious.

was

Waldenses

measures

ideals original

openingof

Church

Roman

of their

had

Missionary efforts largelyfailed. It was A

needed.

were

crusade

was

to convert

felt that

ordered

as

Cathari

sharper early as

(1159-1181), againstthe viscount of Beziers as a supporter of the Cathari, but it accomplished broke. little. Under III (1198-1216) the storm Innocent of the the murder After having vainly tried missionaryefforts, papal legate,Peter of Castelnau, in 1208, induced Innocent to 1181

by Pope Alexander

III

against the heretics of southern France. The attack was agreeableto the French monarchy, which had These found the nobles of the regiontoo independent vassals. interests of Pope and King led to twenty years of combined of the destructive warfare (1209-1229),in which the power southern nobles was shattered and cities and provincesdevas tated. of the Cathari defenders rendered impo The were tent or compelled to joinin their extermination. The termination of the strugglewas followed by a synod of proclaim

much

crusade

a

importanceheld

Waldenses

had

fore, forbad

made

the

in Toulouse

much

use

in 1229.

Cathari

and

synod, there the Scriptures,except the contained in the breviary,

of the Bible.

laity to possess portions as are

The The

psalterand such and especiallydenounced all translations. The decree was, indeed,local,but similar considerations led to like prohibitions in Spain and elsewhere. No universal denial of Bible reading by the laitywas issued duringthe Middle Ages. A second act of significance the synod of Touwhich marked

THE

254

louse

the

was

INQUISITION

beginningof

a

The systematicinquisition.

tion of the

punishment the earlier Middle Ages. There of death, generallyby fire, at the

or

The

had

ecclesiastics of

mob, but

been

been

a

the hands

identification of the Cathari

good

of

the

in

instances

many

rulers,churchmen,

high standing had with

ques

undetermined

opposed.

Manichseans, against

Emperors had denounced punishment the sanction of

the

later Roman

the

whom

had

of heretics

death

Roman law. penalty, gave such of heretics Peter II of Aragon, in 1197, ordered the execution by fire. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) held that heresy,as of even than treason against God, was greater heinousness of heresy was not treason againsta King. The investigation as yet systematized. That task the synod of Toulouse under took. Its work was speedilyperfectedby Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241), who intrusted the discoveryof heresy to inquisi order tors chosen a body formed chieflyfrom the Dominican As speedilydeveloped,the inquisi with very different aims. formidable Its proceedingswere tion became most a organ. of his accusers not given to the prisoner, were secret, the names liable to torture. who, by a bull of Innocent IV, in 1252, was "

The

of the convict's

confiscation

property

was

of its most

one

economically destructive features,and, as these this feature undoubt shared by the lay authorities, spoilswere edly kept the fires of persecutionburning where otherwise they and other would have died out. Yet, thanks to the inquisition, more shortlyto be described,the Cathari praiseworthymeans than a of a little more were utterlyrooted out in the course greatly repressed. This earlier century, and the Waldenses for the tenacitywith which success accounts, in largemeasure, in the Reformation the Roman Church clung to the inquisition odious

and

age.

SECTION

THE

IV.

DOMINICANS

AND

FRANCISCANS

profoundly affected the medi them Out of an aeval church. by preachers attempt to meet of and and of equal devotion,asceticism, zeal, greater learning, the In the order of the Dominicans. same atmosphere grew of "apostolicpoverty" and literal fulfilment of the commands The

Cathari

of Christ

had

and

in which

their birth.

Waldenses

the In

Waldenses

these

two

flourished,the Franciscans orders

mediaeval

monasticism

DOMINIC

256

THE

DOMINICANS

that of the followingyear, the constitution of the "Or

ter, or der of

AND

Preachers/'or Dominicans, At

the

as

head

they

popularlycalled, "master-general,"chosen were

was a developed. for life. The field was di by the generalchapter,originally vided into "provinces,"each in charge of a "provincialprior," elected for a four-yearterm by the provincialchapter. Each The general monastery chose a "prior,"also for four years. the "master-general," the "provincial chapter included priors,"and an elected delegate from each province. The that combined ingeniouslyauthority system was one, therefore, and representative It embraced monasteries for government. and nunneries for women, not to though the latter were men, preach, but ultimatelydeveloped largeteaching activities. Dominic died in 1221. The order then numbered sixty divided the of Tou houses, Provence, eight provinces among louse, France, Lombardy, Rome, Spain, Germany, and Eng land, and for years thereafter it increased rapidly. Always zealous for learning,it emphasized preaching and teaching, became sought work especiallyin universitytowns, and soon widely representedon the universityfaculties. Albertus Mag and Thomas and Tauler, nus Aquinas, the theologians ; Eckhart the mystics; Savonarola, the reformer, are but a few of the that adorn the catalogue of Dominicans. Their great names learningled to their employment as inquisitorsa use that formed no part of Dominic's ideal. The legendswhich represent him as an inquisitor did baseless. He would win men, are as his example, Paul, by preaching. To achieve that result he would sacrifice or asceticism that would undergo whatever his preachers acceptable to those whom make they sought. Yet it is evident that lowly,self-sacrificing and democratic as Dominic's were aims, the high intellectualism of his order tended to give it a relatively aristocratic flavor. It represented, however, an emphasis on work for others, such as had ap Its ideal was not peared in the Waldenses. contemplation was

"

apart from Great it

as

the was

access

to

men

the honor paid to Dominic

in their needs. and

the

Dominicans,

by the popular homage given to the Francis arid especially The austere to their founder. preacher, cans, of blameless youth, planning how he may and best reach men, to that end, is not so winsome adopting poverty as a means a that of the careless all who sacrifices man figureas gay, young was

exceeded

world, but

OF

FRANCIS his fellows,and

for Christ and

257

ASSISI

adopts poverty the only means as

of his message, but mendation In Francis of Assisi is to be his Master.

saints,but

greatestof mediaeval

Bernadone

Giovanni

being like merely the

not

seen

in

universal.

church

1182, the

or

Assisi,in central

of

cloth merchant

recom

through his absolute all thingshumanly pos

born in 1181

was

a

as

of

who

one,

of desire to imitate Christ sincerity sible,belongs to all ages and to the

not

To

of

son

the

a

the

Italy. boy and Francesco Francis nickname was soon given, sup planted that bestowed on him in baptism. His father,a seri of business,was littlepleased to see the son man leading ous and in the mischief revelry of his young companions. A in Perugia,followinga year'sexperiencesas a prisonerof war defeat in which he had fought on the side of the common people of Assisi,againstthe nobles,wrought no change in his life. A serious illness began to develop another side of his character. He joined a militaryexpeditionto Apulia, but withdrew, for His conversion was is not evident. what reason a gradual proc "

"

"

When

ess.

look

to

I

the

upon

them, and

among

easy."l which

This

of

note

to

he

Rome

cloth from

thought

of God.

Assisi.

near

compassion was first responded.

he heard

his father's warehouse

Damian,

When

them.

bitter had become

me

nature

the fallen house

restore

to

lead

did

Himself

bitter

too

me

me

I left and

sweet

that

Christ-like

Francis's renewed

grimage

of St.

seemed

to

seem

lepers,but the Lord I had compassion upon

had

them, that which

sins it did

yet in my

was

On

a

the divine command

to

pil to

he sold Taking it literally, to rebuild the ruined

church

father,thoroughly dis

Francis's

took him before the gusted with his unbusinesslike ways, now bishop to be disinherited;but Francis declared that he had

henceforth

father

no

probably in

was

For

the next

1206

two

but or

years

the

the

was

to action. 1

He

Testament

poses. 2

to

him, would

107-14.

event

in and

about Assisi, restoringchurches, of which his

Francis wandered

of Christ to the

the

Apostles,2read

they had to Valdez, preach repentance and

as

Highly illuminative of Francis. Robinson, Readings, 1 : 392-395.

Matt.

This

Portiuncula, in the plain outside

There, in 1209, the words service,came

in heaven.

1207.

aiding the unfortunate, and favorite

Father

as

to

as

a

the his

town.

in the

trumpet-call kingdom of spiritand

pur

FRANCIS

258

God, without

might

be

Christ's

before

him.

deference

Most

plainestof garments, eatingwhat He would imitate Christ and obey

in absolute

commands,

in humbled "The

in the

money,

set

ASSISI

OF

the

to

poverty, in Christ-like love,and

priestsas

His

representatives. that I ought to live to me holy Gospel." Like-minded as

revealed

High Himself

according to the model of the For them he drafted a "Rule," sociates gathered about him. composed of little besides selections from Christ's commands, and with it,accompanied by eleven or twelve companions, he appliedto Pope Innocent III for approval. It was practically the same request that Valdez had preferredin vain in 1179. of the Waldenses for But Innocent was now tryingto win some church, and

the

Francis

called themselves

1216, Francis

had

substituted

they

Francis's association love and

henceforth

were

was

a

Assisi,a

that of the

union

The

associates for

name

Minor, to

utmost

or

now

which, by Humbler,

be known.

of imitators of

the practising

thus, he believed,could the world followed.

refused.

the Penitents of

Brethren, by which

togetherby

not

was

Christ,bound

poverty, since only

be denied

and

Christ really

by two, they went about preachingrepentance, singingmuch, aidingthe peasants in their work, caringfor the "Let those who know trade learn one, no lepersand outcasts. of receivingthe priceof their toil,but but not for the purpose for their good example and to flee idleness. And when we are let of the the table not given the priceof our resort to work, us bread door Soon widefrom to door." 1 Lord, begging our formed, which the rapidgrowth reachingmissionaryplans were of the association made possibleof attempting. Francis him self,prevented by illness from reaching the Mohammedans through Spain,went to Egypt in 1219, in the wake of a crusading expedition,and actuallypreached before the Sultan. littleof an organizer. The free associa Francis himself was tion was were increasingenormously. What adequate rules for a

Two

handful

a

of like-minded

ing

in any talents

ory

IX

(1227-1241), who

appointment Under

several

were

insufficient for

soon

Change would have It was event. hastened, however, by the organiz of Cardinal Ugolino of Ostia, the later Pope Greg

body numbering

come

brethren

Francis

thousands.

had

secured

and influence, Ugolino's 1

befriended as

Francis, and

"protector"

that of Brother

Testament.

of the

whose

society.

Elias of Cortona,

FRANCISCANS

THE

the transformation

of the association

259 into

full monastic

a

order

From the time of Francis's absence in rapidlyforward. Egypt and Syria in 1219 and 1220, his real leadershipceased. A new rule was In the adopted in 1221, and a third in 1223. latter,emphasisfwas no longer laid on preaching,and begging established as the normal, not the exceptional, was practice. Already,jn 1219, provinceshad been established,each in charge of a "minister." in 1220, had prescribedobe Papal directions, went

dience

to the

costume,

and

established officers,

order's

irrevocable

a

novitiate,a fixed

vows.

of these

inevitable. They were Probably most changes were unquestionablya griefto Francis,though whether so deeply as has often been contended is doubtful. He was always deferen tial to ecclesiastical authority,and to have seems regarded with regret than with actual opposi these modifications more tion. He withdrew from the world. He was much increasingly in prayer and singing. His love of nature, in which he was far in advance

of his age,

body, he longed

to

was

manifest.

more

never

be present with

Christ.

He

Feeble bore

in

what

How believed to be the reproductionof Christ's wounds. have been received is an unsolved, and perhaps they may insoluble,problem. On October 3, 1226, he died in the church

men

of Portiuncula.

Two

years

later he

proclaimed a saint by Christian historyhave more was

in Few Pope Gregory IX. men richlydeserved the title. In organization, by Francis's death, the Franciscans were like the Dominicans. At the head stood a "minister general" chosen for twelve years. Over each "province" was a "pro vincial

each group minister,"and over a "custos," for, unlike the Dominicans, the Franciscans did not at first possess houses.

As

the Dominicans, provincialand generalchapterswere held by which officers were chosen and legislation achieved. with

Like

the

had almost from Dominicans, also, the Franciscans the first, their feminine branch the so-called "second order." That of the Franciscans instituted by Francis himself,in was "

1212, through his friend and

(1194-1253). The

growth of rapid, and though they soon scholars, they were always more

Clara disciple, the

Franciscans

counted

many

democratic, more

the poor, than the Dominicans. The and Dominicans Franciscans,known

Sciffi of

Assisi

extremely distinguished

was

the order of

respectivelyas

THE

260

TERTIARIES

exercised an Gray Friars in England, soon almost unbounded popular influence. Unlike the older orders, they labored primarilyin the cities. There can be no doubt that their work resulted in a great strengtheningof religion the laity. At the same time they undermined the in among fluence of the bishops and ordinary clergy,since they were absolve privileged to preach and anywhere. They thus strengthenedthe power of the papacy by diminishingthat of the ordinary clergy. One chief influence upon the laitywas the development of the "Tertiaries" "third orders" or a first in connection with the which phenomenon appeared the tradition which it with connects Franciscans, though Francis himself is probably baseless. The "third order" per mitted men and women, stillengaged in ordinaryoccupations, life of fasting, to live a semi-monastic prayer, worship,and be nevolence. A conspicuousillustration is St. Elizabeth of Thuorders de ringia(1207-1231). Ultimately all the mendicant the system tended to on veloped Tertiaries. As time went become almost complete monasticism, from which the mar an ried were be regarded as a very successful It must excluded. the religious ideals of an age which regarded attempt to meet Black

Friars

and

"

the monastic

as

the true

Christian

life.

The

pietyof the twelfth and thirteenth centuries found many and Francis expressionsother than through the Dominicans One important manifestation,especially in the Nether cans. lands,Germany, and France, was through the Beguines associ ations of women fashion,but not bound livingin semi-monastic received their name to have by irrevocable vows. They seem from those hostile to them in memory of the preacherof Liege, Lambert le Begue, who was regarded as having been a heretic; and the Beguine movement undoubtedly often sheltered antichurchlysympathizers. It was in the main orthodox, however, and spread widely,existingin the Netherlands to the present. Its loose organizationmade effective discipline difficult, and, in general,its course of deterioration. A parallel, was one that of though less popular,system of men's associations was the Beghards. The divisions in the Franciscan order, which had appeared in Francis's lifetime between those who would emphasize a simplelifeof Christ-like poverty and those who valued numbers, "

power,

and

influence,were

but intensified with

his death.

The

The

astical

FRANCISCANS

261

Leo, the looser in Elias papal policyfavored the looser,since ecclesi

stricterparty found of Cortona.

THE

AMONG

DIVISIONS

leader in Brother

a

be

politicswould

by

advanced

solidation of the order

the

and

growth

con

lines of earlier monasticism.

the

along The use of gifts embittered. The quarrelbecame increasingly secured by the laxer party on the claim that and buildings was they wene held not by the order itself but by "friends." Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254),in 1245, allowed such use, with the the property of the Roman reservation that it was Church, not tendencies

These

of the order.

stricter party itself fell into dubious

that party

opposed.

But

full power

in 1260.

the

vigorously

orthodoxy. of Floris,in extreme southern Italy (1145?-1202),a Joachim Cistercian abbot who had been reputed a prophet,had divided the historyof the world into three ages, those of the Father,the in to come Son, and the Holy Spirit. That of the Spiritwas "the

eternal

It

Gospel" allyinterpreted.Its sixth decade

Franciscans

was

be

a

new

not

"

of the

to

age of

these

men

who

understood

Gospel,but the old, spiritu

of life was

form

thirteenth

adopted

an

to

be monastic.

century many

views

and

of the

In the

stricter

persecuted not merely by the laxer element, but by the moderates, who ob tained leadership when chosen generalmin Bonaventura was These stricter friars of prophetic faith were ister in 1257. nicknamed "Spirituals."Under Pope John XXII (1316-1334) of the party were burned by the inquisitionin 1318. some the further quarrel arose to whether as a During his papacy complete. John XXII poverty of Christ and the Apostleswas decided in 1322 in favor of the laxer view, and imprisonedthe great Englishschoolman, William of Occam, and other asserters The of Christ's absolute poverty. irreconcilable, quarrelwas and finally X (1513-1521) formally recognizedthe Pope Leo division of the Franciscans in 1517 into "Observant," or strict, and "Conventual," or loose sections,each with its distinct officersand generalchapters. SECTION

The

V.

educational work

alreadybeen banus Maurus imitative and

noted

EARLY

SCHOLASTICISM

of cathedral and

in connection

(ante, pp.

were

monastic

schools has

Bede, Alcuin, and Hra200, 207, 210). It was long simply

reproductiveof

the

with

teachingof

the

Church

Fa-

BEGINNINGS

THE

262

of Augustine and thers,especially the

of John

case

SCHOLASTICISM

OF

Scotus

the Great.

Gregory

Erigena (ante,p. 210), it

Save

showed

in

little

original. Schools, however, increased,especiallyin in the eleventh century, and with their multiplication France of logic,or of dialectics, an came applicationof the methods of theologicalproblems which resulted in to the discussion fresh and fertile intellectual development. Since it originated that

was

schools,the

in the Most

of the

rived

from and

ings

movement

was

known

"Scholasticism."

as

of dialectic method

knowledge

first de

at

was

portionsof Aristotle's writ Porphyry's Isagoge,both the work of Boetius

scanty translations of

of

(480?-524).

development of Scholasticism was inaugurated and ac of "universals" companied by a discussion as to the nature and species a debate that is as to the existence of genera occasioned by Porphyry's Isagoge. Three positionsmight be The taken. extreme "realists,"followingPlatonic influences The

"

"

existed

(ante,p. 3), asserted that universals antecedent

the individual

anterior to and

was

man

to

objects "

under "realists,"

and

i. e., the genus of the individual man.

ante

determinative

apart from

rem,

guidance of Aristotle (ante, with p. 4), taught that universals existed only in connection The individual objects in re. "nominalists," followingStoic for only abstract names precedent,held that universals were moderate

The

the

"

of

individuals,and

had

other

existence

the

resemblances

than

only real existence for them This quarrel between "realism" the "nominalism" continued throughout the scholastic period conclusions. profoundly influenced its theological

was

and and

thought post rem. individual object.

in

The of the

"

dispute once

Ratramnus

as

to

held

in Tours

ceptionthat actual body

Paschasius

was

about

blood

1049, attacked are

changed

of Christ.

as

the to

a

renewal

Radbertus

of Christ's presence Berengar (?-1088), head

the elements and

between

controversy

and

in the Lord's

the nature

Supper (ante,p. 211). dral school

The

scholastic

first considerable

no

of the cathe

prevalent con

substance

into the

His

positionwas essentially nominalist. immediately opposed by Lanfranc Berengar was (?-1089), then prior of the monastery of Bee in Normandy, and to be William the Conqueror's celebrated archbishop of at the Roman synod of Canterbury. Berengar was condemned 1050.

He

conformed

and

was

restored in 1059.

About

ten

ANSELM

264

AND

ABELARD

to make times, has nothing wherewith good past disobedience. Yet, if satisfaction is to be made at all,it can

all

at

ence

rendered

be

Himself

Such

yet

shares

God

as

being is the

a

blessedness

eternal

theory

rests

there is such

could

has

an

of His

human

Not

reward.

brethren.

is

of infinite value

something

God-man. a

nature, who

only is His

That

Anselm's

sacri

reward

is the

widely influen

ultimately on the realistic conviction that objectiveexistence as humanity which Christ

assume.

Anselm

of devout

was

explanation could "I

who

one

it deserves satisfaction,

a

tial

and

man,

to offer.

fice

only by

but

believe,that I

buttress

the

doctrines

understand," is

may

The

his attitude.

spirit, fullyconvinced

that dialectic of the that

motto

a

church. expresses

realist

maintained positionwas by William of Champeaux (1070 ?-1121),who brought the school of St. Victor, near Paris, into great repute, and died as bishop

high

same

of Chalons. The

ablest

made

was

in

Abelard

by

vanity,and

of the dialectic method

use

(1079-1142), a

critical spirit, but

by

Pallet,in Brittany,he studied

Champeaux, both of whom surpassedin ability. On the he took a positionintermediate of

and

teacher

the realism

the nominalist

side.

was

's life

was

teaching with

1115

he

was

such

as

no

Heloise

"

a

canon

niece

under

irreligion.Born

Roscelin

and

William

he

opposed and undoubtedly far vexed question of the universals the nominalism

between

of

one

other, though leaningrather to Only individuals exist,but genera and Hence

he

is

universals

gave

usually called

greater value

of Notre

Dame,

had

enjoyed.

yet

of his fellow

with

canon,

a

He

a

than

By the age of twenty-two stormy. Paris. great followingin Melun, near

lecturer

the

of

means

of the

than names. speciesare more though he "conceptualist," mental mere conceptions. Abelard

no

man

in the twelfth century of irritating method,

he

By

followingin

Paris

fell in love

with

Fulbert

"

a

of

woman

With her he entered into a secret singulardevotion of nature. marriage. The enraged uncle, believinghis niece deceived, emasculated, and thus revenged himself by having Abelard barred

from

monk.

To

resumed

clerical advancement. teach

was

his breath

lecturing. A reply to

far in the

other direction that

Abelard of

now

became

however, and he life,

Roscelin's his enemies

tritheism

charged

a soon

leaned him

so

with

ABELARD his views

Sabellianism,and Soissons

in

made

St. Denis

His

1121.

of that hostility,

Yet

of

gaged head

of

founded

His

at

a

traditional

criticisms had

in

career

of

uncomfortable life. Students

little settlement

a

synod

which

he

aroused,however, the

leader of the age, the powerful religious traditionalist Bernard, and he now sought refuge as the rough monastery in Rhuys, in remote Brittany. most

he left this retreat in

criticisms of the

and

called the Paraclete.

abbot

condemned

were

the monastery of St. Denis an and he now sought a hermit's

place of abode, gathered about? him

orthodox

265

lecture for

correspondencewith

a

a

to

little nunnery

record teresting

at

the

of affection

while in Paris,and

a

Heloise,who

had

Paraclete,which

become

en

the

is the most

in

the part of Heloise on especially which the Middle Ages has preserved. Bernard procured his condemnation at the synod of Sens in 1141, and the rejec tion of his appeal by Pope Innocent II. Abelard a was now "

"

broken

He

man.

the abbot

made

submission

and

found

a

friend in

Peter,

he died in

of

of the monasteries Cluny. In 1142 one under Cluny jurisdiction. Abelard 's spiritwas critical. Without essentially rejecting the Fathers or the creeds,he held that all should be subjected to philosophical examination, and not lightlybelieved. His Yes and No work, Sic et non settingagainst each other "

contrary passages without attempt

"

from at

the

harmony

Fathers or

on

the

great doctrines,

explanation,might

well

arouse

of doubts. His doctrine of the feelingthat he was a sower almost Sabellian. His teachingthat man has in Trinitywas herited not guiltbut punishment from Adam was contrary to the Augustinian tradition. His ethical theory that good and evil inhere in the intention rather than in the act, disagreed with current feeling. His belief that the philosophersof an a

tiquitywere

sharers of divine

with

Christian

ancient

revelation,howrever

consonant

opinion,was not that of his age. Nor Abelard less individual,though decidedlymodern, in his was Like Anselm, he rejectedall conception of the atonement. to the devil; but he repudiated Anselm's doctrine of ransom satisfaction no less energetically. In Abelard 's view the in carnation and death of Christ are the highest expressionof God's love to men,

the effect of which

is to awaken

love in

Abelard, though

open

of his age,

profoundlystimulatingspirit.His direct

was

a

to

much

criticism from

the

us.

standpoint fol-

AND

HUGO

266 lowers

few, but his indirect influence

were

impulse given by him inquiryfar-reaching. A combination

of St. Victor

Hugo was

of

uneventful.

to

Paris,where

Victor,near

quiet,modest

is to

be

seen

(1097?-1141). A German 1115 he

of

the

theological

of the dialectic method

use

mysticism

About

great, and

was

dialectic method

the

moderate

a

Neo-Platonic

intense

LOMBARD

PETER

in the

with

work

by birth,his

of life

he entered

the monastery of St. of its school. A to be head

rose

of profound learningand piety,his influence

man,

remarkable.

enjoyed the intimate friendshipof Ber works were his commen nard. Probably his most significant tary on the CelestialHierarchy of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (ante,p. 171) and his treatise On the Mysteriesof the Faith. In true mystic fashion he pictured spiritual progress in three the of formation as stages cogitation, sense-concepts; meditation, their intellectual investigation; contemplation,the intuitive penetrationinto their inner meaning. This last at tainment is the true mystical vision of God, and the compre hension of all things in Him. No of originalgenius,like Abelard and Hugo, but a man was

He

"

great intellectual service to his

own

age,

and

held in honor

till

the

Peter of the Reformation, was Lombard, "the Master Sentences" in humble in circumstances (?-1160?). Born northern Italy,Peter studied in Bologna and Paris,in part at least aided

the

In Paris he became generosityof Bernard. ultimatelyteacher of theology in the school of Notre Dame, and near the close of his life, in 1159, bishop of the Parisian he was Whether see. ever a pupil of Abelard is uncertain; but he was evidentlygreatlyinfluenced by Abelard's works. Under Hugo of St. Victor he certainlystudied,and owed that teacher which

by

much. his fame

well-accustomed and

the Fathers

fresh

that

Between rests

"

1147 the Four

and

1150

Books

of

he wrote

the work

Sentences.

fashion,he gathered citations from on

he

the several Christian

doctrines.

After

on

the

the creeds What

was

proceeded to explainand interpretthem by the dialectic method, with great moderation and good sense, and with constant reference to the opinionsof his contempo raries. He showed the influence of Abelard constantly, though critical of that thinker's extremer He more was even positions. indebted to Hugo of St. Victor. Under the four divisions, God, Created Beings, Salvation,Sacraments and the Last Things, was

handbook

which

remained

till the

of

round

he discussed the whole

fully met

so

267

UNIVERSITIES

THE

OF

RISE

Reformation

result

theology. The

the

needs

the

main

of the basis

age

of

was

a

that

it

theological

instruction. of the

middle

the

Witn

Scholasticism but activity,

was no

over.

twelfth century the first periodof The schools continued in increasing

creative

geniusesappeared. however, by distinguished,

the century was to the West, which

The the

last half of

introduction

Aristotle,of the greater part of his works and of much Greek philosophybesides, by the Jews of Spain and southern France, who, in turn, derived had

far had

thus

little of

Latin conquest of Constantinople, in 1204 (ante,p. 243), led ultimatelyto direct translations from and greater out the originals.The result was to be a new the Arabs.

The

them

from

burst

of scholastic activityin the thirteenth century.

SECTION

VI.

Cathedral and monastic than

in the twelfth

gatheringabout

UNIVERSITIES

THE

schools

century.

Teachers

were

flourishing multiplyingand

more

Anselm, Abelard, William

students.

them

never

were

of

sim were Champeaux, Hugo of St. Victor,and Peter Lombard ply the most eminent of a host. Students flocked to them in from all parts of Europe. Paris and Oxford large numbers for theology,Bologna for church and civil law, famed were Salerno

for medicine.

sities developed in

a

these

Under manner

which

circumstances

the univer

it is difficult exactlyto date.

of change which they implied was not the establishment had been before,but the association of teaching where none students and teachers into a collective body, after the fashion of a trade guild,primarilyfor protectionand good order, but also for more efficient management and the regulationof ad mission to the teachingprofession. In its educational capacity, such a group often called a studium was generate. The begin nings of universityorganization which must be distinguished of teaching may be placed about from the commencement

The

"

"

the year 1200. By the close of the twelfth two

"universities,"or

dents.

The

for northern

mutual

organizationin

Europe.

century there

were

in

Bologna

protectiveassociations Paris

became

of stu

normal, however,

Its earliest rules date from

about

1208,

THE

268 and

its recognition as

UNIVERSITIES a

III of about

Innocent

legalcorporationfrom In Paris there

1211.

the union

formed by originally versity," and the more private schools into

struction

four

"arts," in which

faculties

the

of the

letterof Pope a

single"uni

of the cathedral school

city,and

divided

preparatory, that

one

"

was

a

for in

the

of

trivium

(grammar, rhetoric,and logic) the quadrivium (astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and and music) were taught; and the three higherfaculties of theology, Over each facultya dean presided. law, and medicine. canon Besides this educational organizationstudents and professors also grouped, for mutual aid, in "nations," each headed were in the several institu by a proctor. These varied in number four the French, the Picards, the tions. In Paris they were Normans, and the English. by lecture and by constant debate, Teaching was principally which, whatever its shortcomings,rendered the stu a method of his knowledge, and dent ready master brought talent to similar to an light. The first degree,that of bachelor, was second admission to apprenticeshipin a guild. The degree, in workman that of master or doctor, resembling the master carried with it full authorityto teach in the institution a guild, for the graduates of the it was where conferred, and soon, to teach anywhere. The use of Latin as largeruniversities, the sole language of the classroom made possiblethe assembly of students from all parts of Europe, and they flocked to the "

famous

more

The

needs

universities in immense of these

students,many

poverty, early aroused '

the

influential and

the

most

was

that formed

in Paris

oldest

by

provided a home dents, under the guidance 1252.

interest

It

known

of whom

were

of extreme

of benefactors.

foundations

Robert and

numbers.

de Sorbon

thus

of

established

(1201-1274) in

specialteaching for

of "fellows"

One

poor

of the house.

stu

Such

"colleges," rapidlymultiplied, shelter to the great majority of students, rich and and gave The system still survives in the English universities. poor. identified with theological the Sorbonne So prominently was instruction that its name to be popularly, came though errone in That uni Paris. the of attached to faculty theology ously, the leader of Europe, as versityranked till the Reformation in the theological studies. especially of which were short-lived, Universities, sprang up many

establishments,soon

as

SCHOOLMEN

GREAT

THE

269

regarded as ecclesiastieal authorization by the Pope being almost essential. The most conspicuousearlylay approval was that of Naples, in 1225, by tli"Emperor Frederick II. great rapidity. In general,they

with

were

"

SECTION

The

HIGH

VII.

of the mendicant

and the devotion versities, ushered

in

tury, and Middle it

as

a

period of Scholasticism

new

The

and

development.

Platonic

series of great

Yet

much

Aristotle,made

much to

Aristotle

met

even

of

use

the

Alexander

mately

a

of Haies

Franciscan, who

of theology in the the Scriptureis to him ment

period of Scholasticism is apparent than in the nominalism realism and ander

was

the mind

a

of

moderate

God, in

a

(?-1245),

of the

theology," opposition,especially the Augustinian Neomuch hostility.A orders, made

mendicant

171, 266).

Englishman

an

taught in Paris, was lightof the whole of the only final truth. broader

due

and

ulti

the treat

Aristotle. With

Yet

this

new

of intellectual interest

range

earlier, though the old problem between continued realist.

re

cen

they, while relyingprimarilyon Plato as reflected in Augustine

the Pseudo-Dionysius (ante,pp.

To

learning,

in the thirteenth

this "modern

adherents

thinkers,all from

his victorysecure. and

without

not

traditionalists

from

toward

movement

called,was

was

orders to

the highestintellectual achievement

marked

Ages.

THEOLOGY

ITS

of Aristotle,the rise of the uni

of the whole

recovery

AND

SCHOLASTICISM

its

pre-eminence.

Universals

exist ante

Alex in

rem

things themselves, and -post rem followed by Albertus this he was

in the

understanding. In Magnus and Aquinas. and a Dominican, Albertus Magnus (1206?-1280), a German studied in Padua, and taught in many places in Germany, but principally in Cologne. He served as provincialpriorfor his order,and was, for a few years, bishop of Regensburg. The learned man of his age, his knowledge of science was most really remarkable. His acquaintance not merely with Aristotle,but with the comments of Arabian scholars,was profounder than in

our

that

of Alexander

piler and

of Hales.

He

was,

however,

a

great

com

originaltheological genius. That which he taught was brought to far clearer ex Aquinas. pressionby his pupil,Thomas commentator

rather

than

an

THOMAS

270

AQUINAS

Thomas

Aquinas (1225?-1274) was a son of Landulf, count about Rome and half-way between Aquino, a small town

of

Connected

Naples.

with

and

staufen

againstthe

was

with the German

Dominican

that

of

imperialhouse

Tancred, the Norman

of Hohen-

Crusader, it

of his parents that Thomas entered the in 1243. His spiritual aware superiorswere

wishes

order

promise,and sent him to Cologne to study under Albertus took his pupil to Paris. On receivingthe Magnus, who soon Thomas returned to Cologne in degree of bachelor of divinity, 1248, and now taught as subordinate to Albertus Magnus. These into were years of rapid intellectual growth. Entrance the Paris facultywas of jealousy long refused him on account of the mendicant orders,but in 1257 he was given full standing there. From 1261 for some years he taught in Italy,then once from 1272, in Naples. He died, on in Paris,and finally, more of Lyons, in 1274. his way In these crowded to the Council of teaching Thomas was constantly consulted on im years active in portant civil and ecclesiastical questions,and was as preaching; yet his pen was busy with results as voluminous was they were important. His great Summa Theologies begun about 1265, and not fullycompleted at his death. Personally he was Intellectually a simple, prayerfulman. deeplyreligious, his work marked and a a. logical was by a clarity, consistency, the few great breadth of presentation that places him among of his

of the church.

teachers has

ceased.

never

1 903)

,

In the Roman

Ms

communion

influence

^Pope_Leo XIIJ (1878JSyldeclaratioji^Qf -is-theJbasis._pj pre_s_ejit_JJieoJogi

in_1 871L_hi a work

instruction .

Closelyassociated with

Aquinas in friendshipand

for

a

time

teaching activities in the Universityof Paris,was John Fidanza Bonaventura. Born in as (1221-1274),generallyknown Bagnorea, in the States of the Church, he entered the Franciscan order in 1238, risingto become A year its "general" in 1257. in

before his death he

was

made

a

cardinal.

Famed

as

a

teacher

in

of for his administration distinguished the Franciscan Much order and for his high character. less influenced by Aristotelian than Aquinas, he was an especially the Neo-Platonic teachingsof Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius. He was a essentially mystic. By meditation and prayer one rise into that union with God which brings the highest may knowledge of divine truth. Yet, though a mystic, Bonaven-

Paris,he

was

even

more

272

THEOLOGY

AQUINAS'S

and

"spirit."The

and

will.

and

enjoyment

soul of

his natural

a

Man's

It is immaterial. As

of God.

is

man

intellect unit,possessing highestgood is the vision

created originally

had, in

man

superadded giftwhich en abled him to seek that highestgood and practisethe three Christian virtues lost by faith,hope, and love. This Adam sin,which also corrupted his natural powers, so that his state became but a posi not merely a lack of original righteousness, Sin is,therefore,more lower aims. tive turning toward than merely negative. In this fallen state it was impossiblefor this corruptionwas Adam transmitted to to please God, and still has the power all his posterity. Man to attain the four natural virtues,prudence, justice, and self-control; courage, but of temporal these, though bringing a certain measure honor and happiness,are not sufficient to enable their possessor addition

to

a

powers,

"

attain the vision of God.

to

restoration is possibleonly through the free and

Man's

merited sins

of

grace

God, by

forgiven,and

infused.

No

act

power

of his

which

to can

man's

practisethe win

of Christ

could

God

it. That a

won

love.

was

choose, and involved

work

merit

which

and

wisest

whole

man's

a

virtues

redemption

reward.

developed and

Anselm

"

efficient method

most

satisfaction for man's

deserves

thus

Aquinas

the

three Christian

differed from

"

work

changed, his

this grace. While God could sins and granted grace without

conceivablyhave forgivenman's here Aquinas the sacrifice of Christ the

is

nature

un

is based

sin,and

It also

combined

moves

on

Christ men

to

views

presented Christ's satisfaction superabounds by Anselm and Abelard. man's sin,and the reward which Christ cannot personallyre to the advantage ceive,since as God He needs nothing,comes Christ does for men what of His human brethren. they can not

do for themselves.

Once now

redeemed, however, the good works

enables

to

man

do

deserve

has power of the Gospel

(ante,p. 103). He

tion,of which

the chief would

now

monastic can

add

of Christ

by

to

fulfilnot

life. He his mite and

the grace

the

can

not

and

that

receive

a

only the precepts

God's

reward.

but

grace

Man

the counsels

of supereroga be the faithful fulfilment of the can

merely

do works

fit himself

for heaven

; he

the treasury of the superabundant merits saints. Yet all this is made possibleonly

to

of God.

Aquinas

thus

finds

full

room

for the

piety

mediaeval

dominating conceptionsof

two

273

THEOLOGY

AQUIXAS'S

and

grace

"

merit. does

Grace

not

Here

alone.

of definition than

all sacred

that

actions

placed five in

were

Peter this

Whether

seven.

The

sacraments

ancient

Abelard

and

of St. Victor

the

defined

Lombard

clearly category

sacraments

him

originalwith

reckoningwas

feeling

stillalive in the

was

conspicuously sacramental

more

a

others, and

than

has its

are

previouslyexisted.

had

century, but Hugo

twelfth

It indiscriminately.

men

the sacraments, and the sacra Scholasticism attained far greater clearness these

definite channels and ments

to

come

as

is still

it at once unsolved problem ; nor was universally accepted. the day. As influence of his Sentences ultimatelywon The an

are Lombard, the sacraments extreme confirmation, the Lord's Supper, penance,

by

enumerated

matrimony. All were through the Apostles,and

ordination, and

directlyor

Christ the head church.

/livery

baptism,

Peter

Without

to

sacrament

in Aristotelian terms

all convey from grace of His mystical body, the

the members

them

there is

no

consists of two of form

and

unction, instituted by Christ,

union

true

elements

matter

with

which

Christ,

are

defined

a

material

(ante,p. 4) "

portion(water,bread,and wine, etc.); and a formula conveying its sacred use ("I baptizethee," etc.). The administrant must have the intention of doing what Christ and the church ap of have, at least in the case pointed,and the recipientmust sincere desire to receive the those of years of discretion, a the sacra These conditions fulfilled, benefit of the sacrament. ment by the fact of its reception that is ex grace conveys "

is the this grace God itselfis the instrumental cause.

operate. Of

opere

sacrament

which

It is the

means

the

by

the virtue of Christ's passionis conveyed to His members. baptism the recipientis regenerated, and originaland

By previouspersonal sins sin is not use

principal cause;

obliterated.

are

Man

pardoned, though the tendency to is now given the grace, if he will

it,to resist sin,and the lost power

virtues.

to

attain the Christian

baptism had become the universal practice, but in the time of Aquinas immersion was stillthe more preva lent form, and had his approval. in The sole recognizedtheory regarding Christ's presence the Supper was that which had been taught by Paschasius Radbertus (ante,p. 211) and Lanfranc (ante,p. 262), and had Infant

THEOLOGY

AQUINAS'S

274

since the firsthalf of the twelfth century

been known

It had

as

transub-

given full dogmatic authorityby the Council in 1215. Fourth Lateran Aquinas but added clear of consecration by the priest of definition. At the words ness of God, so that while the the miracle is wrought by the power "accidents" (shape,taste, and the like)remain unaltered, the is transformed into the very body and blood of "substance" stantiation.

been

Christ. also

accepted (Aquinas body blood

and

and

developed the view that the whole

of Christ

is present in either element. It was with the increasing him, but had grown

originalwith of the laityto partake of the bread only. A withdrawal custom of the cup instigated by the clergy did not take place. The of the cup was rather a layman's practicedue to abandonment fear of dishonoringthe sacrament by misuse of the wine. Such itself as early as the seventh century anxiety had manifested of dippingthe bread in in the adoption of the Greek custom the wine a practicerepeatedlydisapproved by ecclesiastical By the twelfth authority,but supported by lay sentiment. avoiding the use of the wine altogether, century the laitywere apparentlyfirst of all in England. By the time of Aquinas in the bread alone had become prevalent. lay communion Similar considerations led to the generalabandonment by the far from

"

Church, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of the practiceof infant communion, which had been universal,and Western

which

continues

Supper.

of repetition the

the

in need

passion,the

to God, pleasing

on

earth

the present. reach their highestpointin the to

It is the continuation

the evidence of recipient,

rificewell

Church

pietyand worship

Mediaeval Lord's

in the Greek

and

Penance, though

of

source

his union

Him inclining

of the

the incarnation, spiritual upbuilding to

with

Christ,and

to be

a

sac

graciousto those

in purgatory.

not

reckoned

a

sacrament

of

equal dignity

reallyof great, if not baptism or the Lord's Supper, was prime, importance in mediaeval practice. Mediaeval thought regarding the personalreligiouslife centred about the two conceptionsof grace and merit. Baptism effected the forgive of previous sins ; but for those after baptism penance was ness has always been inclined to view The Latin mind necessary. in terms of definite acts rather than as sin and righteousness with

states, and

therefore to look upon

man's

relations to God

under

275

THEOLOGY

AQUINAS'S

the aspects of debt and credit though holding that the only These tendencies basis of credit is the effect of God's grace. than in the scholastic period. They marked more never were "

representedwide-spreadpopular views which the rather than originated. explainedtheologically,

schoolmen

involves four elements, conAccording to Aquinas, penance Contrition Itrit and absolution. is satisfaction, ion,"confession, for the offense againstGod and a determination sincere sorrow

J

not

to

convey

repeat it. Yet grace,

a

penance

that, as all sacraments begun in "attrition,"that is,in fear

Aquinas

holds

by infused grace become a real contrition. Private confession to the priesthad made gradual progress since its advocacy by the old British missionaries (ante,p. 197). of opinion that a true con Abelard and Peter Lombard were without priestly followed by divine forgiveness, trition was even confession, though they thought such confession desirable. The Fourth Lateran Council, in 1215, required confession to of all laymen of age of discretion. the priestat least once a year Alexander of church law. confession thereby became Such and Aquinas gave it more Hales argued its necessity, logical exposition. It must be made to the priestas the physicianof the soul,and include all "deadly" sins the catalogueof which much was now largerthan in the earlychurch (ante,p. 100). Though God forgivesthe eternal punishment of the penitent, of sin. certain temporal penaltiesremain as a consequence This distinction was clearlymade by Abelard and became the These current temporal penalties property of the schoolmen. far as it is in his the offense God sinner's so against satisfy to do so. They also enable him to avoid sin in the future. power They are the "fruits of repentance." It is the business of the which, if not adequate in priestto impose these satisfactions, will be completed in purgatory. this life, for sin,confession,and a willing On evidence thus of sorrow the priest, God's minister or agent, to givesatisfaction, as ness

of

punishment, may

"

absolution.

pronounces

the

Church

guiltyafter

one

was

the

great control of

laitytillthe Reformation, and in the to the present. Without priestlypardon no of baptism of a "deadly" sin has assurance

priesthoodover

Roman

Here, then,

the

salvation. A

great modification

rapidlygrowing in

the

of these

century and

satisfactions a

was,

half before

however,

Aquinas.

A

276

remission of

of all of these

portion or

a

could be obtained.

Such

remission

Bishops had long exercised where

cases

circumstances

services to the church Peter

Damiani

astery

or

a

not

have

were

the

was

rightto

"temporal" penalties an indulgence." in satisfactions abridge "

called

indicated unusual held to deserve

contrition. such

church full

affordingsuch occasions. indulgence system, however.

as

originatedin southern

undisputed,instance

France,

is about

and

the year

Great

consideration.

(1007 ?-1072) regarded giftsof land for

constitute the to

THEOLOGY

AQUINAS'S

These

a

mon

did not

That

seems

the earliest, though Their

1016.

first

II conspicuous employment was by a French Pope, Urban (1088-1099),who promised full indulgenceto all who engaged in the First Crusade, though Pope Alexander II had given similar privileges on a smaller scale for battle againstthe Sara in Spain about Once 1063. cens begun, the system spread with great rapidity. Not only Popes but bishops gave indul constantlyeasier terms. Pilgrimagesto sacred gences, and on placesor at specialtimes, contributions to a good work, such as deemed de a bridge or a road, were buildinga church or even The financial possibilities of the sys servingof such reward. tem were soon perceived and exploited. Since "temporal" included those of purgatory, the value of an indulgence penalties was though undefined, and the tendency to substi enormous, human to which tute it for a real penance nature readily was one responded. Such was the practiceto which Aquinas now gave the classic interpretation.Following Alexander of Hales, he taught that the superabundant merits of Christ and of the saints form a treasury of good works from which a portionmay be transferred to by the authorityof the church, actingthrough its officers, the needy sinner. It can, indeed,avail only for those who are in whole in part, reallycontrite,but for such it removes, or the "temporal" penaltieshere and in purgatory. Indulgences sin. They were amelioration were never a license to commit an of penalties and regretted. justlydue to sins alreadycommitted be no doubt to the But, however interpreted,there can as moral

harmfulness

of the system, of which it was an

or

that it grew

worse

tillthe

Reformation, immediately inducing cause. At their deaths, according to Aquinas, the wicked pass im mediately to hell,which is endless,and from which there is no release.

Those

who

have

made

full

use

of the grace

offered in

the church who

to

once

The

heaven.

of Christians

mass

of imperfectlyavailed themselves of the means in purga undergo a longeror shorter purification

but

have must

grace

at

go

277

SCOTUS

DUNS

1

tory. church

The

is

gatory. ; When

whether

one,

heaven,

when

in pur does one

unity of

the church

earth, or

on

suffers,all suffer

member

one

in

On

well,all share in his good work.

this

;

bases prayers to the saints and for those in purgatory. To be subjectto visible church requiresa visible head.

Aquinas The

for salvation. To the Pope, Pontiff is necessary definitions of faith,and also, belongs the right to issue new the

Roman

Aquinas impliesthe doctrine of papal infallibility. It was Aquinas'sgood fortune that his philosophyand his in the greatest of medi theology alike found a hearty disciple eval poets, Dante (1265-1321),whose Divina CornAlighieri media in these respects,almost wholly in Aquinas's moves, realm of thought. Aojiinaswas_j^nmiriiVa.n, and their natural rivalrysoon drew

his system the criticism of Franciscan scholars, critic was Such of English birth. of whom were a

upon

many

Richard

famons-of (?-1300?); but the most grpn.fpstnf the-schoolmen, w^as-lohn-Huas

of Middletown

all,angLon"-nf

^

spiteof

In been

an

he appears to have Oxford, where he became

Educatedjn Eriglishjnan.

name

teacher, hfi remn'vftd_"Q _Par4S~in-1304. Four lajer the generalof the order sentjiim to Cologne, where

its most years

his

famous

he died justas his work there had be^un. The keejiest-critic ablest diale^jciajXjoLjtlLthe schoolmen, he -attacked arid the

Aquinas^vvith the

the worYof

utmost

He

acumen.

positiona~si authoritative teacher in the

Franciscan

ilar to that of Aquinas in the Dominican,

and

the

rivalriesjof the-Thomists and-Scotists^ontinucd

to

attained order

a

simf

theological

rage-till^the

Reformation.

Aquinas had,

held that

is arbitrar

will.

the

essence

The

did what

of God

will in God He

saw

is being. Xo and man is free.

.to be

right. -To

fact of willing. right by the mere Scotus_what_Godwills_is^ modified realist, .he laid ThoughTTTkeAquinaTTScotus was a

CTiphasisonthe

individual

rather

than

on

the uniyjersal. To

theTncTTvi^ualis the more perfectform. God is absolute Since will,the sacrificeof Christ has the value

Kim

278 which

God

with

say,

had

the

that

"

held that

fit

seen

so

regard it.

to

Christ's death

was

be to limit God's chosen

the way

by

have been suffi Nor

can

the wisest way will. All we can

God.

"

the infusion of grace became contrition. Scotus "attrition" is sufficient by divine appointment to

by

fitness for

secure

other act would

Scotus Similarly, for salvation. Aquinas repentance necessary "attrition" contrition or an fear of punish

demanded

ment

God

would

That

affirm is that it was

minimized

Any

Aquinas, that

of salvation.

has

it.

puts upon

cient for salvation we

SCOTUS

DUNS

pardon.

It is followed

and by forgiveness,

the infusion of grace by which a man is enabled to'do has been pleased to attach merit. certain acts to which God

that

by

The

sacraments

conditions

do

of themselves

not

appointed by

God

convey

but

grace,

the

are

which, if fulfilled, grace

upon

is

bestowed. The

is one

of attitude.'

ment

between

the

difference between

fundamental

most

latter to

Aquinas

Aquinas there could be no theology and philosophy,however To

all the

reach

truths

of the

and Scotus

real

disagree inadequate

former.

To

Duns

in

improbable, yet must theology is philosophically accepted on the authorityof the church. The breakdown had been to show Scholasticism had begun, for its purpose much

dispute which and

Thomists

roused

church

Yet

it "

Scotists

was

doctrine

that

Pius

(1846-1878) in 1854.

IX

radicaHn

Scotus's

was

a

by Pope more

the

loudest controversy between

the

regarding the "immaculate ception" of the Virgin Mary. Aquinas had taught that shared in the original sin of the race. Scotus held that she

free from

of

of Christian truth.

reasonableness The

be

to

was

his divorce

of

orOccam pupil^Wiliiam

be

declared

that

she was

of the

philosophy from theojngy (7=1349?). AnJEnglish

lype, he o"-Ghrist Paris, defendejd_"he-complete-^""er-ty taughtjin mnst

con

parr^st

and

(ante,p. 261), Buffered Pope John XXII Apostles~agajnsjt ijytoo escape_Jn 1328 and Jind refuge with miy Louis of Bavaria^jhgnIn gnarrplwifTT thp Pgpp. Por the rest lifehe defended the indepejgidejijre-^"4he-st^^ qfjhis the

siasticalauthoritywitff the

steadfastness.

utmost

~

"

~~~

dividual

is

objects exist.

Any

purelymental, having no

association in genera

objectivereality. It

Only inor

is

species simply a

ECKHART

280

AND

TAULER

Air ..important ret"F4^euLtatLve of

tin's mystical

spirit

"

Dominican, Mebter-'-LKckhart ^3^1327)^ a, German studied in Paris, served as provincialprior of the Saxon

trict,lived for At

time,. in

a

and Strassburg.

tn

declared

for

his readiness

to

judgment of the church, but two of his teachings wrere condemned true

Neo-Platonic

fashion

real in all thingsis the divine.

In

He

heresy.

opinions to

after his death

years

Eckhart

his

submit

dis

lightin Cologne

th^QS"_oLhis4i"eJ""^

himself

who

the

number

a

In by Pope John XXII. taught that that which is the soul of man is a spark

All individual realityin all men. are izingqualities essentially negative. Man should,therefore, lay them aside. His struggleis to have God born in his soulj

of God.

that

That

is to enter

is the true

into full communion

with

the control of the

and

to

under

come

this effort Christ is the

pattern and

In indwellingGod. Godhead example, in whom

all fulness.

With

soul is filled with

dominant

God

the

dwelt

righteousness.Churchly observances value, but the springsof the mystic life are and

union

with God It is the

eous.

in

may

in

humanity be

of

love some

far

deeper and its direct. Good works do not make right already righteousthat does good works.

more

soul

is all-importantmatter of union with God. privilege Perhaps the most eminent The

that

the

soul enters

of Eckhart's

into its full

was disciples

John

(?-1361), a Dominican

preacher who worked long in Strassburg,of which he was probably a native,in Cologne and in Basel. times in Germany The were peculiarlydifficult. The long contest for the empire between Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria, and papal interferences therein,wrought confusion. The bubonic well as political as religious plague of in England as the "black death/' devas 1348-1349, known tated the population. To his distressed age Tauler was a whose sermons have been widely read preacher of helpfulness, since. In them ever are thoughts,which "evangelical" many Tauler

aroused

claim

the that

admiration he

was

a

of

Luther, and

Protestant

have

before

often

led to

Protestantism.

the He

and condemned emphasized the inward and the vital in religion, His real dependence on external ceremonies and dead works. positionwas that of a follower of Eckhart, with similar mystic emphasis on union with the divine,on "God being born within,"

though

he

avoided

the extreme

statements

which

had

led to

281

MYSTICS

OTHER

of Eckhart's opinions. A less practical churchlycondemnation tendencies of the same but widely influential representative writ the ascetic Dominican, Henry Suso (?-1366), whose was further this mystic point of view. ings did much'to Through these influences a whole group of mystic sympa raised up in southwestern thizers was Germany and Switzerland, called themselves

who

"Friends

of

God."

These

included

and a considerable clergy,but nuns the laymen, Rulman of laity. Among number Merswin, influential. Origi the most of Strassburg (1307-1382), was intimate with Tauler, nally a banker and merchant, he was

only

not

of the

many

all the latter part of his mystifiedhis contemporariesand

views he shared, and life to religious labors. He

devoted

whose

posterityby to

letters and

from

come

a

which

books

"great Friend

he set forth purporting in the

of God"

Highlands (i.e.,

whose existence was long believed real,but now Switzerland), is practically proved to have been a fiction of Merswin himself. the The most important work of these Friends of God was "German Theology," written late in the fourteenth century and unnamed priestof the Deutschby an otherwise unknown Haus

Herrn be

to

of Frankfort, which

printedby

in 1516

him

and

was

to

influence Luther, and

1518.

mystics all leaned stronglytoward pantheism. They all,however, representeda view of the Christian life in a transformingpersonalunion of the its essence which saw soul with God, and they all laid little weight on the more ex ternal methods of ordinarychurchly life. This mystical movement furthered in the Netherlands was influenced by by John of Ruysbroeck (1294-1381), who was of Tauler Eckhart's writingsand enjoyed the personalfriendship of God. and other of the Friends Ruysbroeck's friend,in German

These

turn, who

Gerhard

was

his

upon

Groot

brilliant scholar, the most influ 1374, became

(1340-1384)"

conversion, about

a

A more conserva popular preacher of the Netherlands. much less tive churchly thinker than Ruysbroeck, Groot was of great practicalgifts, radical in his mysticism. A man led shortly after his death the foundation Groot's work to Florentius Radewyn (1350-1400), of the Breth by his disciple,

ential

ren

of the Common

house

Was

Groot's

association,of which the first in Deventer, grew of the union of out

Life.

established

converts

for

a

This

warmer

religiouslife. They grouped

BRETHREN

282

OF

themselves

in houses

all.

houses

COMMON

THE

of brethren

and

LIFE

of

who lived es sisters, life under common a monastic rules,but without per sentially manent exercises,copying books of engaged in religious vows, a nd i n edification, especially teaching. Work was requiredof These

teenth

much

wide-spreadin the Netherlands to promote popular piety in

and

in

the fif

century.

The the

did

and

Germany,

were

of the

Brethren of

Common

Life

non-monastic

were

in

Groot's

preaching led to an influential for those who preferredthe monastic movement life, though it, full form till take his did after not death. This also, shortly foundation the of the famous was monastery of Windesheim, which of affiliatedconvents about it, soon gathered a number and became a reformatory influence of power in the monastic and Germany. In both these move life of the Netherlands the mystic influence was ments stronglypresent, though in a much the immediate more ehurchly form than among disciples matter

vows.

of Eckhart. The

noblest product of this simple,mystical,ehurchly piety is the Imitation of Christ a book the circulation of which has "

exceeded

that

of

other

any

of

product

the

Middle

Ages.

its

Though

authorship has been the theme of heated contro it was unquestionably the work of Thomas a Kempis versy, A of the Brethren the of Common Life (1380?-1471). pupil of his long life was in Deventer, most spent in the monastery St. Agnes, near This of Mount foundation Zwolle. was a of the Windesheim member congregation,of which Thomas's older

brother, John,

outwardly the

was

understood,

as

did

was

most

of the

one

uneventful

founders. conceivable

Thomas's ; but

few

life have

he, the languageof simple,mystical devo

tion to Christ.

The which Such

mysticalmovement broke was

with

that

all

had

its reverse

ehurchly

of Amalrich

and

side in

even

of Bena

all

pantheism moral teaching.

(?-1204),

a

a

teacher

in

led by the writingsof John Scotus Paris, who was Erigena Neo-Platonic (ante,p. 210) and the extreme opinions of the Spanish Mohammedan expositorof Aristotle,Averroes (11261198), to the conclusions that God is all,that He is incarnate in the believer as in Christ, and that the believer cannot sin.

He

also held that

as

the Jewish

law

ished by the coming of Christ, so

and

ritual had

been

abol

that of earlier Christianity

EXTRAVAGANCES

MYSTICAL was

done

now

Amalrich left

Similar

the

coming by Pope

recant

of the

Holy Spirit.

Innocent

III,but he

of followers.

extravagances and

Germany

by

compelled to

was

number

a

with

away

283

the

kept cropping out

Netherlands, where

the

its chief

described had

regionsof mysticism already it was simply ways in the

following. In many It was that mysticism carried to a pantheistic extreme. usu with one believingthat the soul could become ally quietist, God of that union its by contemplation,and in consequence acts could no longer be sinful,since it is controlled by God. and penances, All sacraments even superfluous. prayer, become These

views

united into

not

were

constitute

their holders

a

a

compact

system,

sect, though they have

did

nor

often been

so

the "Brethren and Sisters of the Free regarded and named rather fre Spirit.'1Undoubtedly, however, such notions were quently to be found in monasteries and nunneries,where mys the Beguines, ticism was practisedextravagantly,and among whom not only they brought into doubtful repute. They were but were opposed by the greater repressedby the inquisition, has been given. account an mystic leaders of whom

SECTION

The of

one

IX.

MISSIONS

periodbetween the gainsand losses for

AND

Crusades

and

Christendom.

DEFEATS

the Reformation In

tian forces

was

Spain the Chris against the Mo

struggledwith increasingsuccess hammedans. Gradually,four Christian states dominated in 1085, defeated peninsula. Castile conquered Toledo Moslems

Las

at

Leon

into

both

sides of the

a

Navas

strong

state

de

Tolosa

in 1230.

Pyrenees.

in 1212, and Little Navarre

In the East

the

with

stretched

on

Aragon on the east winning their independence, the peninsula was on power

Portugal on the west were that by 1250 Mohammedan so confined to the kingdom of Granada, whence in 1492. The Spanish Christian kingdoms real power of Spain was not to be manifest and

the

Meanwhile

and

of Ferdinand

united

the

it was

to be driven

were

weak.

The

tillthe

jointreign Aragon in 1479. great Mongol empire, which began with the

Isabella united

conquest of northern

Castile and

China

in 1213, stretched across northern of what is now European Russia between

Asia, conqueringmost 1238 and 1241, and reachingthe borders

of Palestine in 1258.

tral Asia

(ante,p. 149)

was

first rush

of conquest

was

control

till the

be

to

accessible

was

TO

MOSLEMS

nineteenth

Church

annihilated.

almost

central Asia

over,

it had

as

and

AND

Nestorian flourishing

the

this devastation

By

CHINA

TO

MISSIONS

284

century.

About

Polo, made

cen

Yet

after the

under

Mongol

before and

been

never

in

1260

two

not

was

Venetian

the

long journeyby well received by the Mongol land to Peking, where they were Khan, Kublai. Returning in 1269, they started again in 1271, entered the famous Marco, who taking Nicolo's more son, merchants, Nicolo

Khan's

service.

in Venice. John

It

established

for

a

Pope

archbishopwith

had

six

China

return

that the Polos an

Italian

V

were

back

Franciscan,

Peking,where 1300. Christianityflourished (1305-1314) appointed John an

started in 1291

about

Clement

end, however, when

pelledfrom

their

church

a

till 1295

not

Corvino,

he

time.

was

before

Even

of Monte

Maffeo

for

The work came to an bishopsunder him. the Mongols and other foreigners were ex by the victorious native Ming dynasty in

1368. Efforts tle

was

Francis

success.

Egypt

made

were

to reach

the

Mohammedans,

of Assisi himself

preached to

but with the Sultan

lit in

famous as a missionary (ante,p. 258). More Lull (1235?-1315), a native of the island of Ma

in 1219

Raimon

converted in 1266, wholly worldly life he was and now studied Arabic, as a missionarypreparation,writing also his Ars Major, which he intended as an irrefutable demon stration of Christianity.In 1291 he began missionary work He labored in Tunis, only to be expelledat the end of a year. to induce the Pope to establish schools for missionarytraining. His He went to Africa and was more once again driven out. eloquence persuaded the Council of Vienne in 1311 to order teaching in Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, in Avignon, Paris,Salamanca, Bologna, and Oxford, though this remained he went Back to Tunis a missionaryin 1314, as a pious wish. He had and met a martyr's death by stoningthe next year. of mission little to show of missionaryachievement, but much ary inspiration. the loss of The prevailingcharacteristic of this period was

jorca.

once

From

Christian

a

territories.

The

last of the

conquests of the

A passed out of their hands in 1291. Turks. Mohammedan force was new arisingin the Ottoman Sprung from central Asia, they attained an independent posi-

Crusaders

in Palestine

TURKS

THE

OF

SPREAD

285

they invaded the Euro portion of the Eastern empire, capturing Adrianople in pean lands. the Balkan 1361, and graduallyspreadingtheir rule over Con till 1453, when of the empire remained But a fragmeiit The end. at an stantinoplefell and the Eastern empire was victorious

In

in 1300.

tion in Asia Minor

of the Turks

career

1354

them, in the Ref

to carry

was

Europe. Christians ruled by nearly half across them rights,though Christian wor deprived of political were ship and organizationcontinued, under conditions of much oppression. The Greek Church, which had stood higher in cul till the thirteenth century, was ture than the Latin, certainly now largelyrobbed of significance.Its daughter in Russia was not conquered,however, and was growing rapidly in strength and importance. With it lay the future of the Eastern Church. ormation

age,

SECTION

The ended

between

contest

by

PAPACY

THE

X.

quarrelhad involved The later disputeswere

a

ITS

DECLINE

by

empire was

thereafter

one

means

Hildebrand's

far less.

purification.

great question of church

plaincontests for supremacy. Frederick "Barbarossa" (1152-1190),of the house

staufen,was

no

(ante,p. 234). The religious

of Worms

strugglewas

AND

HEIGHT

ITS

and

papacy

the Concordat

interest in the

AT

of the ablest of the

of Hohen-

Holy Roman aspiredto a

Emperors.

similar con Charlemagne, and he trol of churchlyaffairs. A vigorousruler at home, no sovereign In of Germany than he. had been more thoroughly master controlled the he practically of Worms spiteof the Concordat bishops. On the other hand, his appointment of German resistance from the cities of northern claims met with energetic induced by growing strong on the commerce Italy,which were he at first successfully This hostility the Crusades. overcame.

His

With

model

was

Alexander

mounted

III

(1159-1 181) Frederick's

most

The cardinals were papal throne. minority elected a an imperialistic

the

choice,and

called himself

Victor

IV, and whom

bishopspromptly supported.

Frederick

Alexander's

difficult. In 1176, however, Frederick

was

able enemy divided in the

rival and

Pope, who

the German

positionwas long at Legnano

defeated

forced to by the Lombard league of Italian cities,and was Frederick's attempt to control the papacy recognizeAlexander. the German had been shattered,but his authorityover bishops

HENRY

286

II AND

scarcelydiminished.1 the papacy, in 1186, by the heiress of Sicilyand papal states from north

Frederick

was

Alexander II

III

also

THOMAS

BECKET won

a

further

success

over

the

marriage of his son Henry with southern Italy,thus threateningthe

and

won

south. at

least

an

apparent

success

over

of the ablest of

EnglishKings. That the English monarch, in order to strengthen his hold over church, secured the election of his apparentlycomplaisantchan cellor,Thomas Becket, as archbishop of Canterbury, in 1162. Once himself a determined in office, Becket showed upholder of ecclesiastical claims. Henry now, in 1164, secured the en of the Constitutions of Clarendon2, limitingthe right actment of appeal to Rome in ecclesiasticalcases, restricting the power of excommunication, subjectingthe clergyto civil courts, and putting the election of bishops under the control of the King, do homage. Becket to whom now openly broke they must with the King. In 1170 a truce was brought about, but it was of short duration, and a hasty expressionof anger on the part of Henry led to Becket 's murder just at the close of the year. used the deed skilfully.In 1172 Becket Alexander was can Henry

(1154-1 189),one

till the

continued

onized, and

popular of English saints. Constitutions Yet

Reformation

Henry

Clarendon, and do

of

was

forced

penance

of the

one

to

most

abandon

at Becket's

the grave.

in

spiteof this apparent papal victory,Henry continued his control of English ecclesiastical affairs much before. as Frederick He

"Barbarossa"

the Third

Crusade.

(1190-1197),who, in by 1194, obtained full possessionof his wife's inheritance in Sicily and southern Italy,and developed ambitious plans of greatly with both ends of The papacy, extending his imperialsway. in great sovereign,was Italy in the possessionof the German relieved by the early political danger; but the situation was in death of Henry VI in 1197, and the accession to the papacy Innocent III of its ablest mediaeval representatives, 1198 of one was

succeeded

died in 1190, on his son, Henry VI

(1198-1216). "Innocent and

III

piety,but

1See

"Peace

was no

of

of personalhumility unquestionablya man Pope ever had higherconceptionsof the papal

Venice," Henderson,

Select Historical

Documents,

pp.

425-430. 2

Gee

68-73.

and

Hardy,

Documents

Illustrative of English Church

History, pp.

288

THE

AT

PAPACY

ITS

HEIGHT

OF

TOWER

humiliatingsubmission to the Pope, in 1213, but acknowledged his kingdom a fief of the papacy, agreeingto pay a feudal tax marks to the Pope of a thousand annually.1 Yet when the barons and clergy wrung Magna Charta from John in 1215, denounced it as an injuryto his vassal. Innocent Innocent's In the internal affairs of the church policy was He claimed for the the stronglycentralizing. rightof papacy He asserted sole decision in all disputed episcopalelections. authorityto sanction the transfer of bishops from one see to another. His crusade against the Cathari has already been noted

The

(ante,p. 253).

great Fourth

Lateran

Council

of

declared an article of was 1215, at which transubstantiation also was faith,and annual confession and communion required, The

Constantinopleby the Fourth Crusade (ante,p. 243), though not approved by Inno of the Greek Church to promise the subjection to cent, seemed papal authority. reached the summit of its worldly In Innocent III the papacy The succeeding Popes continued the same struggle, power. but with decreasingsuccess. The Emperor Frederick II,ruler of Germany, as well as of northern and southern Italy and of much political abilityand of anything but Sicily,a man mediaeval piety,though put in office largelyby Innocent III, soon proved the chief opponent of the world pretensionsof the Under Gregory IX (1227-1241), the organizerof the papacy. and the patron of the Franciscans (ante, inquisition pp. 254, 258), and Innocent IV (1243-1254) the papal contest was carried on bitterness and with very againstFrederick II,with the utmost Frederick was excommunicated, and rivals worldly weapons. raised up against him in Germany by papal influence. were seemed convinced that only the destruction of the The papacy Hohenstaufen line,to which Frederick belonged,would assure its victory. On Frederick's death in 1250 it pursued his son, Conrad IV (1250-1254), with the same and gave his hostility, of England, heritagein southern Italy and Sicilyto Edmund A new of King Henry III. influence,that of France, was son making itselffelt in papal counsels. Urban IV (1261-1264) was cardinals. He now Frenchman and appointed French a gave, brother Charles of in 1263, southern Italyand Sicily to Anjou, This of King Louis IX of France (1226-1270). was. a turninga

papal triumph.

1

conquest

Henderson,

pp.

of

430-432.

POWER

PAPAL

LIMITING

FORCES

NEW

289

and with it the dependence of the papacy pointin papal politics, also a Frenchman, France reallybegan. The next Pope was on IV Clement Conradin, the (1265-1268). During his papacy of Conrad IV, asserted his hereditary claims to son young He was southern excom Italy and Sicilyby force of arms. municated by Clement IV and defeated by Charles of Anjou, in Naples, in 1268. With beheaded by whose orders he was the line of Hohenstaufen, which the Popes had so him ended to think that strenuouslyopposed, though there is no reason the Pope was responsiblein any way for Conradin's execution. These long quarrels and the consequent confusion had of the Holy Roman Empire. greatly enfeebled the power

Thenceforward,

to

of far more the Reformation, it was a group effective single an sovereignty. It was able

feeble states than to offer little resistance to papal demands.

however, arisingthat would a

world

sovereigntyas

Other

inevitablymake

Innocent

III had

forces were, such impossible,

exercised.

One

such

which caused men nationality, feel that, as Frenchmen or Englishmen, they had common Such the Pope himself. terests against all foreigners, even of unity had not existed in the earlier Middle Ages. sense especiallyin France and England was rapidly developing,

force

was

the

new

of

sense

the latter half of the thirteenth the

rise in

middle

wealth, intelligence,

A

century. and

second

cause

x

to

in a

It in

was

influence of the political

in the cities. These class,especially

\vere

restive under

ecclesiastical interference in temporal affairs. Closely asso the growth of a body of lay ciated with this development was law. These lawyers and the renewed study of the Roman were men graduallydisplacingecclesiastics as royal advisers, and developingthe effectiveness of the royal power by prece the Roman which knew nothing of dents from a body of law mediaeval ecclesiastical conditions. There was also a growing conviction that such thoughtful and religiousmen among had followed were incon worldly aims as the recent papacy "

"

sistent with

the

true

interests of the

growing forces with which of the papacy,

the papacy

must

church. reckon.

These The

were

weak

that it worldly point of view, was had no adequate ph$*icalforces at its disposal. It must bal off one ance competitoragainstanother, and the wreck wrought in Germany left the door open to France without forces which could be matched againsther. ness

from

a

Papal X

VIII

BONIFACE

290

in

interference

(1271-1276) ordered

AND

PHILIP

Germany

the German

THE

continued.

FAIR

Pope Gregory

in 1273, electors,

to choose

King, under threat that the Pope himself would make the appointment if they failed. They chose Rudolf I, of Habsthe concessions to burg (1273-1291), who promptly renewed made which had been once the papacy by Otto IV and Fred a

erick II.

Quite otherwise

it speedilywith France.

was

The

power

of

rapidlygrowing, and in Philip IV, had a King of absolute un"the Fair'' (1285-1314), France obstinacy,and high conceptionsof royal au scrupulousness, held was thority. In Boniface VIII (1294-1303) the papacy there of as loftyaspirations to world-rule as had ever by a man been represented. Neither participantin the strugglecom had arisen between much mands France, sympathy. War Scotland, and England which compelled the English King, Edward I (1272-1307), to rallythe support of all his subjects of the Commons to take a place by invitingthe representatives in Parliament, in 1295, thus giving them a permanent share The in the English national councils. strugglealso induced and England to tax their clergyto meet the Kings of France The its expenses. clergycomplained to Pope Boniface, who, in 1296 issued the bull Clericis laicos,1 excommunica inflicting demanded tion on all who or paid such taxes on clerical prop erty without papal permission. Philiprepliedby prohibiting from France, thus striking the export of money at the revenues The latter moved of the Pope and of the Italian bankers. Boniface to modify his attitude so that the clergycould make allowed that, in great neces voluntary contributions,and even It was the King could lay a tax. a royalvictory. sities, Philip and Boniface Comparative peace prevailedbetween In 1301 the struggleagain began. Philip for a few years. the Pope had had Bernard Saisset,bishop of Pamiers, whom recentlysent to him as nuntius, arrested and charged with The high treason. Pope ordered Bernard's release and cited the French bishops,and ultimatelyKing Philip himself, to Statesthe first French Rome. In reply,Philip summoned were General, in which clergy,nobles, and commoners rep This body, in 1302, sustained the King in his atti resented. tude of resistance. The Pope answered with the famous bull, that

monarchy

1

had

been

Henderson,

pp.

432-434

;

Robinson,

1

:

488-490.

It affirmed

civil powers.

over

acy

of

sanctam,1the high-watermark

Unam

AVIGNON

TO

REMOVES

PAPACY

THE

291

papal claim

that

to suprem

temporal

powers

are

authority,which is judged in the per subjectto the spiritual It declared,followingthe opin of the Pope fby God alone. son ion of Aquinas (ante,p. 277), "that it is altogethernecessary human to salvation for every being to be subjectto the Roman affirmation the exact

pontiff" an "

has led to

of which

scope

with new a subsequent discussion. Philip answered charged with an absurd series assembly, where the Pope was of crimes, involvingheresy and moral depravity,and appeal much

issued for

was

Pope might be

therefore

He

Nogaret,

sent

his

Pope

consent.

to

juristvice-chancellor,William

able

himself

joined to

who

the

force

would

He

threat.

mere

no

the

that this should

determined

Philipwas

be tried.

before which

of the church

generalcouncil

a

Boniface's

ancient

family

Together they gathered a force and about to Boniface made a prisonerin Anagni, just as he was proclaim Philip'sexcommunication, in 1303. Boniface was Sciarra Colonna.

enemy,

him, but

freed

soon

would

He

courageous.

make

friends

His

concessions.

later he died.

month

a

no

temporal claims that Philip's It was of the papacy. not primarily representa tives had held Boniface for a short time a prisoner. A new force had arisen,that of national sentiment, to which the King the spiritual and against which had appealed successfully, had been of little avail. The of the papacy papal weapons in temporal affairs had proved impos hope of world-rulership These

events

were

a

to the

realization.

sible of permanent for the

Worse

staggeringblow

death of Boniface's

follow.

speedilyto

was

papacy

After

the excellent Benedict

successor,

the

XI

(1303de Gouth,

Frenchman, Bertrand of weak who took the title of Clement V (1305-1314). A man moral faults,he was of character and grave fullyunder ness He declared Philip the influence of King PhilipIV, of France. innocent of the attack on Boniface VIII, and cancelled Boni face's interdicts and excommunications, modifying the bull 1304), the cardinals chose

Unam

sanctam

to

please the King.

domination

that

of the seat

of the papacy,

Rhone

"

town

a 1

patent

was

not

a

to

pp.

in 1309, to

435-437

evidence

all the world

belongingindeed

Henderson,

An

;

to

Robinson,

the removal

was

Avignon

"

on

the French 1

:

of French

346-348.

the river

kingdom,

of the

establishment

to the

popularestimate amounting

in

but

Undoubtedly the troubled state of Italian At Avignon something to do with this removal. its seat till 1377 to have a period so nearly was

in France.

papacy

had politics

the papacy equal to the traditional

"

exile of the Jews

Babylonish Captivity.

of the

Nor

to

as

the

was

the

earn

name

of Clement's

cup

King compelled him the cruel destruction of the Templars (ante,p. 242). V's pontificate is interesting marking the con as

humiliation

cold-blooded

yet filled. The

join in

to

LAW

CANON

292

Clement

clusion,to the present, of the official collections of church law.

"canon"

The

their

Middle

famous

was

teacher

of

decisions,the decrees of synods of which collections, Ages had seen many

canon

1241) caused

ing

and

that

of

em

Popes.

the most

gathered, probably in 1148, by Gratian, a law in Bologna. Pope Gregory IX (1227-

officialcollection to be formed, in 1234, includ

an

decrees

new

product

early councils,and

since the

of the historyof the church braced

the

great body of authoritywas

That

or

to

up

his time.

Pope

Boniface

VIII

(1294-

in 1298, and Clement V 1303), published a not pub (1305-1314) enlargedit in 1314, though his work was similar

lished till 1317, under The

addition

his successor,

John

XXII

(1316-1334).

erected through the great structure, thus laboriously

turies,is domains from

a

of ecclesiastical jurisprudenceembracing all

mass

of ecclesiasticallife.

Clement

church

Pius X

V

to

century, the

twentieth

the

officialcollections ceased

Though

creation

in all ages, and the recent (1903-1914), in 1904 ordered the codification and

law

cen

has

of the plification

continued

whole

body

of

law by

canon

a

of

Pope, sim

commis special

sion.

SECTION

XI.

THE

PAPACY THE

The

Popes, while the

Frenchmen.

It seemed

IN SCHISM

papacy

was

if the papacy association caused as

CRITICISM.

AVIGNON,

in

Avignon,

had

become

were a

all

French

greatly increased rest in nations which, lessness in view of papal claims, especially of this like England, were with France at war during much period,or Germany on which the still continuinginterference of the papacy bore hard. The ablest of the Avignon Popes double was (1316-1334). The unquestionably John XXII institution.

This

CRITICS

OF

imperialelection

Germany,

supporters of Louis

between

of Austria.

Frederick

*

in

THE

PAPAL

CLAIMS

in 1314, had the Bavarian

293

divided

that land

(1314-1347), and

John

XXII, supported by King Philip V of France (1316-1322),thought the occasion ripeto diminish German influence in Italyfor the benefit of the States of the He declined to recognize either claimant, and Church.; deq^redthat the Pope had rightto administer the empire during Louis interfered in Italian affairs the Pope When vacancies. him, and

excommunicated

lasted tillLouis's death.

which

issued the famous

tors

confirmed the

by

empire

needs

same

year,

approval

was

that

from

continuation

or

elec

Rense, which

the

no

on

ensued

papacy

the German

of 1338, in

for full entrance

whatever

papacy

declaration

of the

the

In its course

Reichstag in Frankfort

the

head

chosen

with

contest

a

the

in the

duties of his office. These

attacks

the state

upon

aroused of these

considerable

significance.One Alighieri(1265-1321). poet, Dante Monarchy, is not surelydated, but was and

Dante

1318.

It

mankind.

holds

that peace

defenders literary the

was

His

Latin

great Italian

treatise,On

composed between is the

best

of

1311

condition

of

is most

effectivelysecured by an Emperor. The power of empire rightfully It is as neces to Rome. came for man's is to guide temporal happinessas the papacy sary Each is directlyfrom to eternal blessedness. men God, and neither should interfere in the province of the other. Dante the papal interpretation of the Bible carefullycontroverts and

texts

the

state

Dante

was

historical instances were no

based.

on

which

All this is the

free-thinker but

claims more

of theologically

to

control

over

impressivesince most

impeccable

orthodoxy. Much

radical

than

vastly influential on later political theories were several treatises produced in France. The Dominican, John of Paris (1265?-1306), taught that both based the sovereigntyof the papal and royal powers are on people,and neither has a rightto interfere with the sphere of the other. The most important of these works was the Defensor Pacts

more

of Marsilius

(?-1328)~ It

is the

of Padua

Dante, and

"1-1342?)

and

John

of Jandun

modern treatise that the startlingly produced. Its principalauthor, Marsilius, was long a age teacher in Paris,where he was of the university in 1313, rector and was The DefensorPacis regarded as learned in medicine. most

MARSILIUS

294

PADUA

OF

in 1324, in the controversy between Pope John the Emperor Louis the Bavarian. Its radical views

written

was

and

XXII

caused its authors

to

protectionfrom

seek

the

Emperor, which

hesitation,for the rest of their they enjoyed,though with some excommunicated lives. They were in 1327, by John XXII VI declared,in 1343, that he had never and Pope Clement a

heretical book.

worse

According to Marsilius,who was deeply versed in Aristoi the basis of all power is the people; in the state the whole body of citizens ; in the church the whole body of Christian believers. rulers in church and They are the legislative ; by them power state

appointed,and

are

to

them

these

executive

officers

are

responsible.The

only final authority in the church is the of physicalforce New Testament; but priestshave no power sole duty is to teach,warn, to obey it. Their to compel men and reprove. The Testament New teaches that bishops and priestsare equivalentdesignations, yet it is well, as a purely human constitution,to appoint some clergy superintendents This others. over appointment gives no superiorspiritual has nor one bishop spiritual authorityover another, or power, all. Peter had no the Pope over higher rank than the other evidence that he was Apostles. There is no New Testament The New Testament in Rome. to ever gives no countenance the possessionof earthlylordshipsand estates by clergymen. No bishop or Pope has authorityto define Christian truth as contained

in the be

New

Testament,

or

binding laws.

make

done

body of the only by the legislative of Christian believers, church the whole company represented in a generalcouncil. Such a council is the supreme authority

These

acts

can

"

in the

church.

church

are

as

Since the Christian

the Christian

and

state

coterminous, the executive of the Christian state, representinga body of believers,may call councils,appoint

bishops,and

control church fruit in the

to bear

were

Revolution age.

; but

Their

time

silius himself. could

they

Reformation, and

were

too

later,and

was

He

property.1 Here

was

a

Because

of 1

a

zeal which

See, for

some

even

in the French

greatlyto impress their something was lackingin Mar

radical

cool thinker

theory into action largeleadership. translate

ideas that

were

rather

in such

than

fashion

Marsilius lacked, and

extracts,Robinson,

1

:

491-497.

a

man

as

to

who create

of ideas not

THE

296 No cism

PAPAL

TAXES

feature of the Avignon papacy so

Crusades

largelyas had

of money,

been

and

its offensive

contributed

taxation

accompanied by great increase

in

a

of church

much

to its criti

life. The

readier circulation

Europe was passingrapidlyfrom barter to money Money taxes, payments. rather than receiptsin kind, were everywhere increasing. It natural that this cha"ngeshould take place in church ad was ministration also ; but the extent to which taxation was pushed the of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by Popes was a it and much when the removal of the scandal, was aggravated to Avignon largelycut off the revenues from the papal papacy estates in Italy without diminishingthe luxury or expensiveof the papal court. This period saw the extensive devel ness of the annates, opment, in imitation of secular feudal practice, that is a tax of one less,from each new or year'sincome, more appointment. Since the reservation of posts to exclusive papal time immensely extended, this at the same appointment was became of revenue. The income of vacant bene a largesource of papal receipts. Taxes fices, also,became a significant source for bulls and other papal documents, also rose rapidlyin amount and productivity. These were but a portionof the papal exac the impressionthat the papal tions,and the total effect was administration was heavily and increasinglyburdensome on the clergy,and through them the This on people. feelingwas the ruthless in which manner augmented by churchly censures, such as excommunication, were imposed on delinquent tax The seemed extravagant in expenditure and payers. papacy offensive grow

worse

in

a

taxation, and

commerce.

its repute in both

respects

was

to

tillthe Reformation.

The

in Italy,for which the collapseof the imperialpower and the transfer to Avignon, was largelyresponsible, papacy left Italyto the wildest political confusion. Nowhere the was situation

worse

than

in Rome.

In 1347

Cola

di Rienzi

headed

popular revolution against the nobles and established a driven out, but parody of the ancient republic. He was soon in 1354 was in power in the parti again,only to be murdered san struggles.Innocent VI (1352-1362) sent the Spanish car dinal Albornoz (?-1367) as his legateto Italy. By Albornoz's militaryand diplomatic abilities the papal interests in Rome and much V Italy generallywere improved, so that Urban (1362-1370) actually returned to the Eternal City in 1367. a

THE

The

death

in 1370

of Albornoz

the papacy

once

XI

by Gregory (1347-1380) urged

distracted

The

papal

state

interests

ferred the papacy

to

of his chief support, and in Avignon. Urban V was

more

(1370-1378), whom in the

of the to

were

297

deprived him

was

succeeded Siena

SCHISM

of God

name

St. Catherine to return

of

to Rome.

cityalso counselled his presence preserved. Accordingly he trans

be

Rome

in

1377, and

there died the

if

next

year.

The

sudden A

Rome.

turned

to

death

of

found

XI

Gregory

French, and

majority were Avignon. The

Roman

the

would

cardinals

gladly have

re

determined

people were

in

to

in Rome, and to that end to have an Italian keep the papacy Pope. Under conditions of tumult the cardinals chose Bartolommeo Prignano the archbishop of Bari, who took the name Urban nate

VI

(1378-1389). A tactless

French

influence

man,

who

desired to termi

the papacy, and effect some reforms had the hostility of all the cardinals.

over

papal court, he soon They now got together,four in the

months

election,declared their choice void since dictated by mob violence,and elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII (1378-1394).

A

few

months

later Clement

VII

after his

and

his cardinals

were

settled

rival Popes before, but Avignon. There had been many Here two were they had been chosen by different elements. body of cardinals. The Popes, each duly elected by the same objectionthat Urban VI had been chosen out of fear had little force,since the cardinals had recognizedhim without protest for several months; but they had done all they could to undo the choice. Europe saw two Popes, each condemning the in

other. and

There

was

no

power

the several countries

that

followed

could the

one

decide or

between

the other

them, as

their

affinities dictated. The acknowl Roman political Pope was edged by northern and central Italy,the greater part of Ger Scandinavia, and England. To the Pope in Avignon, many, France, Spain, Scotland, Naples, Sicily,and some parts of It was Germany adhered. a fairly equal division. The great schism had begun. Europe was pained and scandalized,while the papal abuses, especially of taxation,were augmented, and Above two be maintained. courts must all,the profound now that the church must be visibly offended. The feeling was one sank enormously in popular regard. papacy In Rome Urban VI was succeeded by Boniface IX (1389-

WYCLIF

298

1404), and he by Innocent VII (1404-1406), who was followed VII was by Gregory XII (1406-1415). In Avignon Clement followed by a Spaniard, Peter de Luna, who took the name Benedict

XIII

(1394-1417). SECTION

The

WYCLIF

has also

been

already working in

the

HUSS

AND

the encroachments

Englishoppositionto

papacy were

XII.

noted

of the

(ante,p. 295).

island.

Of

these

Avignon

Other

that

forces

of Thomas

Bradwardine

of the most (?-1349) was one potent in the in tellectual realm. Bradwardine, who was long an eminent the ologianin Oxford, and died archbishop of Canterbury, was a leader in the revival of the the decline

of

study and Scholasticism,

of

Augustine,which

was

to

marked

in influence till

grow

it

He taught predesti profoundly affected the Reformation. nation in most positiveform; like Augustine,he conceived re of God and the soul, ligionas primarilya personalrelationship and emphasized grace in contrast There were to merit. now,

therefore,other nominalistic

intellectual

Scholasticism

traditions

in the

besides

Oxford

of

those

of later

Wyclif's student

days. John

born in Hipswell in Yorkshire. Wyclif (?-1384) was details of his early life are known. Few He entered Balliol ultimatelyfor a short College,Oxford, of which he became time "master." In Oxford he rose to great scholarlydistinc tion, lecturingto large classes,and esteemed the ablest theo he was in con a realist, logianof its faculty. Philosophically nominalism of his age. He was trast to the prevailing deeply influenced by Augustine, and through Augustine by Platonic known outside of Ox conceptions. Wyclif graduallybecame ford. In 1374 he was presented,by royal appointment, to the rectory of Lutterworth, and the same one year was King's commissioners probably theologicaladviser "

in

"

of the to

at

of Pope Gregory XI Bruges with the representatives an adjustment of the dispute regarding "provisors" (ante, far these appointments were due to the pow p. 295). In how erful son of King Edward III,John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancas ter, is uncertain,though he probably regardedWyclif as likely church to be useful in his designs on property; but Wyclif's if entertained in 1374, cannot then have been widely opinions,

tempt

WYCLIF known.

There

abuses

his trust

299

Pope yet looked on him that his re has shown with distrust,and recent investigation formatory work did not begin in 1366, as formerlysupposed. By 1376, however,it was the wealth of the church and cleri that of the Popes, in political cal interference, life, especially his He lectured that in Oxford that afoused opposition. year On Civil Lordship. Wyclif's view of ecclesiastical office and He was curiouslyfeudal. God is the great overlord. privilege civil and spiritual, fiefs,to be held on as gives all positions, condition of faithful service. They are lordships,not prop erty. God gives the use but not the ownership. If the user loses all claim

is no

evidence

that the

he forfeits his tenure. the

a

bad

ecclesiastic

temporal possessionsof un worthy clergymay well be taken from them by the civil rulers, God has given the lordshipof temporal things,as He to whom has that of thingsspiritual This doctrine,ad to the church. vanced in all simplicity and sincerity, was undoubtedly pleas of nobles who hoped ing to John of Gaunt and his hungry crew less satis for enrichment from church spoliation.It was no who had long been critical of the factoryto many commoners, and often lack of character of the too wealth, pretensions, not to the mendicant orders, who clergy. It was displeasing had always,in theory at least,advocated apostolicpoverty." Wyclif'steachingaroused the oppositionof the high clergy, the property-holding In 1377 he orders, and of the papacy. summoned before the bishop of London, William to answer was Courtenay. The protectionof John of Gaunt and other nobles rendered the proceeding abortive. The same Pope year Gregory XI issued five buj^ orderingWyclif'sarrest and ex amination.1 the protectionof a strong Yet Wyclir"enjoyed popular favor, so that further pro party at court and much ceedingsagainsthim by the archbishopof Canterbury and the frustrated in 1378. bishop of London were Wyclif was now rapidlydevelopinghis reformatoryactivities in a flood of treatises in Latin and English. The Scriptures, he the The church itself is taught,are only law of the church. not, as the common man imagined, centred in the Pope and the cardinals. It is the whole company of the elect. Its only certain head is Christ,since the Pope may be one of the not elect. Wyclif did not rejectthe papacy. The church may to

office,and

Hence

"

1

Gee

and

Hardy,

pp.

105-108.

WYCLIF

300

earthlyleader,if such a one is like Peter, and strives for the simple conditions of earlyChristianity.Such a Pope would be presumably one of the elect. But a Pope who worldly power and is eager for taxes is presumptively grasps non-elect,and therefore antichrist. With his deeper knowl attacked the mendicant orders, edge of the Bible, Wyclif now him which had supported in his assertion of apostolic poverty, and the main regardingthem as without Scripturalwarrant He was now pillarsof the existingpapacy. fightingcurrent churchly conditions all along the line. constructive efforts. Con Wyclif now proceeded to more vinced that the Bible is the law of God, Wyclif determined to 1382 and give it to the people in the Englishtongue. Between translated from the Vulgate. What 1384 the Scriptures were is impossibleto say. share Wyclif had in the actual work It has been usuallythought that the New Testament from was well have

an

of Hereford. his pen, and the Old from that of Nicholas At all events, the New translation was Testament vivid,readable, and

forceful,and

did

service of fundamental

importance for the English language to say nothing of English piety. The whole revised about was 1388, possiblyby Wyclif s disciple, John Purvey. Its circulation was large. In spiteof severe and fifty repressionin the next century, at least one hundred manuscripts survive. To bring the Gospel to the peopleWyclif began sending out his "poor priests." In apostolic poverty, barefoot,clad in long two robes, and with staff in the hand, they wandered by two, Franciscan had the earlyWaldensian or as preachers. Unlike Their the latter,they were bound by no permanent vows. a

"

success

great.

was

But

events

lamed

soon

the Lollard

movement,

as

the follow

that the elect ing of Wyclif was popularlycalled. Convinced true are a priesthood,and that all episcopalclaims are unof exclusive human scriptural, Wyclif saw in the priestly power what

he

tacked

deemed

this doctrine have

substantiation.

It

seems

in 1381. been was

was

His

own

main He

buttress of therefore at

of Christ's pres later known as con-

view

that essentially his positiveassertions,but not

attack,however, that aroused substantiation

a

priestlyclaim.

erroneous

to

ence

of transubstantiation

in the miracle

agency

to touch

one

resentment, of the most

for to

oppose

his tran

popularlycherished

WYCLIF.

LOLLARDS

THE

301

Ages. That attaek cost Wyclif many action. followers and roused the churchlyauthorities to renewed This tide of oppositionwas strengthenedby events in 1381, for in no which responsible.The unrest of the Wyclif was way had been growing since the dislocation of lower orders,which of 1348-1350, culminated black death the labor market by the with difficulty in 1381 in a great peasant revolt,which was put This bloody episode strengthened the party of con down. In 1382 the archbishop of Canterbury held a servatism. by which twenty-fourWyclifiteopinionswere synod in London condemned.1 Wyclif was no longerable to lecture in Oxford. He was arrested. His "poor priests"were too strong in popu lar and courtlysupport, however, to be attacked personally, in of his pastorate Lutterworth and he died still possessed on the last day of 1384. that he was No small element in Wyclif s power was thought scholastic equal in contemporary to have no England. Men hesitated to cross intellectual swords with him. Equally con and his his intense deep piety. He patriotism spicuouswere of foreignpapal taxation and voiced the popular resentment Biblical greed, and the popular longing for a simpler,more beliefs of the later Middle

"

"

It

faith.

his misfortune

was

to carry spicuousability out the reignof Richard

he left

that

his work

on

II

in

follower

no

England.

Yet

(1377-1399) the Lollard

of

con

through

movement

of the

usurping house of Henry IV (1399-1413),the King, in the person of Lancaster the pas anxious to placatethe church, was persuaded to secure continued

sage

to

in 1401

of Lollards

number

in

highlaystation. their most

Cobham,

De

of the statute

a

der him

the accession

With

grow.

a

man

dition and

his son,

so

conspicuousleader,Sir John Oldcastle,Lord whom of the sternest religious tra principles,

dramatic

license

into

rebellion,and

figureof executed

of Lollard y significance political in England was in continued at an end, though adherents secret tillthe Reformation. Wyclif's chief influence was to be in 1417.

in Bohemia

Bohemia cal

With

his death

into the

transformed

condemned, driven

FalstafT,was

which

Henry IV spared Lollards Henry V (1413-1422). Un

burned.

were

Not

hasreticocomburendo,2under

rather had

and

in the land

undergone

development

'Gee

than

the

Hardy,

a

remarkable

in the fourteenth pp.

108-110.

of his birth.

intellectual and

century.

The

Holy

politi Roman

-Ibid.,pp. 133-135.

BOHEMIA.

302

Emperor, Charles IV and

(1346-1378)

for that land.

did much

HUSS

JOHN

also

was

he secured

In 1344

of Bohemia,

King

the establish

of

Bohemia from ec releasing Prague as an archbishopric, clesiastical dependence on Mainz. Four years later he procured of a universityin Prague. In no the foundation country of largelya landholder,or the clergy Europe was the church more Charles IV was not unfriendly more worldlythan in Bohemia. reform. to moral During and followinghis reign a series of preachersof power stirred Bohemia, attackingthe seculariza ment

tion of the church.

Such

Milicz

(?-1374), Matthias

of Kremsier

were

Conrad

of Waldhausen of Janov

(?-1369), (?-1394), and

Stitny (1331-1401). These all opposed clerical cor ruption,emphasized the Scripturesas the rule of life,and sought a more frequent participationin the Lord's Supper. Milicz and Matthias at hand, and taught that antichrist was in an manifest had little was unworthy clergy. These men direct influence on Huss, but they stirred Bohemia to a readi to accept his teachings. ness Bohemia was torn, furthermore, by intense rivalrybetween the Germanic and the Slavonic (Czech) elements of the popu lation. The latter was marked by a strong desire for racial of

Thomas

and

supremacy

Bohemian

autonomy.

Curiously,also,Bohemia, England, was brought into the marriage of the Bohemian ard

II, in 1383.

Bohemian

hitherto

so

connection

little associated with with

that

princess,Anna, students

were

to

attracted

country

King to

by

Rich

Oxford,

brought Wyclif s doctrines and writingsinto their native land, especially to the Universityof Prague. The great of Bohemian in be John to Huss, Wyclifism was propagator to have an whom, also, all Czech national aspirationswere and pa ardent advocate. this combination of religious It was triotic zeal that gave Huss his remarkable of leadership. power and

thence

John whence

Huss he

was

derived

completed in the Universityof Prague, where he became of Bachelor of Theology in 1394, and Master Arts two he was ordained to the priest years lateiVr::^n-'1401 hood, still maintaining a teaching connection with the univer Huss had sity,of which he was "rector" in 1402^ Meanwhile become intimately acquainted with Wyclif's philosophical with the "realism" of which he sympathized. Wyetreatises, 1373.

His studies

born, of peasant parentage, in Husinecz, his name by abbreviation,about the year were

lifiteopinionsin to

AT

HUSS

304

them

root

CONSTANCE

by whom protested,and

Bohemia, and Huss

out.

he

commissioned

was

excommunicated

was

The result was by Zbynek in 1410. great popular tumult in than national hero. more ever a Prague, where Huss was In 1412 Alexander V's successor, King Wenzel supported him. (1410-1415), promised indulgenceto all who Pope John XXIII should take part in a crusade againstKing Ladislaus of Naples. Huss opposed,holdingthat the Pope had no rightto use physi cal force,that money payments effected no true forgiveness, the indulgencecould be of no and, unless of the predestinate, value to a man. The result was The Pope's bull an uproar. burned was by the populace. Huss, however, lost many strong supporters in the universityand elsewhere, and was excommunicated, while Prague was more placed under once persuaded Huss, late in 1412, to papal interdict. Wenzel now into exile from Prague. To this period of retirement is go due the composition of his chief work a essentially reproduc tion of Wyclif" the De Ecclesia (On the Church). In 1413 a synod in Rome formallycondemned Wyclif s writings. The great Council of Constance (seep. 308) was approaching, "

in Bohemia

the confusion

and

sideration.

Huss

asked

was

was

to

certain

demand

to

present himself

its

before

con

it,and

promised a "safe-conduct," afterward received, by the Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund. Huss, though he felt his life in to go, partly believingit his duty to peril,determined grave the truth,and partlyconvinced bear witness to what he deemed that he could bring the council to his way of thinking. Shortly he was after his arrival in Constance imprisoned. Sigismund his His Bohemian enemies safe-conduct. promised disregarded On May 4, 1415, the council laid bitter chargesagainsthim. condemned Wyclif, and ordered his long-buriedbody burned. could hope for no favorable hearing. Yet, in the end, Huss the struggleresolved itself into a contest of principles.The council to

maintained

its decisions.

papal sisted was

schism

error.

every

Only by

which

so

the

was

Christian

was

holding could

of heroic Some

accusations

positionshe could He

would

not

not

submit

he

modify

hope

to to

of Christendom.

scandal

The complete submission. mould. He would play no of the

bound it

Bohemian

Huss's

on

science. Other

that

tricks with

declared

false

unless convinced

his conscience

to

submit end

the

It in reformer his

con

charges. of their

the overruling

BOHEMIA

IX

REVOLT

305

judgment of the council. On July 0, 1415, he and burned, meeting his death with the most

condemned

was

steadfast

cour

age.

While

prisoner in Constance his followers in Prague began administeringthe cup to the laityin the Lord's be Supper" an action which Huss approved and which soon the badge of the Hussite movement. The news of Huss's came the utmost death aroused in Bohemia, to which resentment fuel

was

Huss

*vas

added

when

of the cup

a

the Council

by laymen;

and

of Constance

caused

Huss's

Bohemia Prague, to be burned in 1416. Two partiesspeedilydeveloped there an its principalseat in Prague, and known (communion in both bread and wine),and its

use

Jerome disciple,

of

in revolution.

was

aristocratic, having

"

called from

forbade the

the

as a

Utraquists

radical, democratic,

the Taborites. fortress,

The

Utraquistswould forbid only those practiceswhich they deemed prohibitedby the "law of God," i. e., the Bible. They demanded free preaching of the Gospel, the cup for the laity, apostolicpoverty, and strict clerical life. The Taborites re could not be pudiated all practicesfor which express warrant found in the "law of God." Fierce quarrel existed between these factions,but both united to resist repeated crusades directed againstBohemia. Under the leadershipof the blind Taborite general,John Zizka, all attempts to crush the Huss ites were bloodily defeated. Church largely property was confiscated. successful

Great

Nor

after

the

Some

of the

opponents

Zizka 's death

Hussites

Bohemia.

the

were

in

carried the

compromise

1424.

seemed

Under

beyond

war

Hussites

more

Prokop the

the

borders

unavoidable.

The

of

Coun

cil of Basel

(see p. 310), after long negotiation, therefore,met

the

wishes

of the

use

of the cup,

above.

The

and

in 1433, granting the the other demands outlined

Utraquistspart in

Taborites

a

measure

resisted and

way

were

almost

swept away

by the Utraquists,in 1434, at the battle of Lipan, Prokop was killed. The triumphant Utraquistsnow an

with

agreement

terms

were

Yet, in void.

1462

The

Bohemian

the Council

of

Basel, in 1436, and

in which came on

to

these

communion. nominally given place in the Roman Pope Pius II (1458-1464) declared this agreement Utraquists,nevertheless,held their own, and the

Parliament, in 1485

equalitywith

the Catholics.

and

1512, declared

At the Reformation

a

their full considera-

ble

portionwelcomed

the

ideas ; others then returned to

newer

the were representativesof Wyclifite principles of the general rather than the Utraquists. Out

real

The

Taborites Hussite

with

movement,

ites there

from

grew,

much

absorbed

about

that

the

became

elements

most

was

from

drawn

rather than

quists,and Waldenses,

and

HUSS

Church.

the Roman

pp.

AND

WYCLIF

306

Taborites,Utra

from exclusively

1453, the

Unitas

the Tabor

Fratrum, which

vital in the Hussite

movement, of the later Moravians (see

ancestor spiritual

502, 503).

Wyclif

and

styledforerunners of the designationis true if regard is had to their have

Huss

Reformation.

The

often been

protest againstthe corruptionof the church, their exaltation of the

their contribution

Bible, and

the

to

total of

sum

agita

their doctrines When ultimatelyresulted in reform. to belong rather to the examined, however, they appear are Middle Ages. Their conception of the Gospel was that of a "law." Their no place for faith was greater than in the Their thought of the church was communion. Roman a one sided development of Augustinianism. Their conception of the relation of the clergy to property is that common to the tion that

and

Waldenses

founders

the

of the

deep admiration, but in pointsof agreement with

Their

commands earnestness religious spiteof Luther's recognitionof many

owed

Huss, the Reformation

XIII.

SECTION

The

papal schism

termination ment

not

was

that

was

no

is answerable. must

and

THE

was

easy.

power

Yet

the

good

little to their efforts.

COUNCILS

REFORMING

scandal The

of

be

"

desired

fications

were

moral

were as

and

yet unwished

Wyclif might proclaim them esteemed

a

heretic.

Foremost

develop

to which the papacy on everywhere felt that the schism

earth

ended, and that the church must members" that is, in the papacy

forms

Christendom, but its

logic of mediaeval

exists men

orders.

great mendicant

be reformed

and

clergy.

in head The

re

Doctrinal modi

administrative.

by Christendom in England, but among

"

as

he

a was

whole.

A

generally

set themselves

those who

the teachers of to the task of healingthe schism were seriously the age, especially those of the Universityof Paris. Marsilius of

Padua

had there

proclaimedthe

supremacy

of

a

generalcoun*

OF

GROWTH cil in his

his arguments

tion rather than

It

conclusion. of

were

1390), who

advised

and

written treatises of 1379 a council,if calling

1380, to

doctor

a

(1320?-

(1364-1380),in unite with other princes

without

necessary,

by

of France

V

King Charles

clearness

of Gelnhausen

law, then in Paris,Conrad

canon

in

necessities of the situa rapidlyleadingto the same

presented first with

was

307

The

of 1324.

DefensorPacis

IDEA

CONCILIA!!

THE

the

of the

consent

Popes. Conrad went no further than to hold that such council was a by the necessities of an anomalous justified in such fashion situation. Conrad's proposal was reinforced, to rob him of the popular credit of its origination, by the as rival

treatise of another

German

scholar

at

the

Universityof

Paris

set forth in 1381. Langenstein (1340?-1397), of healing The thought of a general council as the best means the schism,thus launched,made speedy converts, not only in of Paris,but in the great school of canon law in the University

Heinrich

of

Bologna, and

even

the cardinals.

among

To

call

a

council

however, and the leaders at Paris difficulties, Peter of Ailli (Pierre d'Ailli) (1350-1420)and John Gerson famed for their mastery (Jean Charher de Gerson)(1363-1429),

presented many

of nommalistic

mystics,were vainlymade

tian were

1

theology,and

ranee

withdrew

the latter eminent

among

Chris

for years

the conciliar plan. Efforts to induce the rival Popes to resign.

from

Avignon Pope, without recognizing

slow

to

the

adopt

again in 1408; but its ex elsewhere. By 1408 d'Ailli and slightfollowing Gerson had come to see in a council the only hope, and were supported by Nicholas of Clemanges (1367-1437),a former who had been papal secretary teacher of the Parisian university Roman, ample found

the

in

Avignon

evil

in

The

from

1398

to

1403, and

from

1397

to

of 1405, to whom one great source the general neglectof the Scriptures.

the church

seemed

cardinals of both

Popes

were

now

convinced

of the

necessityof a council. Meeting togetherin Leghorn, in 1408, for such an assembly issued a call in their own names they now m Pisa,to gather on March 25, 1409. There it met with an the heads of the great attendance not only of cardinals, bishops, orders,and leadingabbots,but also of doctors of theologyand canon law, and the representativesof lay sovereigns. Neither its rightfulness. Both were Pope was present or acknowledged declared a deposed. This was practical assertion that the council was Its action,however,was superiorto the papacy.

COUNCILS

308 too

hasty,for

the person

OF

PISA

CONSTANCE

AND

instead of

of the

ascertaining, as proposed new Pope

the cardinals ceptable,

d'Ailli advised, whether would

generallyac Philarges, archbishop

elected Peter

now

be

of

Alexander V (1409-1410). The Milan, who took the name council then dissolved, leaving the question of reform to a future In

council.

respects the situation

some

Council

of Pisa met.

was

than

worse

before

Rome, Naples, and considerable

the

sections

of

Germany clung to Gregory XII. Spain,Portugal,and Scot land supported Benedict XIII. England, France, and some portionsof Germany acknowledged Alexander V. There were three Popes where before there had been two. Yet, though mark of progress. It mismanaged, the Council of Pisa was a had shown that the church was one, and it increased the hope that a better council could end the schism. This assembly had been called by the cardinals. For such invitation history had no precedent. A summons by the Emperor, if possible with the consent of one of the Popes, would be con or more with the practiceof the early church. that end To sonant those supportingthe council idea now labored. The new Holy Roman Emperor-elect,Sigismund (1410convinced of the necessityof a council. He recog 1437), was nized as Pope John XXIII (1410-1415), one of the least worthy of occupants Alexander V

culties with

jointaction to

meet

of that

who office,

in the

Pisan

had

been

chosen

successor

to

Sigismund used John's diffi from him King Ladislaus of Naples, to secure by which Emperor-electand Pope called a council

in Constance

brilliant and

line.

November

on

1, 1414.

There

the most

largelyattended

gathering of the Middle Ages assembled. As in Pisa, it included not only cardinals and of monbishops,but doctors of theology and representatives without votes. archs,though the lay delegateswere Sigismund present in person,

was

John

XXIII

To

this end

To

neutralize

the

hoped he

had

and to

also John

secure

brought

their votes

XXIII.

the indorsement with

him

the council

many

of the council. Italian

bishops.

organizedby "nations,"

English,German, and French, to which the Italians were forced to join as a fourth. Each "nation" had one vote, and one was assigned also to the cardinals. Despairing of the council's approval,John XXIII attempted to disruptits ses sion by flight, in March, 1415. Under Gerson's vigorouslead-

THE

CONSTANCE;

SCHISM

ershipthe council,however, declared

HEALED

309

April 6, 1415, that

on

as

"representingthe Catholic Church militant [it]has its power immediately from Christ,and every one, whatever his position if it be the papal dignityitself, is bound to obey rank, even or it in all those thingswhich pertainto the faith,to the healing of the schism, and to the generalreformation of the Church of On May 29 the council declared John XXIII God."1 deposed. XII 4 On The council had rid the Gregory resigned. July church of two Popes by its successful assertion of its supreme all in the church. It is easy to see authority over why its leaders insisted and p.

martyrdom 304).

Benedict

a

on were

full submission

from

contemporary with

Huss, whose these events

trials

(ante,

XIII

difficult. Sigismund himself, proved more therefore,journeyed to Spain. Benedict he could not persuade and that obstinate pontiffasserted himself tilldeath, to resign, in 1422 or 1423, as the only legitimate Pope. What Sigismund unable to effect with Benedict he accomplished with the was Spanish kingdoms. They and Scotland repudiated Benedict. The Spaniardsjoined the council as a fifth "nation," and, on July 26, 1417, Benedict, or Peter de Luna, as he was once more called,was formallydeposed. The careful action of the coun

cil,in

considerable

no

former

One

the haste in

to

contrast

Pisa, had

made

section of Christendom

it certain that

would

support

the

Popes. main

ministrative

purpose

of the council had

reform.

Here

been

moral

the

and

ad

of the several inter jealousies ests prevented achievement of real importance. The cardinals desired no changes that would materiallylessen their revenue. situation. England Italy,on the whole, profited by the existing had relative self-governmentalready in ecclesiastical affairs, thanks to its Kings. France with England, and at war was indisposedto unite with that land. So it went, with the result that the council finally referred the questionof reforms to the next Pope "in conjunctionwith this holy council or with the that is"each nation was left deputiesof the several nations" the best bargain it could. to make The council enumerated list of subjectsfor reform a discussion,which relate almost entirelyto questionsof appointment, taxation,or administra tion.2 As a reformatoryinstrument the Council of Constance "

1

Robinson, 1

:

511.

*

Ibid.,1

:

513.

AND

CONSTANCE

OF

COUNCILS

310

BASEL

was bitter disappointment. Its one great achievement In November, 1417, the cardinals, that it ended the schism. each nation, elected a Roman from with six representatives

a

was

cardinal,Otto Colonna,

took

He

Pope.

as

the

Martin

name

V

had Christendom more a once single (1417-1431). Roman the In April,1418, the council ended, new head. Pope prom isingto call another in five years, in compliance with the de of the council.1

cree

of Constance

Council

The

was

a

most

ecclesiasti interesting

cal experiment. It secured the transformation of the papacy The absolute into a constitutional monarchy. from an Pope to

was

lated by

church, but

the executive of the

remain

body, meeting legislative

a

at

to be regu

was

frequent intervals

and

in Christendom.

all interests representing

this great constitutional change had really council to meet accomplished. Martin V called the new that

It seemed

been

plague prevented any considerable of The attendance. Pope would gladly have had no more distressed Europe, however (ante, councils. The Hussite wars brought to bear on him that in was p. 305), and such pressure Pavia

in

in

The

1423.

January, 1431, Martin and

summoned

V

it.

Less

than

months

two

in

council to meet

Cesarini his

Giuliano

appointed Cardinal

duct

a

later Martin

V

Basel,

legateto was

dead

con

and

Pope. The council opened in Eugene IV (1431-1447) was Eugene ordered it adjourned,to July, 1431, but in December The council refused,and re-enacted in Bologna in 1433. meet superiorto the Pope. the declaration of Constance that it was the Thus, almost from the first,bad feelingexisted between be Mindful that jealousies Council of Basel and the papacy. had frustrated the reform plans in Constance, "nations" tween the council rejectedsuch groupings,and instead organizedfour largecommittees, on reform,doctrine,publicpeace, and general questions.It began its work with great vigor and promise of apparent reconciliation with the moder unity seemed re ate Hussites in 1433 (ante,p. 305). Roman stored. The Pope found little support and, before the close It made

success.

of 1433, assured. The

and

formally recognizedthe council.

Council

moral

an

of Basel

reforms

now

which 1

proceededto had

Its future

those administrative

failed of achievement

Robinson,

1

:

512.

seemed

at

Con-

FAILURE

312

OF

COUNCIL

THE

OF

BASEL

priestlymarriage, while the disputedfilioque clause of the creed was acknowledged by the Greeks, though add with the understanding that they would it to the not ancient symbol. Mark, the vigorousarchbishopof Ephesus, re fused agreement, but the Emperor and most of his ecclesiastical followingapproved, and the reunion of the two churches was joyfullyproclaimed in July, 1439. An event so happy greatly increased the prestigeof Pope Eugene IV. The hollowness of worship

of

the

and

achievement

not

was

at

apparent.

once

Reunions

with

Armenians, and with certain groups of Monophysites and also announced in Florence Nestorians, were or speedilyafter

the

the

council.

the occasion

The of

reconciliation of the Armenians famous

a

trine of the sacraments. On

opposed.

were

the

hero

of the

cardinal,had

papal bull definingthe Yet

the Greeks'

hour.

from

in 1439 mediaeval

the first the Oriental

return

Mark

Bessarion, whom he

of

Ephesus Eugene had

was

doc

monks became made

have

a

distin

to was a fly to Italy,where and ecclesiastical effi of literary service. No guished career cient militaryhelp came from the West, and the to the Greeks capture of Constantinopleby the Turks in 1453 permanently frustrated those political hopes which had inspiredthe union to

efforts of 1439. Meanwhile action able

under

and

the the

radical majority in Basel proceeded to more leadershipof its only remaining cardinal,the

excellent

but

dictatorial

Louis

d'Allemand

(1380?-

his as Eugene half-monastic Amadeus of Savoy, successor a layman, Duke who took the name Felix V. By this time, however, the Coun cil of Basel was fast losingits remaining influence. Eugene IV had won, and was succeeded in Rome by Nicholas V (1447The in 1449. 1455). Felix V laid down his impossiblepapacy council put the best face on its defeat by choosing Nicholas V his successor, and ended its troubled career. Though the coun cil idea stilllived and was to be powerful in the Reformation reallyruined the hope of trans age, the fiasco in Basel had forming the papacy into a constitutional monarchy or of effect ing needed reform through conciliar action. Yet if the council thus failed,individual nations profitedby its quarrelwith the papacy, notably France, where the mon archy was coming into new through effective resistance power to England under impulses initiated by Joan of Arc (1410?-

1450).

In 1439

it voted

IV

deposed, and

chose

BARGAINS

NATIONAL

313

1431). In 1438 King Charles VII (1422-1461),with the clergy of Bourges, by and nobles,adopted the "pragmatic sanction" the greater part of the reforms France enacted into law for France. which

from

-had

freedom

previousto

not

a

little to

the Reformation

with

do

in Basel

therefore

secured

and

pressingpapal taxes

the most

attempted

were

relief

and this interferences,

the

attitude of the land

age.

Germany. There the nobles in the of 1439 adopted an "acceptation" much Reichstag in Mainz resemblingthe French "pragmatic sanction"; but the divisions of the country gave room to papal intrigue, and weakness so Concordat limited the that its provisions were by practically Certain privileges of Aschaffenburgof 1448. were granted to princes;but Germany, as a whole, remained under particular the weight of the papal taxation. Throughout the periodof the councils a new force was mani festingitself that of nationality.The Council of Constance It had authorized the nations to make had voted by nations. had dealt with its religious Bohemia with the papacy. terms had asserted its national rights. France situation as a nation. With the failure of the councils Germany had tried to do so. to effect administrative reform, men began asking whether what they had sought might not be secured by national action. It to increase till the Reformation, and was a feelingthat was of that struggle. greatlyto influence the course Not

fortunate

so

was

"

XIV.

SECTION

The

most

THE

ITALIAN

outlook cedents. were

not

the

has

It is

treated

coming

uncharacterized

trol of the church

was

be

by

never

POPES

contemporary was

with

the be

great alteration in mental

That

too

to

ITS

Avignon and the schism

in

Renaissance.

been

AND

intellectual event

remarkable

the story of the papacy

ginning of

RENAISSANCE

often

as

without

recognizedthat

mediaeval the Middle

individual

that the initiative,

such

make

as

to

ante

Ages con

other-worldliness

of Latin wholly dominant, and that the literarymonuments The revival of Roman at least, were widely known. antiquity, law had begun contemporaneously with the Crusades, and had feature of attracted increasingattention to that normative ancient thought,firstin Italyand later in France and Germany. Yet when it remains true that all these elements are recognized,

OF

RISE

314

THE

the Renaissance

involved

world, in which

emphasis

and

satisfaction

on

hell,and

and

heaven

"

man

an was as man

on

RENAISSANCE outlook

new essentially

laid man

on "

as

an

its present rather than

object of

the

on

life,beauty, on

future

a

salvation

or

of

was by which this transformation wrought reappreciationof the spiritof classical antiquity,espe was a ciallyas manifested in its great literarymonuments. first found Renaissance The place in Italy. Its rise was which three,at least,were favored by many influences, among conspicuous. The two great dominating powers of the Middle and empire, were suddenly lamed, as far as Ages, the papacy Italywas concerned, by the collapseof the imperialpower in the

loss.

The

means

latter part of the thirteenth century and to Avignon earlyin the fourteenth. pacy

the removal The

commerce

of the pa of It

aly,fostered by the Crusades and continuingafter their close, had led to a higher cultural development in the peninsulathan intense division of Italian politics in Europe. The elsewhere elsewhere existent,ren to the cities a qualityof life not gave dering local recognitionof talent easy, and tending to empha size individualism. The

earliest Italian

in whom

force

Petrarch

dominating Avignon, and

was

the

Renaissance

spiritwas (1304-1374). Brought up

a

in

in the orders, his real interest was revival of Latin literature, especiallythe writingsof Cicero. he was the of letters, A diligent student, and above all a man in clerical

Scho and a figureof international influence. princes, lasticism he despised. Aristotle he condemned. Though really however in feeling, religious lacking in practice,his point of

friend of

view

was

very

unlike

the mediaeval.

He

had,

that

moreover,

vanity and profound seriousness,that egotistical worship of form rather than of substance which were

lack

of

characteristic

of much

of Italian

humanism;

but

he

that to

be

aroused

world-outlook. antiquityand a new Boccaccio Petrarch's friend and disciple (1313-1375), now was remembered for his Decameron, but greatlyinfluential in chiefly his own age in promoting the study of Greek, in unlocking the mysteriesof classical mythology, and in furtheringhumanistic studies in Florence and Naples. Greek have died out in southern never Italy,but its may humanistic cultivation began when, in 1360, Boccaccio brought About 1397 Greek Leontius Pilatus to Florence. was taught, men

to

a

new

interest in

city,by government of the same and translated Homer Chrysoloras (1355?-1415), who The Council of Ferrara and Florence (1438-1439) (ante,

the auspices of the

under Manuel Plato. p.

315

RENAISSANCE

THE

311) greatlyfostered this desire and

by bringing Greeks

the East

to

Latins

of

the treasures

master

together.

Bessarion

To the influence of (ante,p. 312) thenceforth aided the work. this Plethon (1355-1450),another Greek attendant Gemistos on due the founding of the Platonic Academy, reunion council,was de' Medici about 1442, by Cosimo (1389-1464), the real ruler There

of Florence.

later,under the Ficino,who became with his

pursued ardently, study of Plato was leadershipof Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499). combined earnest an Christianity a priest, the

platonicenthusiasm.

He

believed

a

return

to the Chris

feelingnot shared by the majority of Italian humanists, but to be profoundly influential beyond the Alps, as propagated by his admirers, Jacques Le Fevre in France and John Colet in England. Colet, tian

the

sources

in turn, transmitted Pico della Mirandola

knowledge

of the time

chief need

Almost

it to Erasmus.

(1463-1494), whose

of the Kabala

were

to

a

"

as

influential

zeal for Hebrew

influence

was

and

Reuchlin.

developed by Lorenzo Valla (1405of the Donation of Constantine 1457), who exposed the falsity (ante,p. 204) about 1440, and denied the composition of the Apostles'Creed by the Apostles. He criticised the rightfulness Historical

of monastic

criticism

vows,

was

and

laid the foundation

of New

Testament

comparison of the Vulgate with the Greek. that the An examination of the dates just given will show in full development before in Italywas Renaissance movement the fall of Constantinople,in 1453. By the middle of the fif teenth century it was dominating the educated class in Italy. of indiffer In general,its attitude toward the church was one It revived widely a pagan ence. point of view, and sought to reproducethe life of antiquityin its vices as well as its virtues. Few periodsin the world's historyhave been so boastfully cor studies,in 1444, by

rupt

as

a

that of the Italian Renaissance.

given wings by a great in that of printing from movable 1440-1450 vention, about Mainz or Strassburg,in Germany, or Haarlem type. Whether in Holland was of learned dispute. is stilla matter its birthplace The art spread with rapidity, and not only rendered the posses The

Renaissance

movement

was

"

sion of the

manv

the

books

which

had

heretofore

been

the

PATRONS

POPES

THE

316

property of the few, but, from made

thirtythousand

than

mention

No

of the Renaissance

Beginnings of

to

art.

in

Italybefore

RENAISSANCE

of copies, multiplication

the

indestructible. More learningpractically issued before 1500. publicationswere

results of

the

THE

OF

Giotto" (1267?-!337), and

was

Era

fail to note

things had

better

its influence

could

its services

been

made, indeed, felt. Cimabue (1240?-1302?), Angelico (1387-1455) belong to

is their work. With as pre-Renaissanceepoch, remarkable Masaccio (1402-1429), Filippo Lippi (1406-1469), Botticelli (1444-1510), and Ghirlandajo (1449-1494), painting advanced through truer knowledge of perspective,greater anatomical and more effective grouping to the full noonday of accuracy, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), a Raphael Sanzio a (1483their 1520), a Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), and mighty associates. Sculpture received a similar impulse in the

the work

of Ghiberti

while architecture

Donatello

(1378-1455), and transformed

was

Bramante

(1444?-1514), and of these great artists, however

Brunelleschi

by Michelangelo. classical in

(1386-1466) ; (1379-1446), of the work

Most

motive,

wrought

was

in the service of the church. The

conspicuousearly seat of the Italian Renaissance cities. With the Florence,though it was influential in many

was

most

of Nicholas

(1447-1455), it found, for the first time, became mighty patron in the head of the church, and Rome

papacy a

its chief home.

To

due.

next

was

took

the

The name

manism,

and

V

him

the foundation

Pope, Alfonso

Calixtus

III

of the Vatican

library Spaniard, who

Borgia, a

(1455-1458), was

no

friend of hu

intent on earnestlythough fruitlessly, a crusade that should drive the Turks from the recentlycon quered Constantinople. In Enea Silvio Piccolomini,who ruled as

In

Pius II

was

(1458-1464), the

papacy

had

a

remarkable

earlylife a supporter

at the Council

of the conciliar movement, of Basel, he had won distinction as

occupant. and

a

active

humanistic

writer of decidedlyunclerical tone. Reconciled to Eugene IV, he became cardinal,and ultimatelyPope, now a opposing all the conciliar views that he had once supported,and forbidding future appealsto a generalcouncil. His efforts to stir Europe

againstthe Turks were unavailing. Yet, in spiteof his chang ing and self-seeking attitude,he had the most worthy concep tion of the duties of the papal office of any Pope of the latter half of the fifteenth century. The succeedingPopes, tillafter

THE the

of the

dawn

PRINCES

ITALIAN

AS

POPES

Reformation,

artists,great builders who

were

adorned

317

patrons of letters and and

Rome

felt the full

the Renaissance.

impulse of Meanwhile

a

change had

the ideals and

stay in Avignon and

The

of the papacy.

over

come

the schism

ambitions had

ren

impossible. distracted by the contests of the people of Rome, They were and especially by the rivalries of the noble houses, notably and the Orsini. those of the Colonna Italy had gradually consolidated iijtofive large states, Venice, Milan, Florence, it was called, as Naples, or the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, smaller territories and the States of the Church, though many remained outside these largergroups, and were objectsof con of Italy became effort to The politics test. a kaleidoscopic and to match of the larger extend the possessions one powers, were murder, and duplicity againstthe other,in which intrigue, employed to an almost unexampled extent. of Italian politicsthe papacy Into this game now fully and the Its increase States consolidate desire to was plunged. Church and of the maintain political independence. Its ambi effective control in the States

dered

tions and

its aims

possiblythe

save

Pope

chosen

at

succeeded, in

a

The

like those of other Italian rulers.

were

secularized

became

papacy

of the Church

tenth

at

other

no

in

period in its history,

(1417-1431), the of Constance, himself a Colonna, Martin

century.

the Council measure,

as

V

papal authorityin restoring

Rome.

not so fortunate, Eugene IV (1431-1447), was in Florence. Nicholas and spent a largepart of his pontificate controlled Rome V (1447-1455),the humanist, effectively and con strengthened the papal authority a policy which was tinued by Calixtus III (1455-1458), Pius II (1458-1464), and Paul II (1464-1471). With Sixtus IV (1471-1484) political He ambition took almost complete control of the papacy. his warred with Florence,he sought to enrich and advance A he aimed to extend the States of the Church. relatives, he built extensively.The Sistine Chapel patron of learning, and his name. All these endeavors requiredmoney, preserves he increased papal taxation and the financial abuses of the

His

successor,

"

curia. that

He

made

into

indulgencesare

an

article of faith the

wide-spreadbelief

available for souls in purgatory by

a

bull

of 1476.1 1

Kidd,

Documents

Illustrative of the Continental

Reformation,p.

3.

POPES

THE

318 The

Pope, Innocent

next

ITALIAN

AS

VIII

PRINCES of weak

(1484-1492),was

notorious

the

and

in which

manner through pliant nature, open the fortunes of his children,his extrava he sought to advance and his sale of offices. He even received a gant expenditures, pensionfrom Sultan Bayazid II for keeping the latter'sbrother and rival,Jem, a prisoner. Innocent's Alexander successor, VI (1492-1503), a nephew of Calixtus III, and a Spaniard without not (Rodrigo Borgia), obtained the papacy bribery, unbridled of of and was considera man a immorality,though His his bas to advance ble political insight. great effort was his daughter,Lucrezia tard children,especially Borgia,by ad vantageous marriages, and his unscrupulous and murderous out a principality Borgia,by aiding him to carve son, Cesare His reign saw of the States of the Church. the beginning of the collapseof Italian independence through the invasion of

of France

Charles VIII

(1483-1498), in 1494, in claim

assert

the

French

King's

Sixtus

IV.

The

Orsini and

the

throne

an

attempt

to

of

Naples. In 1499 Louis XII of France (1498-1515), conquered Milan, and in 1503 Ferdinand the Catholic,of Spain (1479-1516), secured the wretched battleground of French Naples. Italy became and Spanish rivalries. Under the temporal power such circumstances to increase of the papacy achieved not easy ; but the task was was by the warlike of the Popes, Julius II (1503-1513), nephew of most Borgia their

driven

from

Venetian

to

Colonna

reconciled,Cesare

were

Italy,the cities of Romagna the

conquerors,

various

nations

freed

in

from

Europe

leagues,with the result that the French were, for Louis XII se the time, expelledfrom Italy. In this contest cured a parody of a generalcouncil in Pisa, which Pope Julius answered It by callingthe Fifth Lateran Council in Rome. from ordered it 1512 to 1517, and though reforms met were undoubt accomplished nothing of importance. Julius II was and edly a ruler of great talents,who led his soldiers personally, of animated by a desire to strengthenthe temporal power was in

grouped

the papacy, art and

Julius

the

name

tastes

he

a

rather than builder

II

he

to

was

among

succeeded

was

enrich

by

his relatives. the most

Giovanni

As

eminent de'

a

patron of

of the

Medici, who

Popes. took

(1513-1521). With all the artistic and literary of the great Florentine family of which he was a member, Leo

combined

X

a

love of

display and

extravagant

expenditure.

SAVONAROLA

320 His

outlook religious

invasion and

of 1494

Savonarola

was

led to

a

thoroughly mediaeval. The French popular revolution againstthe Medici,

became

now

the real ruler of

Florence, which

city. sought to transform into a penitential of inhabitants. the life was adopted by man}^

A semi-monastic

he

of 1496

seasons

burned.

were

and

1497, masks, indecent books the

For

At

time

being,the

the carnival and

pictures

life of Florence

was

aroused enemies. The radicallychanged. But Savonarola adherents of the deposed Medici hated him, and above all, Pope Alexander VI, whose evil character and misrule Savon him and de The arola denounced. Pope excommunicated manded his punishment. Friends sustained him for a while, but the fickle populace turned against him. In April,1498, he was arrested,cruellytortured,and on May 23 hanged and his Not the least of Alex body burned by the city government. ander VI's crimes his persecution of this preacher of was due death was righteousness, though Savonarola's quite as him much the of to Florentine reaction against to as hostility the Pope.

SECTION

XV.

THE

NEW

POWERS

NATIONAL

The

from 1450 to 1500 saw half-century a remarkable growth in royal authority and national consciousness in the western kingdoms of Europe. France, which had seemed well-nigh with England, from ruined by the long wars 1339 to 1453, with the monarchy greatlystrengthened, of them out came since these struggleshad been immensely destructive to the feudal nobility. Louis XI (1461-1483), by intrigue, and arms,

tyranny, with feudal

aid of commoners, nobilityand secured for the the

not

hitherto

was

able to lead the

possessed. His now

son,

broke crown

Charles

centralized

state

the

an

power

of the

authorityit had

VIII into

(1483-1498), a

career

of for

eign conquest in Italythat was to open a new epoch in Euro and give rise to rivalries that were to determine politics pean the political What background of the whole Reformation age. these Kings had attempted in centralization at home, and in carried yet further by Louis XII (1498conquest abroad, was 1515), and by the brilliant and ambitious Francis I (1515-1547). France was now a strong, centralized monarchy. Its church was largelyunder royal control,and to a considerable degree

THE

POWERS

NATIONAL

NEW

321 "

relieved of the worst papal abuses, thanks to the Pragmatic which grew Sanction" of 14"8 (ante,p. 313) ; and the custom the strengtheningof the monarchy in the fifteenth up with

century that

appeals could be taken from church courts to clerical those of the King. The control of the monarchy over in appointments, clerical taxation, and clerical courts was creased by the "concordat" of 1516 (ante,p. 319), which gave to the Pope in turn desired taxes. By the dawn of the Reforma tion the church In

of France the

Wars

Lancastrians,from

1455

England

of the

the power Parliament

for

been

a

a

in many

of the to

Henry

respects,a

Roses, between

state

church.

Yorkists

and

1485, resulted in the destruction of

high nobilityto

survived.

the power of of Tudor, was

was,

the

advantage of the crown. rule in legalform; but

The

King

VII

(1485-1509), the first of the house

must

greater than that of any English sovereignhad exercised with almost unlimited century, and was

abler absolutism, though in parliamentary form, by his even Henry VIII (1509-1547). The English sovereignshad son, before the Reformation, a large degree of au attained,even and, as in France, the church in thorityin ecclesiasticalaffairs,

England

was

largelynational

at

the close of the fifteenth

cen

tury. This

nationalizing process in ment as Spain,where it was ligiousawakening, which was the the the hold The

was

taking on to

make

of reform,often,though conception

Counter-Reformation

in

nowhere

full develop

the character

that not

so

land

very

a

of

a

re

pattern for

called correctly,

to oppose conception that was Teutonic ideal of revolution,and was ultimatelyable to the allegiance of half of Europe to a purified Church. Roman rise of Spain was the political wonder of the latter part of "

a

the fifteenth century. Aside from the main currents of medi aeval European life,the history of the peninsula had been

a

long crusade to throw off the Mohammedan yoke, which had been in Europe were imposed in 711. Nowhere patriotism and Catholic orthodoxy so interwoven. The strugglehad re sulted, by the thirteenth century, in the restriction of the Moors in the formation to the kingdom of Granada, and of four Christian kingdoms, Castile,Aragon, Portugal,and Na These states varre. limited were weak, and the royal power the feudal A radical when the pros by nobility. change came o f pectiverulership the largerpart of the peninsulawas united,

THE

322 in 1469,

by

the

1479-1516)

with

Under pean

SPANISH

REFORM

marriage of Ferdinand,

heir of

Isabella,heiress of Castile

Aragon (King,

(Queen, 1474-1504).

their jointsovereigntySpain took a new place in Euro life. The disorderlynobles were repressed. The royal

authoritywas Mohammedanism

asserted.

In

1492 The

overcome.

Granada same

was

year

conquered witnessed

and the

discoveryof a new world by Columbus, under Spanish auspices, of very considerable revenue which speedilybecame a source French invasions of Italy led to to the royal treasury. The which locjgedSpain firmly in Naples by Spanish interference, rendered Spanish influence predominant through 1503, and soon out Italy. On Ferdinand's death, in 1516, these great posses sions passed to his grandson, already heir of Austria and the the imperial title as Charles V. Netherlands, and to wear Spain had suddenly become the first power in Europe. Ferdinand The jointsovereigns, and Isabella,devoted them selves no less energetically to the control of the church than to the extension of their temporal authority. The "Spanish awakening" was in no sense unique. It did not differ in prin that had been ciplefrom much attempted elsewhere in the later Middle Ages. No nation with a history like that of Spain could desire doctrinal change. It was intenselydevoted the papacy head. the spiritual to the system of which was in administrative affairs But it believed that papal aggressions should be limited by royal authority,and that an educated, be encour moral, and zealous clergycould,by the same power, It was of the success with aged and maintained. by reason which these results were accomplished that the Spanish awak

ening became

the model

of the "Counter-Reformation."

minded religiously sovereignever ruled than Isabella, and if Ferdinand was primarilya politician, he was the quick to see political advantages of a policythat in subjectionto the crown. would place the Spanish church In 1482 the jointsovereignsforced Pope Sixtus IV to agree to a concordat to the higher ecclesiastical placing nomination The policythus begun was speedily posts in the royalcontrol. extended re by the energeticsovereigns. Papal bulls now courts were quired royal approval for promulgation. Church taxed for the benefit of the state. supervised. The clergywere Ferdinand and Isabella now proceeded to fillthe important stations in the Spanish church not only with men devoted to No

more

conscientious

or

XIMENES

AND

ISABELLA,

FERDINAND,

323

zeal. the royalinterests, but of strenuous pietyand disciplinary but chief of In this effort they had the aid of many men ability, de Cisthem stood Gonzalez (or Francisco) Ximenes among

the Spanish awakening had its (1436-1517),in whom typicalrepresentative. Ximenes went to Rome Born of a familyof the lower nobility, neros

after studies in Alcala and

he showed

in the seat of the papacy, talent business and much

after six years

in church

his return, in 1465,

On

Salamanca.

as

a

great ability

preacher. About diocese by Men-

of the appointed vicar-general doza, then bishop of Siguenza. In the full tide

he

1480

was

Ximenes monk

renounced

now

of the

all his honors

strictest observance.

and

became

Not

recommendation

of

Mendoza,

now

him

in affairs of state

Queen and

science.

confessor

as

these

1492, however,

become

archbishop of

well

worked

Franciscan

In

Toledo, Queen Isabella appointed Ximenes consulted

success

with

content

he adopted the hermit's life. austerities, on

a

of

her as

confessor,and

questionsof

in harmony, and

con

under

was vigorous action a thoroughgoingreform of discipline in the disorderly monasteries of the land. Ximenes's undertaken

their

influence ence,

was

and

increased when, in 1495, on Isabella's insist Mendoza's against his own protests, he became but

archbishopricof Toledo, not only the highest with which the grandecclesiastical post in Spain, but one his Here he maintained of Castile was united. chancellorship ascetic life. Supported by the Queen, he turned all the powers of his high office to rid Spain of unworthy clergyand monks. than a thousand No oppositioncould thwart him, and more in the

successor

monks to

his

are

said to have

The discipline.

left the

moral

peninsularather and

character

than

submit

zeal of the Span

ish

clergywere greatlyimproved. the need of an edu Ximenes, though no great scholar,saw influences in cated clergy. He had encountered Renaissance Rome, and would turn them wholly to the service of the church. In 1498 he founded the Universityof Alcala de Henares, to and which he devoted a largepart of his episcopalrevenues, four professors where he gathered learned men, them among of Greek counted

and seven

Hebrew.

thousand

A

quarter of

a

century later Alcala

Though opposed to general believed that the laity,Ximenes

students.

reading of the Bible by the Scripturesshould be the principal study of the clergy. The

THE

324

noblest

SPANISH of

monument

INQUISITION

this conviction

Polyglot(Alcala Complutum), =

from

1502

in Greek

Testament

and

Complutensian

he directed

on

Latin.

the labor

presentedin He

was

Latin, with the Targum

brew, Greek, and the New

which

Old Testament

The

1517.

to

on

is the

the Pentateuch

The

New

;

Testament

in

To Ximenes printby 1515. belongs the honor, there in Greek, though as Testament fore,of first printingthe New papal permission for publicationcould not be obtained till 1520, the Greek Testament, issued in 1516, by Erasmus, was was

earlier The in his

the market.

on

less attractive side of Ximenes's to willingness

medans. vast

death The

In

use

force for the conversion

affairs of state

service to

character

his firmness

and

Isabella,Ferdinand, and

is to be

seen

of the Moham wisdom

Charles

of

were

V, till his

in 1517.

intellectual

impulse thus inaugurated by

revival

ultimatelyto

a

Francisco

Vittoria

de

of the

led

Ximenes

theology of Aquinas, begun by

(?-1546) in Salamanca, and

continued

the great Roman by Vittoria's disciples, theologiansof the early strugglewith Protestantism, Domingo de Soto (1494-

1560) and Melchior Characteristic

Cano

(1525-1560).

of the

Spanish awakening was the reorganiza tion of the inquisition.The Spanish temper viewed orthodoxy and patriotismas essentially and regarded the mainte one, of their religions nance or relapse by Jews and Mohammedans, as by such of those dissenters as had embraced Christianity, perilsto church and state alike. Accordingly,in 1480, Ferdi nand and Isabella established the inquisition, entirelyunder royalauthority,and with inquisitors appointedby the sovereign. It was this national character that was the distinguishing and led to protests by Pope feature of the Spanish inquisition, Sixtus IV, to which the sovereigns turned deaf ears. Supported by the crown, it speedilybecame a fearful instrument, under the leadershipof Tomas Torquemada (1420-1498). Undoubtedly its value in breaking the independence of the nobles and re it to the the treasury by confiscation commended plenishing but its chief claim to popularfavor was its repres sovereigns, sion of heresy and dissent. Spain had, therefore,at the close of the fifteenth century, the most independent national church of any nation in Europe, in which

a

moral

and

intellectual renewal

"

not

destined

to

be

THE

CONDITION

325

GERMANY

OF

in more was vigorousprogress than elsewhere; permanent and yet a church intenselymediaeval in doctrine and practice, intolerant of all heresy. fiercely "

In

situation

the

Germany

lacked all real unity. The was

by

worn

1438

to

the

in

imperialcrown,

Emperors

The

different.

very

house of

of the Austrian

members

1740, but

was

had

empire theory elective, Habsburg from

as

power

of

possessors

hereditarylands, rather than as holders of imperialau the between thority. Under Frederick III (1440-1493) wars who princesand cities and the disorder of the lower nobility, lived too often by what was reallyhighway robbery,kept the land in a turmoil which the Emperor was powerlessto suppress. their

Matters

1519), and

better

somewhat

were

attempt

an

was

made

to

I

Maximilian

under

(1493-

give stronger central

au

thorityto the empire by frequent meetings of the old feudal court Reichstag, the establishment of an imperial supreme for the (1495), and the division of the empire into districts made better preservationof publicpeace (1512). Efforts were and collect imperialtaxes. These to form an imperialarmy reforms had little vitality.The decisions of the court could not

be enforced

nor

the taxes

collected.

The

Reichstagwas,

days, but it indeed,to play a was a clumsy parliament,meeting in three houses, one of the princes,and imperialelectors,the second of lay and spiritual the third of delegatesfrom the free imperialcities. The lower nobles and the common people had no share in it. The imperialcities were an important element in German life,owning no superiorbut the feeble rule of the Emperor. far from industrious and wealthy, but they were They were and in their government, democratic were thoroughly selfcon seeking as far as the largerinterests of Germany were cerned. Their commercial spiritled them to resist the exac tions of clergyand princesalike. In no the peasantry in a state of country of Europe was in southwestern Germany, where in greater unrest, especially great role in the

surrections occurred serfs

in

were

and

largelyin France.

worse

by

"

a

1476, 1492, 1512, and

condition that had

ants

Their

state

the substitution of the Roman

for slaves

Reformation

passed away had law

been "

The

1513.

a

made

law made

rapidly largely

legalcustoms, by the close fifteenth century they were profoundly disaffected. "

for the old

and

peas

in England,

of the

RIVALRIES

326

Yet

AND

FRANCE

OF

national life as

if German

THE

whole

a

HABSBURGS thus

was

the largerterritories of Germany dissatisfied,

disordered

growing stronger, and developing a kind of semi-independent local This national life in themselves. was notably true of Aus tria,electoral and ducal Saxony, Bavaria, Brandenburg, and of their rulers was and they were The power Hesse. increasing, con beginningto exercise a local authorityin churchly affairs, and of abbots, taxing the bishops trollingthe nomination ecclesiastical jurisdiction. extent clergy,and limitingto some This local territorialchurchmanship had not gone far,but that of the utmost it existed was importance in givinga framework and

Reformation

the

which

was

were

rapidlyto develop when

rejected. witnessed years precedingthe Reformation by the Habsburg rulers of Austria of the utmost for the political background of the Reformation

obedience

was

The

the death

of Charles

Bold, the ambitious

the

heirshipof his Burgundian Her to his daughter, Mary.

Maximilian who

I,

to

seized upper

the

Burgundy,

of

duke

In

1477

Burgundy,

the Nether

that

of Louis

XI

the seeds of

marriages importance

age.

marriage

dissatisfaction sowed

two

territories and

left the lands

Roman

year,

of

with

France,

quarrelbetween

Habsburg line which were largely o f till the politics Europe 1756. to determine Philip,the son and Mary, in turn married Juana, heiress of of Maximilian about that and Isabella of Spain. So it came Ferdinand Philipand Juana's son, Charles, became possessor of Austria, the Netherlands, and the wide-extended Spanish territories in World a largersovereigntythan had Europe and the New the been held by a singleruler since Charlemagne to which heir also added in 1519. Charles V became imperialtitle was the Habsburg line to which he belonged to the rivalrybetween That and the Kings of France. rivalryand the strugglefor reform were to interplaythroughout the Reformation religious age, constantlymodifying each other.

the

Kings

and

of France

the

"

"

SECTION

XVI.

RENAISSANCE NORTH

Though the fifteenth century in Germany versityfoundation into existence between

1409

and

ALPS

THE

OF

was "

INFLUENCES

OTHER

AND

a

less than

no

1506

notable

"

these

new

period of uni twelve coming creations

did

REUCHLIN

328

Vienna, wliere the semi-pagan Latin poet, Conrad Celtes (14591508), enjoyed the patronage of the humanisticallyinclined

By the first decade of the sixteenth was pressinginto the Universities of Basel, century, humanism It also found Tubingen, Ingolstadt,Heidelberg,and Erfurt. cities,notably in patrons in the wealthy commercial many were Nuremberg, Strassburg,and Augsburg. So numerous its sympathizers by the close of the fifteenth century that learned circles were being formed, like the Rhenish Literary Celtes in in the Association,organizedby Mainz, 1491, mem circulated each other's works, and bers of which corresponded, assistance. afforded mutual was By 1500 humanism becoming vital factor in Germany. a humanism German presentedmany types, but was, in gen serious-minded than that of Italy. eral,far less pagan and more sincere chruchmen, anxious to reform Many of its leaders were life. It is to be seen and purifyreligious at its best in its two Reuchlin and Erasmus. famous most representatives, Maximilian

Emperor,

I.

in humble

Born

circumstances,in Pforzheim, in 1455, Johann earlygained local reputationas a Latinist,and was

Reuchlin

of Baden companion to the young son of the margrave 1472. to the University of Paris, about Here, in Paris, he began the study of Greek, instruction in which had been offered In 1477 he received the master's degree in there since 1470. before his graduationhe Even Basel,and there taught Greek. publisheda Latin dictionary(1475-1476). He studied law in much Orleans and Poitiers,and in later life was employed in always primarily judicialpositions;but his interests were scholarly.The service of the count of Wiirttemberg took him in 1482 cities which he visited again and Rome to Florence sent

as

"

in 1490

and

quaintancewith and

At

1498.

Greek

influenced

was

by

(ante,p. 315), and from

acquired

that

Florence, even commanded the

on

his first visit, his

admiration.

scholars

of the

There

Platonic

Pico della Mirandola

strange interest in Kabalistic

ac

he met

Academy

(ante,p. 315) he doctrines

that

Germany. Reuchlin was regarded the ablest Greek scholar of the closingyears of the fifteenth as century in Germany, and his influence in promotion of Greek added

studies

much

to

was

most

Reuchlin and

had

his fame

in

fruitful. the Renaissance

this led him,

desire to return

first of non-Jewish

scholars

to the sources,

in

Germany,

to

ERASMUS make

the Old

understand this labor

"

that

speech to Christian students. the peace-lovingscholar was which

quarrel into will be

many,

dents

studies,and with him

of these Hebrew

reason

The

"

of

treasures

Testament.

the better

might

fruit of twenty years of the publicationin 1506 of a Hebrew grammar Rudimentis Hebraicis unlocked the De which

was

lexicon

and

that he

of Hebrew

profoundstudy

a

329

Lutheran

of the

in

described

treatingof

revolt.

the

Reuchlin

The

bitter

drawn

Ger

all educated immediate

was

by

antece

Protestant.

no

refused approval to the risingReformation, which he wit But he did a service of immense nessed tillhis death in 1522.

He

and his intellectual heir Biblical scholarship, the reformers, to be his grandnephew, that scholar among

importance was

to

PhilipMelanchthon. Desiderius

Erasmus

was

born

of wedlock

out

in

Rotterdam,

Gouda, probably in 1466. The school in Deventer awakened his love of letters (ante,p. 327). His poverty drove him into or

Steyn, but he had no taste for the monastic life,nor for that of the priesthood,to which he was ordained in 1492. By 1495 he wras studying in Paris. The he made him in England, where the helpful 1499 saw year friendshipof John Colet, who directed him toward the study Augustinian monastery

an

of the Bible

and

in

the Fathers.

chieflyin France

and

the

A

few

years

Netherlands,

saw

of studious him

once

labors, more

in

England, in 1505, then followed a three years'sojourn in Italy. In 1509 he again returned to England, and now taught in the University of Cambridge, enjoying the friendshipof many of the most of the kingdom. The years distinguishedmen 1515-1521 V

were

spent for the

in the Netherlands.

where

he

could

principalhome. Europe. Erasmus Greek

who letters, wit and

ample He

may

part in the service of Charles

1521

to his death

facilities for

thus

in 1536

Basel,

publication,was

be called

a

citizen of all

impeccable Latinist. His knowledge of above He rather superficial. of all,a man was,

was

\vas

From

have

his

most

not

touched

an

the

issues of his time

consummate

daring criticism of clergyand civil rulers,and withal was moved by deep sincerity of purpose. that the church of his day was Convinced over laid with superstition, corruption,and error, and that the monastic life was too often ignorantand unworthy, he had yet of expression;set brilliancy

forth

with

ERASMUS

330

wish to break

no

He

too

was

primarilyintellectual

revolution,the

Lutheran

not clear-sighted

too

was

with the church

neither

Hence

side in the

see

to

he

have

of which

excesses

to

that

freelycriticised. sympathy with the He repelledhim. so

the evils of the Roman

strugglethat opened

Church.

in the

latter

has been con him, and his memory and Catholic. His demned by polemic writers, Protestant of that education, return to the sources own thought was of ignorance and immorality Christian truth, and flagellation

part of his life understood

bring the church to purity. To this end he labored. His Handbook of the Christian Soldier of 1502 was a simple,earnest presentationof an unecclesiastical Chris His Praise of Follyof 1509 tianity, largelyStoic in character. the evils of his age in church and state. was a bitingsatire on of 1518 were His Familiar Colloquies witty discussions in which were fastings,pilgrimages,and similar external observances by

merciless

satire would

work of His constructive of his brilliant pen. was the first edition of his the highestimportance. In 1516 came the

butts

Testament, the pioneer publicationof the Greek text, stillinaccessible (ante,p. 324). This for that of Ximenes was followed by a series of the Fathers Jerome, Origen,Basil, was Cyril,Chrysostom, Irenseus,Ambrose, and Augustine, not all Greek

"

wholly from his pen, but all from his impulse, which placed on a new plane,and scholarlyknowledge of earlyChristianity springs profoundly aided a Reformation, the deeper religious of which

Erasmus

vice for the

understood.

never

Christian

much classics,

Erasmus

writers of Greece for the pagan did something more than Erasmus

of Christian To

sources.

In

a

measure,

of the

like that

humanists Yet

rendered

he had

and

a

ser

Italian

Rome.

revive

knowledge a positive theology. expressionthrough a

but the fullest Christianitywas the Mount, of universal, Christ, primarilyin the Sermon on ethical religion, of which the philosophersof an essentially tiquityhad also been bearers. He had little feelingfor the sacramental for the deeply personalelements in religion.A or universal ethical theism, having its highest illustration in little his idea. His way of thinking was to have Christ, was influence on the Reformation on whole, though much as a modern deal of that in and is Socinianism, represented a great ancestor. theology,of which he was thus the spiritual more Though Germany was largelyinfluenced by the Rehim

SERVICE

THE naissance

at

land

other

the

Alps, the

(hnte,p. 324).

In

reforms

and

London.

and

in Oxford

Erasmus

Biblical studies

He

in

Colet

(1467?-1519) the epis

lecturingon

His

influence in

considerable

was

any

stirring impulses were Spain have already been

John

tles of Paul to

same

England

introducingeducational

was

331

sixteenth century than

the

efforts of Ximenes

The

elsewhere. noted

beginning of tfye

beyond

HUMANISM

OF

of the interpretation rejectedall allegorical

turning

(ante,p. 329). criti Scriptures,

clerical celibacy and auricular confession,and desired to better the education and morals of the clergy. As the six humanism teenth century dawned was gaining constantlyin cised

creasingfollowingin England, and 1547)

deemed

was

The

situation

its patron. in France was

King Henry

similar.

The

VIII

(1509-

chief representa

was Jaques Le Fevre, churchlyreformatory humanism active years were of whose of Etaples (1455-1536), most spent of mystical A modest, kindly little man, Paris. in or near on piety,he publisheda Latin translation and commentary merits of denied the justifying in 1512, which Paul's epistles He never good works and held salvation a free giftfrom God.

tive of

a

however, perceived, the

self and a

body

be

Church;

he

but

pupils,destined to most Guillaume Reformation struggle,

of

Guillaume

Meaux;

instrumental

in

Bude, eminent

him

between

gatheredround

of devoted

tion in the

bishop

Roman

difference

fundamental

any

unlike

himself

participa

Briconnet, to be in Greek

founding the College de France;

and

to

Louis

de

Farel, to Berquin, to die a Protestant martyr; and Guillaume be the fieryreformer of French-speakingSwitzerland. the path of reform humanists To all these religious-minded similar. seemed Sound learning,the study and preaching of the Bible and the Fathers, and the correction of ignorance, would make abuses immorality, and glaring administrative the church

what

it should

be.

This

solution

did not

meet

the

rendered an deep needs of the situation; but the humanists led Reformation. for the men They indispensable preparation the discredited later afresh. to study Christian sources They and more natural scholastic theology. They brought in new life methods of exegesis. To a large degree they looked on from another They repre standpoint than the mediaeval. sented from

a

release of the

mediaeval

mind, in

traditionalism.

some

considerable

measure,

PUBLICATION

332

Partlyas

a

OF

THE

result of the Renaissance

BIBLE

emphasis on the sources, invention of printing, the

in consequence of the latter half of the fifteenth century witnessed wide a tion of the Bible in the Vulgate and in translation. but

more

even

than

ninety-twoeditions

1500.

Eighteen

before

1521.

tion of

a

pendent were

editions

The

1477; the whole

New Bible

versions

German

a

Testament ten

In

the

the

published between in printedin Bohemian

made

were

laity,since

its

be

the

1488.

Reformation,

to restrict the

doubt

publica

printingof two 1480

many

the

and

in

inde Psalms The

1507.

If

England had manuscripts of

in circulation.

seemed

use

French

the

saw

Netherlands

times

less

printed

were

printed in

later;1478

No

put forth before

version

was

years

in Italian.

Scriptureswere no printedBible before Wyclif'stranslation were

there

of

Vulgate were

Spanish translation;1471

seven

Efforts

of the

distribu

the

readingof

the Bible

of mediaeval

source

by the

heresies;but

that

with it much increased familiarity the less educated priesthoodand among laymen. Yet among the real question of the influence of this Bible reading is the problem^of Biblical interpretation.The Middle Ages never denied the final authorityof the Bible. Augustine and Aqui the Bible interpreted, nas so however, regarded it. It was the the and the councils the of church. Fathers, teachers, by Should that churchly right to interpretbe denied, there re mained but the voices only the rightof privateinterpretation; from

can

no

Bohemia

and

the mediaeval

sects

which

denied

the inter

pretingauthorityof the church, found no generalresponse as yet. The commanding word had yet to be spoken. The mere reading of the Bible involved no denial of mediaeval ideals. Only when those ideals were rejectedcould the interpreting authoritywhich supported them be denied and the Bible be the support of the newer come conceptionsof salvation and of the church. tantism

as

The was

Bible

was

not

Protestantism

so a

much new

the

cause

of Protes

interpretationof

the

Scriptures. The closingyears of the fifteenth century were, has been as betterment in Spain. No such cor rfeen, a period of religious responding revival of interest in religionis to be traced in France or England; but Germany was undergoing a real and pervasivereligious quickening in the decades immediately pre Its fundamental motive to seems ceding the Reformation.

have

in the

feaiyMuch

been

to increase the

of

sense

GERMANY

IX

UNREST

333

tended

popular life of Germany witchcraft

apprehension.The

delusion,

rapidlyspreading. A bull of VIII in 1484 declared Germany full of witches, Jakob the German and Sprenger and Heinrich inquisitors, Kramer, publishedtheir painfullycelebrated Malleus Malefithat added It was terror to in 1489. a superstition carum less to be shared by the reformers no popular life,and was The from 1490 to than by their Roman opponents. years The Turkish in Germany. 1503 were peril a period of famine has al The social unrest general was becoming threatening. ready been noted (ante,p. 325). All these elements contributed of of the realityand nearness to the development of a sense God. divine judgments, and the need of propitiating an angry Luther's earlyreligious congenialto the spirit experienceswere of this pervasivereligious movement. The religious spiritof Germany at the close of the fifteenth century found expressionin pilgrimages. A few of the more to Rome, went wealthy journeyed to the Holy Land, more that of but the most popular foreignpilgrimage shrine was St. James at Compostella in Spain. German pilgrim shrines made, no were thronged,and great collections of relics were tablyby the Saxon Elector,Frederick the Wise (1486-1525),to be Luther's protector, who placedthem in the castle church, to though by no Pope Innocent

the door

of which

intercession of

Luther

Mary

mother, St. Anna,

was

larlyregarded

a

tions

or

as

was

new,

means

was

was

to

nail his famous

sought, and

more

never

Christ

but littleless valued. strict

judge, to

be

Theses.

was

placated with

The

Mary's popu

satisfac

absolutions.

religious by side with this external and work-trusting the that saw spirit, Germany had not a little of mystic piety, of religion in the relation of the individual soul to God ; essence has been called "non-ecclesiastical and a good deal of what which showed itself not only in simple,serious lives, religion," like that of Luther's father,but in increasing attempts of lay princesto improve the qualityof the clergy,of towns to regu late beggary, to control charitable had foundations, which Yet side

been

in exclusive

vindicate

for

ecclesiastical

hands, and

in various

largershare

in the

ways

to

laymen, as such, a religious life of the community. its claims The active life was asserting against the contemplative. Theology, as such, had largely

lost

its

despised It

was

seething lems

TYPES

CONTRASTED

334

and

hold

by no

with

on

thought,

popular and

humanism, dead

unrest,

unfulfilled

age

to

OF

discredited

supplanted which

vexed

longings.

with

RELIGION

Luther

by was

multitudinous

by

nominalism,

mysticism. to

speak, unsolved

but

one

prob

CONSERVATIVES

AGAINST

HUMANISTS

336

korn, while Reuchlin defended Jewish literature as with slight exceptionsdesirable,urged a fuller knowledge of Hebrew, and substitution of friendlydiscussion with the Jews for the A storm of controversy was the confiscation of their books. accused trial by of heresy and put on result. Reuchlin was the

The

Hochstraten. till 1520, when of the

cates

new

proceedingas an ship,and rallied

to

was

Reuchlin's

support.

circle came, in 1514 and 1517, one of satires ever issued the Letters of Obscure

this humanistic

From the

appealed to Rome, and dragged it was decided The advo against Reuchlin. the whole learning,however, looked upon attack on scholar ignorantand unwarranted case

successful

most

"

Purporting to be written by opponents of Reuchlin and the new learning,they aroused wide-spread ridicule by their and their ignorance,and barbarous Latinity,their triviality, undoubtedly created the impression that the party opposed hostile to learningand progress. Their author to Reuchlin was (1480?-1539?) of ship is still uncertain, but Crotus Rubeanus Dornheim and Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523) certainlyhad parts in it. Hutten, vain, immoral, and quarrelsome, but brilliantly giftedas a writer of prose and verse, and undoubt to Luther to give support of dubious worth was edly patriotic, in the early years of the Reformation The effect movement. Men.

of the storm

raised

Reuchlin

over

unite German

to

was

ists,and to draw a line of cleavagebetween them the Dominicans the most servatives,of whom were It

while this contest

was

against tacular and

an

ecclesiastical

fashion,by

its

monastic

immediate

giganticrevolution Martin

in the

Luther, from of whom

it may profoundly altered

men

a

and

con

a

protest or

spec

recentlyfounded

university,on

response

the

conspicuous.

unusual

no

professorin

historyof

and

heightthat

abuse, made, in

German relativelyinconspicuous

31, 1517, found

few

a

at

was

human

launched

the Christian

October the

most

Church.

is one this protest came, of the be said that the historyof the world

whom

Not a great scholar,an by his work. he moved of a organizeror a politician, men by the power in trust profound religious experience,resultingin unshakable and personalrelations to Him, God, and in direct,immediate which for the brought a confident salvation that left no room was

elaborate hierarchical and sacramental

Ages.

He

spoke to

his countrymen

structures as

one

of the Middle

profoundly of them

LIFE

EARLY

LUTHER'S

337

by virtue of a vivid and compellingfaith,and a courage, physicaland spiritual, he of his race, heroic mould. Yet so largelywas of the most that he is understood with diffi in his virtues and limitations, an Italian,and even or culty,to this day, by a Frenchman Anglo-Saxons have seldom appreciatedthat fulness of sym Protestant speaks patheticadmiration with which a German But whether honored or opposed, none his name. can deny his pre-eminentplace in the historyof the church. born on November Luther was 10, 1483, in Eisleben,where and sympathies,yet aspirations

in

his father

peasant miner.

a

was

above

His

father

simple,unecclesiastical piety. The

of

ambitious

and few

an

son

competence,

to fitting

education

tory schoolingin Luther known The

and

and

birth,where was a

fired with career

he

to

ambition

and

energetic Mansfeld to

After

an

earnest, companionable,and

humanistic

movement

beginningto

a a

give his prepara

Eisenach, Martin

entered the Universityof Erfurt in 1501, where as

were

respect and

won

in the law.

Mansfeld, Magdeburg,

mother

father, more

peasants, removed

most

after Martin's

months

modest

than

them

he

was

music-lovingstudent. be felt in Erfurt

had

rather in the later, him. His interest was littleinfluence upon of the school nominalistic scholastic philosophy,representative of

Occam, though he read fairlywidely in the Latin classics.

of sinfulness which was stronglythat deep sense the ground note of the religious revival of the age in Germany. it necessary of arts in 1505, made His graduation as master He then to begin his specialpreparation in law. was pro and death sudden of the friend a foundly moved, however, by and he therefore broke off from lightning, by a narrow escape his career, and, in deep anxiety for his soul's salvation,en tered the monastery of Augustinian hermits in Erfurt,in July, The 1505. "German congregation" of Augustinians,recently under the Proles (1429-1503), and now reformed by Andreas supervisionof Johann von Staupitz (?-1524), enjoyed deserved at its popular respect and representedmediaeval monasticism best. posi Thoroughly mediaeval,in general,in its theological it and included made of much tion, men some preaching, and who with were sympathetic disposed to mystical piety the deeper religious apprehensionsof Augustine and Bernard. life In the monastic To Staupitz,Luther was much. to owe Luther won ordained to speedy recognition. In 1507 he was

Luther

felt

RELIGIOUS

338

LUTHER'S

the

priesthood.The

next

in

him

saw

year

of his

preparingfor a superiors, universitywhich had been there

command in the

Elector,Frederick

Saxon

DEVELOPMENT

III,"the Wise"

Wittenberg,at

future

the

professorship by the

established

(1486-1525), in 1502.

theology in 1509, but was sent back the same year to Erfurt, possiblyto study for the degree licensed expounder of that great mediaeval of sententiarius, or text-book of theology,the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard (ante, his order On of made memorable business he a journey p. 266). in in Back 1510. to Rome, probably more once Wittenberg, There

he

which

was

graduated bachelor

thenceforth

of

to be his

home, he became

a

doctor

of

the Bible, to lecture on theology in 1512 and began at once tilllate treatingthe Psalms from 1513 to 1515, then Romans in 1516, and thereupon Galatians,Hebrews, and His Titus. practicalabilities were recognizedby his appointment, in 1515, district vicar in charge of eleven monasteries of his order,and as the practiceof preachingin which, from he began, even earlier, he displayedremarkable the first, gifts. In his order he bore of singularpiety,devotion,and monastic the repute of a man zeal.

Yet, in spiteof all monastic soul.

of

peace

His

strenuousness, Luther found no him. of sinfulness overwhelmed

sense

Staupitzhelped him by pointingout that true penitencebegan But not with fear of a punishing God, but with love to God. if Luther could say that Staupitz first opened his eyes to the of his vision was a slow and Gospel,the clarifying gradual proc ess.

Till 1509

Luther

Biel.

and d'Ailli,

Occam,

devoted To

himself

them

to

he

the later

owed

scholastics,

permanently

his

to emphasize the objectivefacts of revelation,and disposition his distrust of reason. opening new Augustine, however, was visions to him by the close of 1509, and leadinghim to a rapidly of Aristotle in theology. toward the dominance growing hostility Augustine'smysticism and emphasis on the salvatorysignifi cance

of the

Anselm

lectured

and on

human

Bernard the Psalms

that salvation is of merit

on

promises,so

life and

a

new

helped

death him.

of Christ

By

the

fascinated him.

time

that

Luther

convinced (1513-1515), he had become relation to God, based not on any work

man's

part, but

that

the redeemed

on

absolute man,

trust

while not

in the

divine

ceasingto

be

and sinner,yet is freelyand fullyforgiven,and from the new in Christ, the new life of willing to God joyous relationship a

339

FAITH

BY

JUSTIFICATION

of a most conformityto God's will flows. It was a re-emphasis not wholly of the Pauline teaching. Yet it was important side* moral To Paul the Christian is primarilya renewed Pauline. being. ;To Luther he is firstof all a forgivensinner ; but Luther, salvation in essence like Paul, made a rightpersonalrelation The ground and the pledge of this rightrelation ship to God. of Christ ship is the mercy of God displayedin the sufferings Christ

behalf.

in man's

has

borne

sins.

our

in turn,

We,

mystics, imputed to us His righteousness.The German that the Luther conclusion to helped especiallyTauler, now this transformingtrust was not, as he had supposed, a work The had a part, but wholly the giftof God. in which a man have

preparatory to his lectures

work

He

intensified these convictions. mon

opinion that God

who

did

what

The basis of any Luther. thus

While

the nature

and

own

conviction

and

even

more

fidence that

the

became

assurance

of

certaintyhe

for

of sal

method

yet secured.

not

was

Pelagian.

overthrown

He

personal certaintyof his own had, with Augustine, denied.

the latter part of his lectures on Romans, of 1516, his con clearlyin the closingmonths

he labored

as

of soul

peace

That justification. Yet

to

com

into those

and

absurd

was

been

as

that the

grace

work-righteousnesshad

the further

needed

infuse infallibly

would

convinced

vation, Luther's

declared

now

in their power

was

(1515-1516) but

Romans

on

on

God-given

of faith involved

nature

conviction.

Thenceforth, in his

personal own

per

Gospel was the forgivenessof sins. It was the soul with peace, joy,and "good news," filling absolute trust in God. It was absolute dependence on the di vine promises,on God's "word." Luther had out a new not, thus far, consciouslyworked vital had of had He a experience. theology. deep, system in be It was to an no squared with experience,however, way sonal experiencethe

much

of current

and

satisfactions

siderations made force of

of the

sum

theories of salvation had

a

Luther

prominent part. a

profound inward

a

institutions which

he

saw

was

a

He

reformer.

about

him.

vital,transforming power,

a

theoretic

No

driven

test the

The be

be

acts, penances,

was

experienceto

nobilityof Luther's experiencecannot universal test may as a applicability faith

in which

by the

beliefs and

profundity and

doubted.

questioned. new

con

and

Yet To

its him

vivifying per-

however, while sincerelyde

sonal relationship.Many men, their and sirous of servingGod of

THESES

NINETY-FIVE

THE

340

have generation,

such

no personalforgiveness,

no

such

soul-stirring depth

of

sense

feeling,

They desire,with God's aid, to do For them "justification the best they can. by faith alone" is intellectual assent an either well-nighmeaningless,or becomes of Luther or truth. To enter into the experience to religious for all. of Paul is by no means possible By 1516 Luther did not stand alone. In the Universityof and Scholasticism to Aristotelianism Wittenberg his opposition much his Biblical theology found and sympathy. His col leagues,Andreas Bodenstein of Karlstadt (1480?-1541), who, childlike trust.

such

no

Aquinas,and his

older

representedthe

Luther, had

unlike

Nikolaus

Amsdorf

von

Scholasticism

of

became

(1483-1565),now

hearty supporters.

In

1517

had

Luther

an

opportunityto apply his

con

new

Pope Leo X had de cided in favor of the claims of Albrecht of Brandenburg to hold of Mainz, the archbishopric time the archbishopric at the same of Magdeburg, and the administration of the bishopricof Halberstadt, an argument moving thereto being a largefinancial To indemnify himself,Albrecht secured as his share payment. half the proceedsin his district of the indulgencesthat the had been issuing,since 1506, for building that new papacy ception of salvation

church

a

of St. Peter which

commissioner

A

to

crying abuse.

of the ornaments

is stillone

for this collection

Johann

was

of Rome.

Tetzel

(1470-

eloquence,who, intent on the largestpossiblereturns, painted the benefits of indulgences terms.1 To in the crassest Luther, convinced that only a rightpersonal relation with God would bring salvation,such teaching seemed destructive of real religion.As Tetzel ap allowed to enter electoral Saxonynot proached he was Luther preached against the abuse of indulgences and, on 1519),

Dominican

a

monk

of

"

31, 1517, posted on

October

church, in the universitybulletin board, his the door

of the castle

Wittenberg,which served as memorable ever Ninety-fiveTheses.2 Viewed 1

in

See extracts

themselves, it in

Kidd, Documents

may

well be

Illustrative

wondered

why

the

of the Continental Reforma

12-20.

tion,pp. 2 Kidd, pp. 21-26 Works, pp. 6-14. ^

;

English tr.,Wace

and

Buchheim,

Luther's

Primary

THE

CONTROVERSY

WIDENS

341

Ninety-fiveThesesproved the spark which kindled the ex intended for academic debate. They do plosion.They were not deny the rightof the Pope to grant indulgences.They questionthe extension of indulgencesto purgatory, and make of current evident the abuses teaching abuses which they imply the Pope will repudiate when informed. Yet though the full round of Luther's thought, they are far from expressing evident in them certain principles which, if developed, are would be revolutionaryof the churchly practiceof the day. The habit of mind. Repentance is not an act, but a life-long The true treasury of the church is God's forgivinggrace. Christian seeks rather than avoids divine discipline."Every Christian who feels true compunction has of rightplenary re without letters of pardon." In mission of pain and guilt, even of the utmost event the restlesscondition of Germany it was an if humble, religious leader had that a respected, significance spoken boldly againsta great abuse, and the Theses ran the length and breadth of the empire. Tetzel answered the excitement. Luther had not anticipated stirred Konrad at once,1 and Wimpina (?-1531) to make the able and disputa formidable opponent was reply. A more of theologyin tious Johann Maier of Eck (1486-1543),professor who answered with a tract circu the Universityof Ingolstadt, Luther was lated in manuscript and entitled Obelwci. charged "In his positionin a sermon with heresy. He defended on By the beginning dulgence and Grace" ;2 he repliedto Eck. had been lodged in Rome of 1518, complaintsagainstLuther The by Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and the Dominicans. ordered result was that the generalof the Augustinians was summoned before the the dispute and Luther was to end generalchapterof the order met in Heidelberg,in April. There Luther argued againstfree will and the control of Aristotle in of the most one adherents, of whom new theology and won Martin Butzer (Bucer). At about the same important was time Luther elaborate defense of his position put forth a more the Resolutiones. on indulgences, Luther He seems had desired no quarrelwith the papacy. believed that the Pope might see the abuses of indul to have he did, but the course of events was as leadingto no gences the sturdy maintenance of his views or submission. choice save "

*

Kidd, pp. 30, 31.

2

Ibid.,p.

29.

CAJETANUS

AND

342

LUTHER

In

June, 1518, Pope Leo X issued and

in Rome,

commissioned of

Silvestro Mazzolini

can

position. The

Luther's

his

a

citation to Luther of

censor

books, the Domini

Prierio,to draw and

summons

to appear

opinion on opinion reached

up

the

an

early in August. Prierio asserted that "the Roman the collegeof cardinals,and more Church is representatively and that "He the supreme who says is virtually over pontiff," Church do what it actuallydoes regard that the Roman cannot 1 Luther's case would apparently ing indulgencesis a heretic." had he not had the in his condemnation have speedilyended powerful protectionof his prince,the Elector Frederick, "the In how far Frederick sympathized with Luther's relig Wise." Luther

of controversy; ious beliefs at any time is a matter and he was events proud of his Wittenberg professor, almost

an

certain

in Rome.

condemnation

His

but, at all to

averse

skill political to the papal

court change of hearingfrom the Roman legateat the Reichstag in Augsburg, the learned commentator Vio (1469-1534),known from his on Aquinas, Cardinal Thomas birthplace(Gaeta) as Cajetanus. Cajetanus was a theologian of European repute and seems to have thought the matter ordered Luther his dignity. He rather beneath to retract, of in criticisms of the completenessof papal power especially dulgence. Luther refused,2and, on October 20, fled from Augs burg, having appealed to the Pope "to be better informed."3 satisfied with this,Luther Not appealed from Wittenberg, in little 1518, to a future general council.4 How November, is shown chance of a favorable hearing he had in Rome by the month bull issued the same by Leo X definingindulgencesin

effected

the

a

which

sense

hope

of

Luther

had

criticised.5

Luther

had

real

no

If his courage was great, his danger was condemnation rescued from immediate he was

safety.

less so; but the favorable Meanwhile

turn

the

of

no

by

events. political

of 1518

summer

had

seen

the installation

as

scholar,a native Wittenberg of a young of Bretten and grandnephew of Reuchlin, PhilipMelanchthon in united with Luther to be singularly (1497-1560), who was Greek

professorof

their after work.

in

Never

was

there

a

greater contrast.

Me

without a superior but he was timid and retiring; in scholarship, and under the strong impress of Luther's per-

lanchthon

was

1

Kidd,

"

Ibid.,p. 40.

pp.

31, 32.

2

Ibid.,pp. 33-37.

6

Ibid.,p. 39.

3

Ibid.,pp. 37-39.

GREAT

LUTHER'S

344

TREATISES

Ages, and allowed final appeal only to and the Scriptures, to the Scriptures, interpreted moreover, Eck felt that the individual whole the con judgment. by ended bull be of con speedily by a papal troversy might now of the Middle

system

he

demnation, which issued

Luther ideas

was

von

lead in

a

now,

national

a

ginning to from

see

conflict with

believe normal

of the

who

those sist in

his task

vice of

as

national

a

and

of the natural

be

Protestant

one

who

one

himself

doctrine

of Luther's

thought, as

be

was

was

the

essential

life,and

goodness

denounced must

con

This

vin

life as the best field for the

most

well

could

of salvation

so

human

own

little tract, On Good Works, noblest of all good works" to

occupationsof

works

as

narrowly that they church, fastingor givingalms."2

good

His

redemption of Germany individual Pope, he was

Christ," he affirmed

trades

"limit

His

God, rather than the unnatural

to

was

in

praying in

dication

was

supporters, like

Luther

Rome.

which, rather than the

papacy

"to

which

indeed, in the thick of the battle.

coming to regard as antichrist. bearing largerfruitage. In his of May, 1520, after defining"the be

and

secure

Humanistic rapidlycrystallizing. now Hutten, were rallyingto him

were

Ulrich

to

15, 1520.1

June

on

set himself

now

as

one

limitations of

important

ser

asceticism,

contributions

of his most

partures from ancient and mediaeval Christian Luther's great accomplishment of the year

to

de significant conceptions. 1520

and

his

the preparationof completion of his title to leadershipwere The first of these treatises was three epoch-making works. publishedin August, entitled To the Christian Nobilityof the Ger with burning conviction,by a master Nation.3 Written man of the German the breadth of the empire. ran tongue, it soon walls were overthrown It declared that three Roman by which The had buttressed its power. the papacy pretended superi is baseless,since to the temporal estate orityof the spiritual all believers are priests. That truth of universal priesthood down the second casts wall, that of exclusive papal right to interpretthe Scriptures;and the third wall, also,that a re but the Pope. "A formatory council can be called by none

true, free council" for the reform 1

Kidd,

3

Translated

pp.

17-92.

pp.

2

74-79. in full in Wace

and

of the church

should

Robinson, Readings,

2

:

be

sum-

66-68.

Buchheim's, Luther's Primary Works,

GREAT

LUTHER'S moned

by thp temporal

TREATISES

authorities.

345

Luther

then

proceeded

for reformatory action,his sugges lay down a programme tions being practicalrather than theological.Papal misbe curbed; to government, appointments, and taxation are to

burdensome

offices abolished

;

German

ecclesiastical interests

be

should

placed under a "Primate of Germany" ; clerical mar riagepermitted; the far too numerous holy days reduced in the interest of industry and sobriety;beggary,includingthat of the mendicant orders,forbidden ; brothels closed ; luxury education in the universities reformed. curbed; and theological No wonder the effect of Luther's work was profound. He had had long been thinking. voiced what earnest men Two months later Luther put forth in Latin his Babylonish Captivity of the Church,1in which questionsof the highesttheo handled and the teaching of the Roman logicalimport were Church unsparinglyattacked. The sole value of a sacrament, Luther taught,is its witness to the divine promise. It seals or the God-given pledge of union with Christ and forgive attests of sins. It strengthensfaith. Tried ness by the Scripture standard, there are only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper,though penance has a certain sacramental value works of to baptism. Monastic as a return pilgrimages, vows, substitute for the forgivenessof sins merit, are a man-made freelypromised to faith in baptism. Luther criticised the denial of the cup to the laity, doubted transubstantiation,for which he would substitute a theory of consubstantiation derived from d'Ailli,and especially rejectedthe doctrine that the Supper is a

sacrifice to

God.

The

other

tion,matrimony, orders,and mental

standingin

It is one

able

Roman

confirma

sacraments,

unction, have

extreme

no

Scripture.

of the marvels

of Luther's

stormy

career

and

that he

issue, contemporaneously with and while the papal bull was intenselypolemic treatises, to

compose

sacra

was

these

being publishedin Germany, his third great tractate of 1520, that On Christian Liberty.2In calm confidence he presentedthe para dox of Christian experience: "A Christian is the most man free lord of all,and subjectto none; Christian man is the a dutiful most of all,and subjectto every one." He is servant free,since justified by faith,no longer under the law of works 1 2

Luther's Primary

Ibid.,,pp.

95-137.

Works,

pp.

141-245.

in

and

will of

unmatched

tions of Lutheranism the

BULL

with Christ. He is a servant personalrelationship bound by love to bring his life into conformity to the God and to be helpfulto his neighbor. In this tract,

elsewhere

an

PAPAL

THE

new

because

in

BURNS

LUTHER

346

measure,

evident.

are

the power To Luther

and

the limita

the

of

essence

of sins,wrought through a faith, forgiveness which, as with Paul, is nothing less than a vital,personaltrans of the soul with Christ. It is unquestion forming relationship ably the highest of Christian experiences. Its limitation,as if regarded as the alreadypointed out, is that this experience, is one sole type of true religion, beyond the practicalattain of many To this tract Luther earnest ment men. prefaceda curious document, breath letter to Pope Leo X, which is a most but full of denunciation ing good-willto the Pontiff personally, in which the of the papal court and its claims for the papacy, Pope is representedas "sittinglike a lamb in the midst of wolves." to clarifyhereafter Though Luther's vision was thus prac details,his theological regardingmany system was tically complete in its main outlines by 1520.

Gospel

is the

Meanwhile

Eck

and

Girolamo

Aleander

(1480-1542) had

papal bull,as nuncios,to Germany. In Witten berg its publicationwas refused,and its receptionin largeparts of Germany was lukewarm or hostile,but Aleander secured its publicationin the Netherlands, and procured the burning of Luther's books in Louvain, Liege,Antwerp, and Cologne. On answered December 10, 1520, Luther by burning the papal bull and the canon law, with the approving presence of students and citizens of Wittenberg, and without oppositionfrom the come

with the

civil authorities.

Germany

was

manaded

the

It

was

evident

in ecclesiastical

cognizance of

that

a

considerable

rebellion,and the

the

section of

situation

de-

of

the

highest authorities

empire. On ress,

June the

milian's

imperialelection grandson Charles Austrian

Netherlands, the

burg, master discovered

in prog in the choice of Maxi

was 28, 1519, while the Leipzigdisputation

of

a

resulted

had

(1500-1558). Heir

V

territories of the

considerable

territories

across

the

of

house

portion of Italy,and

Spain, the of Habsof

Atlantic,his election

as

newly Holy

than vaster Emperor made him the head of a territory author that of any singleruler since Charlemagne. It was an ity greatlylimited,however, in Germany by the territorial Roman

WORMS

AT

LUTHER

347

and princes. As yet Charles was young strugglesof the day unknown, and both sides in the religious he was In reality earnest had strong hope of his support. an Roman "Catholic,of the type of his grandmother, Isabella of Castile,sharing her reformatory views, desirous of improve of the

powers

local

in clerical

ment

morals, education, and

administration,but

departurefrom the doctrinal or hierarchical system of the Middle Ages. He had at last come to Germany, and partly to regulatehis government in that the land,partlyto prepare for the war about to break out over and Spain in Italy,had called a Reichs rival claims of France in November, 1520. Though there was tag to meet in Worms

wholly unsympathetic with

any

business,all felt the determination of Luther's case of high importance. The papal nuncio, Aleander, pressedfor after the final papal bull a prompt condemnation, especially other

much

Since Luther issued on January 2, 1521. againstLuther was was by the Pope, the Reichstag had no already condemned effective. duty,Aleander urged,but to make that condemnation had wide popular support, and his On the other hand, Luther ruler,the Elector Frederick the Wise, a master of diplomaticin for Luther, of the opinionthat the con trigue, was, fortunately had an adequate trial. Frederick,and monk had never demned

other nobles,believed that he should be heard before the Reichs the two coun tag previousto action by that body. Between

Emperor wavered, convinced that Luther was a damna senti ble heretic,but politician enough not to oppose German the possibleadvantage of ment too sharply,or to throw away making the heretic's fate a lever in bringingthe Pope to the imperialside in the strugglewith France. sels the

result

The

was

that

Luther

was

summoned

to

Worms

un

protectionof an imperialsafe-conduct. His journey On thither from Wittenberg was well-nigha popular ovation. April17,1521, Luther appeared before the Emperor and Reichs of his books was pointed out to him and he was tag. A row Luther requested them or not. asked whether he would recant time for reflection. A day was given him, and on the next he before the assembly. Here afternoon he was once more acknowledged that,in the heat of controversy, he had expressed but the substance of himself too strongly against persons,

der

what its

the

he had

written

he could

not

wrongfulness by Scripture or

retract, unless convinced

adequate argument.

of The

AT

LUTHER

348

WORMS

Emperor, who could hardly believe that of a generalcouncil deny the infallibility That discussion short. I stand. Here wise. but

not

seems

Luther God

of his unshaken

substance

great historic witness

to

was

temerity as cut possible, do

cried out, "I cannot

help

improbable.

such

The

Amen,"

me,

words

least

at

determination.

the truth

highest tribunal of his nation. had given the completestproof.

is not

He

his dauntless

The

the

other

certain,

expressedthe had

of his convictions Of

to

borne

a

before the courage

he

judgment of his hearers Emperor and the prelates

divided, but if he alienated the by his strong and, as it seemed to them, self-willed assertion,

was

of the German no impressionon many That Frederick. the Elector prince, on bilityand, fortunately, in his de confirmed though he thought Luther too bold, was he

made

a

favorable

that

no

the result seemed

a

termination

harm defeat

should

come

for Luther.

the reformer.

to

A

month

Yet

after Luther

journey he was formallyput under of the mem the ban of the empire,though not tillafter many to be seized for pun bers of the Reichstag had left. He was This ban was and his books burned.1 ishment never formally im of his lifeunder abrogated,and Luther remained the rest perialcondemnation. Had Germany been controlled by a strong central authority Not have would ended in martyrdom. Luther's career soon an even imperialedict,however, could be executed againstthe Frederick the Wise will of a vigorous territorial ruler,and Luther's salvation. out Unwilling to come more proved once afraid to do so, he openly as his defender, perhaps somewhat had Luther seized by friendly hands, as the reformer journeyed to the Wartburg from Worms, and carried secretly homeward Luther's hiding-place Eisenach. For months was Castle,near unknown; but that he lived and shared in the for practically of the strugglehis ready pen made speedilyapparent. tunes the Roman attacks His intense,but the on practicegrew more most lastingfruit of this period of enforced retirement was his translation of the New Testament, begun in December, 1521, Luther and published in September of the followingyear. the first to translate the Scripturesinto Ger was by no means from the Vulgate, but the earlier versions had been made man, awkward and in expression. Luther's work hard and were had

started

on

his homeward

1

Kidd, Documents,

pp.

79-89.

mus

basis,it

the

gave

the form

determined

that

literature "

and

the

from mereljj

not

was

THE

TRANSLATES

LUTHER

polishedby

idiomatic

Saxon of

master

this translation

development

of the

his deference

to the

largely

future German

mark

"

have

of

was

God,

These

been

ever

of

Word

It

chancery of the time wrought popular expression. Eew services

life religious

of criticism.

readable.

speech that should

of

greater than

canons

and

349

the labors of Eras

Greek, for which

was

of the a

TESTAMENT

NEW

rendered

Nor, with all

nation.

a

Luther

the

to

without

his

own

the relative clearness with

were

of the work of Christ and the method interpretation of salvation by faith is taught. Judged by these standards, he felt that Hebrews, James, Jude, and Revelation were of inferior worth. Even in Scriptureitselfthere were differences in value. The month which saw the beginning of Luther's work as a translator witnessed 1521 the publication in December, Wittenberg of a small volume by Melanchthon, the Loci Com meaning Cardinal Points of Theology. With it the munes, systematicpresentationof Lutheran theology may be said to arid modified have begun.1 It was to be enlarged,developed,

which

his

"

"

in many

later editions.

SECTION

SEPARATIONS

II.

DIVISIONS

AND

Luther's sojournin the Wartburg left Wittenberg without

powerful leadership;but to

there

were

not

wanting

the ecclesiasticalrevolution.

continue

ciates in the

To

von

Amsdorf

(1483-1565), there had

and

radical.

Luther

there

many

his earlier

Karlstadt,Melanchthon, university,

and

his

asso

Nikolaus

added, in the first half of the year 1521, Johann Bugenhagen (1485-1558) and Justus Jonas had (1493-1555). Of these,Karlstadt unques but was rash, impulsive, tionablygreatest natural leadership,

worship or

in monastic

had

as

been

yet made

life. Yet

it was

no

changes

in

public

inevitable that demand

for such

Luther's changes should come. fiery fellow monk, Gabriel Zwilling (1487?-! 558), by October, 1521, was de and urgingthe abandonment of clericalvows. nouncing the mass He soon had a largefollowing, especiallyin the Augustinian of which of the inmates now monastery of Wittenberg, many renounced their profession.With equal zeal Zwillingwas soon attackingimages. At Christmas, 1521, Karlstadt celebrated 1

Extracts

in

Kidd, Documents,

pp.

90-94.

350

RADICALISM.

CONSERVATISM

LUTHER'S

Supper in the castle church, without priestlygarb, elevation of the host, and with the cup sacrificial offering, offered to the laity. Auricular confession and fasts were aban doned. Karlstadt taught that all ministers should marry, and, He was in January, 1522, took to himself a wife. soon oppos and the of Gregorian chanting in pictures, ing the use organs, his leadershipthe Wittenberg city public worship. Under government broke up the ancient religiousfraternities and the Lord's

confiscated their property, decreed that the services should be in German, condemned picturesin the churches, and forbad

beggary, orderingthat reallyneedy city treasury. The public commotion

Stiibner.

the

augmented by the radical preachersfrom

was

arrival,on December 27, 1521, of three Nikolaus were Zwickau, chief of whom Thoma

be aided from

cases

claimed

These

men

infant

baptism, and

Storch

and

immediate

Markus

divine

in

prophesiedthe speedy Melanchthon somewhat shaken end of the world. was by their influence in has been them at first, though general exag added to state of a something gerated. They undoubtedly opposed spiration,

turmoil.1

rapidchanges,followed by a popular attack on images, the Wise, and they to Elector Frederick were highlydispleasing drew forth the warning protests of German princesand the im perialauthorities. Though Luther was to further,within the of the changes which Karlstadt three or four years, most next felt that his cause in peril and Zwillinghad made, he now was The city government through a dangerous radicalism. ap The Elector nominally forbad pealed to Luther to return. considerations,but on March 6, 1522, him, out of political Luther in Wittenberg, which thenceforth was more was once to be his home. Eight days of preaching showed his power. The Gospel,he declared,consisted in the knowledge of sin,in forgivenessthrough Christ, and in love to one's neighbor. These

The

which alterations,

externals.

They

eration

the

Karlstadt

of

had

should

be effected

weak.

Luther

lost all influence

turmoil,had

raised the

was

and

had

only

in

master to

leave

a

to

spiritof of the

the

do

with

consid

situation.

city. Many

undone, and the old changes were, for the moment, Luther order of worship largelyre-established. thus showed attitude. He a opposed not merely decidedly conservative of the

1

Kidd,

pp.

94-104.

Longitude

15"

West

/

EUROPE during

the

10"

from

Greenwich

5"

5"

Lo-ngitudt

j"

Reformation.

100

aoo

*

.KILOMETERS aoo

sop

T

II

"oo

Edit

(tor

**

rt

I.M

li.i.i.

Metz

"^

oBern

l'^

1512

40

Cor

Sardinia) Majorca

"app"?

SPREAD the

Romanists,

would

rulers to look

Yet

there many

kindliness,as

be

can

no

doubt

of the German

who, though

one

reallya force for order in troublous that favor of his Elector with continued especially have made his cause would even now speedy ship

condemned

Worms,

at

times, and out

with

him

upon

begun.

His action caused

wisdom.

to Luther's

as

351

heretofore,but those of the revolution who he believed,too rapidly. The separationsin

party itselfhad

the reform

REVOLUTION

THE

fas

as

move,

OF

which

was

wreck.

tied by the great war Emperor's hands were with France for the control of Italy,which to keep him was Effective interfer absent from Germany from 1522 to 1530. his part with the Reformation was ence on impossible. Pope in Leo X had closed his splendor-loving reign December, 1521, V's old Netherlandish and had been succeeded by Charles of strict mediaeval orthodoxy,but Adrian VI tutor a man as fullyconscious of the need of moral and administrative reform of twenty months brief papacy in the papal court, whose was the evils for which to be a painfullyfruitless effort to check Meanwhile

the

"

he believed

Luther's